ISSN 1454-8518

ANNALS
OF THE UNIVERSITY OF
PETROŞANI
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

VOL. 14 (XXXXI)

UNIVERSITAS PUBLISHING HOUSE

PETROŞANI - ROMANIA 2012
2 Annals of the University of Petrosani, Electrical Engineering, 14 (2012)

ISSN 1454-8518

EDITOR OF PUBLICATION
Prof. Dr. Eng. Ioan-Lucian BOLUNDUŢ, Email: ibol@upet.ro

ADVISORY BOARD

Prof. Dr. Eng. Alexandru BITOLEANU - University of Craiova, Romania; Prof.

Dr. Eng. Stanislaw CIERPISZ – Silesian University of Technology, Poland;
Prof. Dr. Eng. Tiberiu COLOŞI - Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Romania;
Acad. Prof. Dr. Eng. Predrag DAŠIĆ - High Technological Technical School,
Krusevac, Serbia and Montenegro, Dr. Eng. Nicolae DAN- Dessault Systems Simulia
Corp., Providence, USA; Assoc. Prof. Dr. Daniel DUBOIS - University of Liège,
Belgium; Prof. Dr. Eng. Ion FOTĂU - University of Petroşani, Romania; Dr. Eng.
Emilian GHICIOI, INCD INSEMEX Petrosani, Romania; Prof. Dr. Eng. Vladimir
KEBO -Technical University of Ostrava, Cehia; Prof. Dr. Eng. Vladimir
Borisovich KLEPIKOV– National Technical University of Kharkov, Ukraine; Assoc.
Prof. Dr. Eng. Ernö KOVÁCS - University of Miskolc, Hungary; Prof. Dr. Eng.
Gheorghe MANOLEA - University of Craiova, Romania; Prof. Dr. Eng. Radu
MUNTEANU - Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Romania; Assoc. Prof. Dr.
Dan NEGRUT University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA; Prof. Dr. Eng. Mihai
PĂSCULESCU - University of Petroşani, Romania; Acad. Prof. Dr. Eng. Ghenady
PIVNYAK – National Mining Uninersity of Ukraine, Ukraine; Prof. Dr. Eng. Aron
POANTĂ - University of Petroşani, Romania; Prof. Dr. Eng. Emil POP -
University of Petroşani, Romania; Prof. Dr. Eng. Flavius Dan ŞURIANU –
“Politehnica” University of Timişoara, Romania; Prof. Dr. Eng. Willibald SZABO
– “Transilvania” University of Braşov, Romania; Prof. Dr. Eng. Alexandru
VASILIEVICI – “Politehnica” University of Timişoara, Romania.
EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor-in-chief:
Prof. Dr. Eng Ion FOTĂU University of Petroşani
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Eng. Susana ARAD University of Petroşani
Associate Editor:
Assoc. Prof.Dr.Eng Corneliu MÂNDRESCU University of Petroşani
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Eng. Nicolae PĂTRĂŞCOIU University of Petroşani
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Eng. Ilie UŢU University of Petroşani
Editor Secretary:
Assist. Dr. Eng. Florin Gabriel POPESCU University of Petroşani
Lecturer Dr. Eng. Bogdan SOCHIRCA University of Petroşani
Editorial office address: 20 University Street, 332006 Petroşani, Romania, Phone:
+(40) 254 542 580; +(40) 254 542 581; Fax: +(40) 254 543 491,
Contact person: Susana ARAD, e-mail: susanaarad@yahoo.com.
This publication is distributed worldwide to 28 countries.
 CONTENTS

Olimpiu Stoicuţa , Corneliu Mândrescu, The modeling and simulation the control system of
small deformations of a one-dimensional bar …………………………….…………………….……..5

Roxana Bubatu, Emil Pop, Camelia Barbu, Petre Vamvu, E-Learning technique in human
resource …………………………………………………………………………………..……………….15

Nicolae Pătrăşcoiu, Camelia Barbu, Cecilia Roşulescu, Virtual instrumentation used to build
an electric motor simulator……………………………………………………………………………...21

Aron Poanta, Bogdan Sochirca Automatic monitoring system of a warehouse by

gsm……………………………………………………………..…………………………………………...31

Emil Pop, Roxana Bubatu, Camelia Barbu, Maria Pop, E-learning, modern education
alternative based on information technology. Indicativ guide……………………………………...39

Zvonko Damnjanović , Dragan Mančić , Dragoljub Lazarević , Radoje Pantović, Infrared

measurement of thermoelastic stress on mechanical components……………………...………….45

Lorand Bogdanffy , Pop Emil, Hci: interactive 3d web applications……………………....…...53

Roxana Bubatu, Petre Vamvu, Camelia Barbu, Emil Pop, Flexible measuring system for
distance based on omron programmable logic controller…………………………………………..59

Angela Egri, Vali-Chivuta Sirb, Olimpiu Stoicuta, Position control of abb robot…………..65

Adrian Nicolae Dinoiu, Emil Pop, Ioana Camelia Barbu, Ilie Ciprian Jitea, Wind energy - a
sustainable solution for the economic rehabilitation of the turcoaia quarry
area………………………………………………………………………………………………………....73

Susana Arad, Romania's energy policy and sustainable development aligned to EU

directives......................................................................................................................................83

Mihaela Părăian, Emilian Ghicioi, Sorin Burian, Niculina Vătavu, Adrian Jurca, Florin
Păun, Leonard Lupu, Measurement of the half decay time for characterization of textiles used
in potentially explosive atmospheres, regarding safety at electrostatic
discharges....................................................................................................................................91
Razvan Slusariuc, Florin Gabriel Popescu, Marius Daniel Marcu, Performance
improvement of ac electric drives using field oriented control and digital speed
transducers...................................................................................................................................99

Sorin Burian, Jeana Ionescu, Marius Darie, Tiberiu Csaszar, Safety requirements for
electrical equipment used for communication in areas with hayard of explosive
atmospheres...............................................................................................................................107

Constantin Beiu, Georgeta Buică, Cornel Toader, Consequences of connection of

microgenerators to national power grid. Case study................................................................113

Lucian Moldovan, Martin Friedmann, Mihai Magyari, Dragoş Fotău, Considerations

regarding the tests in explosive mixtures made upon the electrical apparatus with the type of
protection flameproof enclosure “d”.........................................................................................121

Maria Daniela Stochiţoiu, Alin Cristian Gruber, The modern estimation of power factor..129
 Annals of the University of Petroşani, Electrical Engineering, 14 (2012)

THE MODELING AND SIMULATION THE CONTROL

SYSTEM OF SMALL DEFORMATIONS OF A
ONE-DIMENSIONAL BAR

Olimpiu STOICUŢA1, Corneliu MÂNDRESCU 2

Abstract: The paper presents the modeling and simulation of the control system of
small deformations that can occur in one-dimensional bar from the experience of traction-
compression.

Key words: modeling, simulation, control system, small deformations, one-

dimensional bar.

1. INTRODUCTION

The paper presents a control system of elasto-plastic deformations in case of

the one-dimensional experiences. Control system is made using a press INSTROM,
series 5900. The control by the force of the INSTROM electromechanical press is
achieved through an induction motor. The induction motor speed is controlled through
a system of the vector control, by the sensorless type, that contains in its loop a
extended Luenberger observer. The INSTROM electromechanical press and block
diagram of the process to be automated are shown in the figure 1.

2. THE MATHEMATIC MODEL OF THE PROCESS

The constitutive equations are formulated below a material particle x of the

body Ω , where Ω = [ a, b ] , which is deformed.
We introduce the following assumptions characteristic of the constitutive
framework of the hardenind mixed model for von Mises flow theory.
The rate of strain tensor ε ( x, t ) = ε [u ( x, t ) ] can be descomposed into the rate of

1
Ph.D. Assist. Professor, University of Petrosani, stoicuta_olimpiu@yahoo.com
2
Ph.D. Assoc. Professor, University of Petrosani, c_mandrescu@yahoo.com
6 STOICUȚA O., MÂNDRESCU C.

strain elastic and the rate of strain plastic, denoted by ε e and ε p , respectively,
according to he relation:
ε = ε e + ε p (1)
The constitutive elastic equation is defined by the relation:

σ = E ⋅ ε e (2)
where σ is the rate of Cauchy stress tensor, and E is the tensor of elastic moduli.
The irreversible properties of the material are described by the function of
plasticity:
F (σ , α , k ) = σ11 − α11 − ⎡⎢Q ⋅ (1 − e−b⋅k ) + σ Y ⎤⎥ (3)
⎣ ⎦
where α is the isotropic hardening tensorial variable, and k is the scalar hardening
variable.
The rate of strain plastic tensor is described by the flow rule:
∂F (σ , α , k )
ε p = λ ⋅ (4)
∂σ

Fig. 1. The block diagram of the INSTROM electromecanical press [12]

a) The block diagram helpful for the determination of the mathematical model of the process;
b) The mathematical model of the process under the under the input-output systemic form;
c) The extensometer used for the mesurement by the uniaxial displacement;
d) The INSTROM electromecanical press;
e) The principal subsystem of the INSTROM electromecanical press
 THE MODELING AND SIMULATION THE CONTROL SYSTEM OF SMALL 7
DEFORMATIONS OF A ONE-DIMENSIONAL BAR

where the parameter λ , referred to as the plastic multiplier, is asumed to obey the
following Kuhn-Tucker (complenmentarity) conditions:
λ ≥ 0, F ≤ 0, λ ⋅ F = 0 with λ ⋅ F = 0 (5)
The variation of the hardening tensorial variable α is given by the rule
formulated by Armstrong, Frederik [1]:

α = C ⋅ ε p − γ ⋅ α ⋅ k (6)
where the rate of the scalar hardening variable k is given by the relation:
k = 2 3 ⋅ λ (7)

We attached the folowing initially conditions:

σ (0) = 0, ε (0) = 0, ε p (0) = 0, α (0) = 0, k (0) = 0 (8)

the relation (4) becomes:
p σ11 − α11
ε11 =λ⋅ (9)
Q ⋅ (1 − e−b⋅k ) + σ Y

and the constitutive equation of the variation of the hardening tensorial variable:
⎛ σ11 − α11 2 ⎞
α11 = λ ⋅ ⎜ C ⋅ − ⋅ γ ⋅ α11 ⎟ (10)
⎜ Q ⋅ (1 − e−b⋅k ) + σ Y 3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
where C and γ is an positive material constants.
We consider, the constitutive equation of the rate of stress tensor σ , given by
the relation (3):
σ11 − α11
σ11 = E ⋅ ε11 (u ) − E ⋅ λ ⋅ (11)
Q ⋅ (1 − e−b⋅k ) + σ Y

where ε11 (u ) = du / dx with u = du / dt , and E is the Young modulus.

The plastic multiplier λ are explicitly computed as:
〈β 〉
λ= ⋅ H( F ) (12)
h
with:
E ⋅ ε (u ) ⋅ (σ11 − α11 )
β= (13)
Q ⋅ (1 − e −b⋅k ) + σ Y
2 σ11 − α11 2
h = E +C − ⋅γ ⋅ α11 + ⋅ Q ⋅ b ⋅ e−b⋅k (14)
3 Q ⋅ (1 − e−b⋅k ) + σ Y
3

with the supposition that h > 0 , and H(F ) the Heaviside function [4], [9].
8 STOICUȚA O., MÂNDRESCU C.

Thus, the differential equation system obtained, are:

⎧ dε p β σ 11 − α11
⎪ 11 = ⋅ ⋅ H (F )
⎪ dt h Q ⋅ (1 − e − b⋅k ) + σ
Y
⎪
⎪ d α11 β ⎛ σ 11 − α11 2 ⎞
⎪ = ⋅⎜C − ⋅ γ ⋅ α11 ⎟ ⋅ H ( F )
⎪ dt h ⎜ − b ⋅ k ) + σY 3 ⎟ (15)
⎨ ⎝ Q ⋅ (1 − e ⎠
⎪ d σ 11 β σ 11 − α11
⎪ = E ⋅ ε11 (u ) − E ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ H (F )
⎪ dt h Q ⋅ (1 − e − b⋅k ) + σ
Y
⎪
⎪ dk = 2 ⋅ β ⋅ H ( F )
⎪⎩ dt 3 h

where β and h is given by the relation (13), respectively (14).

We further assume that the boundary of the body ∂Ω = Γ is divided in two
parts denoted Γu and Γσ , with

Γu ∪ Γσ = Γ and Γu ∩ Γσ = ∅ (16)
The motion (eqilibrum) equation is by the form:
div [σ11 ( x, t ) ] + b1 ( x, t ) = 0 in Ω × I (17)

where b1 ∈ \ is the masic force, and I = [ 0, T ] is time interval of interest.

The kinematic equations, or boundary conditions is by the form:
σ11 ⋅ n = f1 on Γσ × I and u = 0 on Γu × I (18)
where n is the unit normal of the body Ω , and f1 ( x, t ) is given function.
When we take the time derivative in (17), and (18) we have:
⎧ ⎡ d σ 11 ( x , t ) ⎤ db1 ( x , t )
⎪ div ⎢ dt ⎥+ dt
= 0 pe Ω × I
⎪ ⎣ ⎦
⎪ d σ 11 ( x , t ) df ( x , t ) (19)
⎨ ⋅n = 1 pe Γ σ × I
⎪ dt dt
⎪ du ( x , t )
⎪ dt = 0 pe Γ u × I
⎩

We multiply the forst equation by the relation (19), with an certain

displacement w( x, t ) and aplliyng integration to the domain Ω , we obtain:

d ⎡ dσ11 ⎤ db1
∫ dx ⎢⎣ dt ⎥⎦
⋅ w ⋅ dx + ∫ dt
⋅ w ⋅ dx = 0 (20)
Ω Ω

We apply Green’s formula by the relation (20) and we have:

⎡ dσ11 ⎤ dσ11 dw db1
⎢ dt ⋅ n ⋅ w⎥ − ∫ dt ⋅ dx ⋅ dx + ∫ dt ⋅ w ⋅ dx = 0 (21)
⎣ ⎦Γ Ω Ω
 THE MODELING AND SIMULATION THE CONTROL SYSTEM OF SMALL 9
DEFORMATIONS OF A ONE-DIMENSIONAL BAR

Given the relation (20), the first term of the left member of relation (21)
becomes:
⎡ dσ11 ⎤ ⎡ df 1 ⎤ ⎡ dσ ⎤
⎢ dt ⋅ n ⋅ w⎥ = ⎢ dt ⋅ w⎥ + ⎢ 11 ⋅ n ⋅ w⎥ (22)
⎣ ⎦Γ ⎣ ⎦ Γσ ⎣ dt ⎦ Γu

Substitution of the constitutive equation (11) and the relation (22), into relation
(23) gives:
du dw σ11 − α11 dw db ⎡ df ⎤
∫ E ⋅ dx ⋅ dx ⋅ dx − ∫ E ⋅ λ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ dx = ∫ 1 ⋅ w ⋅ dx + ⎢ 1 w⎥ (23)
−b⋅k
Ω Ω Q ⋅ (1 − e ) + σ Y dx Ω
dt ⎣ dt ⎦ Γσ

where ε11 (u ) = du / dx and ε11 ( w) = dw / dx .

If introduction the expresion of the plastic multiplier into relation (12), and we
make calculations, then this becomes:

∫ ⎡⎢⎣ E ⋅ (1 − E )⎤⎥⎦ dx ⋅ dx ⋅ dx = ∫
e⋅ p du dw  db1 ⎡ df ⎤
⋅ w ⋅ dx + ⎢ 1 ⋅ w⎥ (24)
dt ⎣ dt ⎦Γ
Ω Ω σ
where:
⎛ 2 ⎞
E ⎛ σ11 − α11 ⎞
E e⋅ p
= E ⋅ ⎜⎜1 − sign ( β ) ⋅ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ H(F ) ⎟
⎟ (25)
⎜ h ⎜ Q ⋅ (1 − e−b⋅k ) + σ ⎟ ⎟
⎝ ⎝ Y ⎠ ⎠
The relation (24) becomes:
T ⋅ E e⋅ p ⋅ ε ⋅ (u ) ⋅ dx =
∫ ε11(w) ∫w
T ⋅ b ⋅ dx + ⎡ wT ⋅ f ⎤ (26)
11 1 ⎢⎣ 1 ⎥⎦
Γσ
Ω Ω

The relation (26) represent actually, the variational representation of the elasto-
plastic probleme, in the onedimensional case.
The matematical model of this process is described by the differential equation
system (15) and by the integral equation (26). The initial conditions of this model are
given by the relation (8).
From the above, is observed as for the determination of the displacement
u ( x, t ) , in the condition where is given the traction force f1 ( x, t ) and the masic force
b1 ( x, t ) , we have need by the resolve the integral equation (26) by the finite element
method in tandem with the resolve the differential equation system by the Euler
method.This method of solving the system of equations (15) and (26) was described in
the work of Simo [10].
The mathematical model presented above, is simulated with S-Function Block
of the Matlab Simulink. In cadre of this block is implemented the J. C. Simo [10]
algorithm for the resolve the mathematic model of the process to by automated.
10 STOICUȚA O., MÂNDRESCU C.

3. THE VECTOR CONTROL SYSTEM

The block diagram of the control system of the mechanical angular speed ωr
of the induction engine with a direct orientation after the rotor flux (DFOC), is
presented in figure 2.
In figure 2 were marked with B1 the control block of the speed control system
with direct orientation after the rotor flux (DFOC) and with B2 the extended
Luenberger estimator block (ELO).
Some of the equations that define the vector control system are given by the
elements which compose the field orientation block and consist of:
• stator voltage decoupling block (C1Us):
⎧ ∗ 1 ⎡ ∗ ∗ ⎤
⎪udsλr = ∗ ⋅ ⎣⎢b11 ⋅ vdsλr − h1 ⎦⎥
⎪ b11
⎨ (27)
∗ 1 ⎡ ∗ ∗
⎪u = ⋅ b ⋅v + h2 ⎤⎥
⎪ qsλr b∗ ⎣⎢ 11 qsλr ⎦
⎩ 11
where:
⎧ 2
⎪h = a∗ ⋅ ψ + a∗ ⋅ i qsλr + z ⋅ ω l 
⎪⎪ 1 13 r 31 p r ⋅ i qsλr
ψr
⎨ (28)
⎪  
∗ l r ⋅ ψ + a∗ ⋅ i dsλr ⋅ i qsλr + z ⋅ ω
⎪h2 = a14 ⋅ z p ⋅ ω l 
r 31 p r ⋅ i dsλr
⎪⎩ ψ r

Fig. 2. The block diagram of the vector control system which contains an ELO loop
• PI flux controller (PI_ψ) defined by the Kψ proportionality constant and the Tψ
integration time:

( )
dx6 Kψ
= ψ r∗ − ψ r ; ids
∗
λr = ⋅ x6 + Kψ ⋅ ψ r∗ − ψ r (29)
dt Tψ
 THE MODELING AND SIMULATION THE CONTROL SYSTEM OF SMALL 11
DEFORMATIONS OF A ONE-DIMENSIONAL BAR

• couple PI controller (PI_Me) defined by the K M proportionality constant and the

TM integration time:

dx7
dt
= M e∗ − M e ; iqs
∗
λr =
KM
TM
⋅ x7 + K M ⋅ M e∗ − M e ( ) (30)

• mechanical angular speed PI regulator (PI_W) defined by the Kω proportionality

constant and the Tω integration time:
dx8
dt
l r ; M ∗ = Kω ⋅ x + K ⋅ ω∗ − ω
= ωr∗ − ω e
Tω
8 ω r
lr
( ) (31)

• current PI controller (PI_I) defined by the Ki proportionality constant and the Ti

integration time:
dx9 ∗
dt
∗
= idsλr − i dsλr ; vdsλr =
Ki
Ti
∗
⋅ x9 + Ki ⋅ ids 
λr − i dsλr ( ) (32)

dx10 ∗
dt
∗
= iqsλr − i qsλr ; vqsλr =
Ki
Ti
∗
⋅ x10 + Ki ⋅ iqs 
λr − i qsλr ( ) (33)

• Flux analyzer (AF):

2 2 ψl qr ψl dr
ψ r = ψl dr +ψl qr ; sin λr = ; cos λr = (34)
ψr ψr

• The calculate of the couple block (C1Me):

L ∗
3
M e = K a ⋅ ψ r ⋅ i qsλr ; K a = ⋅ z p ⋅ m (35)
2 L∗r

where: z p is the pole pairs number.

• Extended Luenberger Observer: the equations that define the rotor flux
Luenberger observer are described in the equation:
d
dt
(
xˆ ( t ) = A ( t ) ⋅ xˆ ( t ) + B ⋅ u ( t ) + L ( t ) ⋅ y ( t ) − y ( t ) ) (36)
where:
T T
x ( t ) = ⎡i ds ( t ) i qs ( t ) ψl dr ( t ) ψl qr ( t ) ⎤ ; y ( t ) = ⎡i ds ( t ) i qs ( t ) ⎤ ;
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
T T
u ( t ) = ⎡⎣uds ( t ) uqs ( t ) ⎤⎦ ; y ( t ) = ⎡⎣ids ( t ) iqs ( t ) ⎤⎦ ;
12 STOICUȚA O., MÂNDRESCU C.

⎡ a* * * ⋅ z ⋅ω t ⎤
⎢ 11
0 a13 a14 p r ( )⎥
⎢ 0 a* −a* ⋅ z ⋅ ω t * ⎥
⎢ 11 14 p r ( ) a13 ⎥
A( t ) = ⎢ ⎥
* *
⎢a31 0 a33 − z p ⋅ ωr ( t ) ⎥
⎢ * * ⎥
⎣⎢ 0 a31 z p ⋅ ωr ( t ) a33 ⎦⎥
T T
⎡b* 0 0 0⎤ ⎡l l12 l21 l22 ⎤
B = ⎢ 11 ⎥ ; L = ⎢ 11 ;
⎢ 0 b* 0 0⎥ ⎣ −l12 l11 −l22 l21 ⎥⎦
⎣ 11 ⎦

(
*
l11 = (1 − k ) ⋅ a11 *
+ a33 ) *
; l12 = z p ⋅ ωr ⋅ (1 − k ) ; l22 = −γ ⋅ l12 ; l21 = a31 *
+ γ ⋅ a11 ( )(
⋅ 1 − k 2 − γ ⋅ l11 )
σ * ⋅ L*s ⋅ L*r ⎛ 1−σ * ⎞ L*m L*m
γ= * = −⎜ 1
; a11 + * =
⎟ ; a13 * =
; a14 ;
L*m ⎜ T * ⋅σ * T * ⋅σ * ⎟ L* ⋅ L* ⋅ T * ⋅ σ * L* ⋅ L* ⋅ σ *
⎝ s r ⎠ s r r s r

( L*m )
2
* = L*m 1 * = 1 L*s L*r *
a31 *
; a33 =− ; b11 ; Ts* = ; Tr* = ; σ = 1− .
Tr* Tr* L*s ⋅ σ * Rs* Rr* L*s ⋅ L*r

In the relations above, are marked with “*” the identified electrical sizes of
the induction motor.
The block diagram of the Extended Luenberger Observer (ELO) is presented
in figure 3.
The adaptive mechanics of the extended Luenberger observer is defined by
the following expression:
i ∫ f
ωl r = K ⋅ e + K ⋅ e dt (37)
R f

Fig. 3. The Principle Schematic of the ELO

where: e f = e yd ⋅ψl qr − e yq ⋅ψl dr ;

e yd = ids − iˆds ; e yq = iqs − iˆqs
 THE MODELING AND SIMULATION THE CONTROL SYSTEM OF SMALL 13
DEFORMATIONS OF A ONE-DIMENSIONAL BAR

The automatic controller of the component by the control system is granted

based on strategies presented in the paper [8].

Fig. 4. The control system of the uniaxial deformation

4. THE SIMULATION OF THE CONTROL SYSTEM OF SMALL

DEFORMATIONS IN THE ONE-DIMENSIONAL CASE

The advantage of the modeling the process to be automated, and simulation

control system of the uniaxial deformation is that the designer can evaluate the dynamic
performance of system simulation using Matlab – Simulink.
Thus, in the following, is presents a test carried out with a bar of length L = 40
cm. The bar is of the steel DP 600 and has the following characteristics: b = 27,5 [ − ] ;
γ = 125,9 [ − ] ; E = 182.000 [ MPa ] ; σ Y = 349, 4 [ MPa ] ; Q = 50,1[ MPa ] ; C = 17.400 [ MPa ] .
On the based of the mathematical model of process, in the next figure is
presented the imposed displacement and the actual displacement obtained in the bar at
the point of traction.
The tests are conducted on the based of the automatic control system described
above, using press INSTROM 5900. After the test, results the following graphs.

Fig. 5. The tension [MPa] in function by the displacement [m]

The induction motor used in the control system on the speed is one with the
squirrel cage, and the electrical and the mechanical parameters are presented in the
relations below: PN = 15 [ kW ] ; U N = 400 [ V ] ; nN = 1460 [ rpm ] ; f N = 50 [ Hz ] ; z p = 2 ;
Rs = 0.2147 [ Ω ] ; Rr = 0.2205 [ Ω ] ; Ls = 0.06518 [ H ] ; Lr = 0.06518 [ H ] ; Lm = 0.06419 [ H ] ;
J = 0.102[kg ⋅ m 2 ] ; F = 0.009541[ N ⋅ m ⋅ s/rad ] .
14 STOICUȚA O., MÂNDRESCU C.

Fig. 6. The displacement [m] in time [sec] Fig. 7. The forces [N] in time [sec]
In the graphs presented in figure 5 to 7 is seen as for a displacement imposed by
the form shown in this graphic, the automatically control system has a good dynamics,
and the force of the compression that traction is a sinusoid which has maximum
amplitude 450 N.
5. CONCLUSION
The control system proposed can be very useful in the traction-compression
tests carried out for different industrial applications. Using the automatic control
system of induction motor speed with help of the extended Luenberger observer makes
this control system of the one- dimensional deformations to be one very precise. The
very good dynamic of the response of the control system of one-dimensional
deformations, makes us believe that its use in the context of industrial applications to
be one very useful.
REFERENCES
[1] Armstrong P., Frederick C., A mathematical representation of the multiaxial
Bauschinger effect, G.E.G.B. Report RD-B-N 731, 1996.
[2] Belytschko T., et al., Nonlinear Finite Elements for Continua and Structures, British
Library Cataloguing in Publication Data, Toronto, 2006.
[3] Bathe J., Finite element procedure, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1996.
[4] Carabineanu A., Cleja-Ţigoiu S., Curent topics in continuum mechanics, Ed. Academiei
Române, Bucureşti, 2002.
[5] Glowinski R., et al., Analise numerique des inequations variationnelles, Publie avec le
Concours du Centre National de la Recherche Schientifique, Paris, 1976.
[6] Johnson C., Numerical solution of partial diferential equation by the finite element
method, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2005.
[7] Pana T., Stoicuta O., Small speed asymptotic stability study of induction motor sensorless
vector control systems with extended Luenberger estimator, Proc. Int. IEEE AQTR, Cluj-
Napoca, Romania, 2008.
[8] Pana T., Stoicuta O., Controllers tuning for the speed vector control of induction motor
drive systems, Proc. Int. IEEE AQTR, Cluj-Napoca, Romania, 2010.
[9] Paraschiv M., et al., Plasticitate cu aplicaţii în geomecanică, Ed. Universităţii din
Bucureşti, 2004.
[10] Simo J.C., Numerical analysis and simulation of plasticity, Handbook of Numerical
Analysis, volume VI, Elesevier, Amsterdam, 1998.
[11] Stoicuta O., Mandrescu C., Real-time simulation of the extended Luenberger estimator
using the eZdps 2812 development kit, Proc. Int. AQTR, Cluj-Napoca, Romania, 2006
[12] * *, www.instron.com
 Annals of the University of Petroşani, Electrical Engineering, 14 (2012)

E-LEARNING TECHNIQUE IN HUMAN RESOURCE

ROXANA BUBATU1, EMIL POP2, CAMELIA BARBU3, PETRE VAMVU4

Abstract: In this paper the trainings ways based on e-Learning for institutions and
companies are introduced.
At the beginning of the paper the concepts of these types of education, the methods and
possibilities, the advantages and disadvantages are analyzed. In the following, types of e-
Learning for training and education, like: synchronous and asynchronous training, the structure
of e-Learning courses etc. are presented. Further is treated the support elements of
entrepreneurship, the comportment and competence entrepreneurship and is analyzed necessity
integration education entrepreneurship in school curricula through the demand and integration
of entrepreneurship spirit in education.
At the end, the paper presents the curriculum components on an e-Learning
application, which shows the advantages of this type of education especially for institutions and
companies which invest in human resources.

Keywords: e-Learning, the e-Learning principles, asynchronous and synchronous

training.

1. E-LEARNING, CONCEPTS, METHODS AND MEANS

E-Learning is the type of training where trainers use IT and Web technologies
which considerably reduce the distance and the period of time allowing the trainee to
prepare on their own pace using convenient stress free methods.
The benefit of using on-line courses to other methods of information providers,
such as Word and PowerPoint online documents, is that e-Learning has been created as
a dedicated software based on training concepts, presenting the information in several
ways, allowing the access to explanations understood by everyone, eliminating
redundant elements and replacing them with those understood, self-evaluation, self-
correction, and teacher in education [1], [5].
Considering that an e-Learning course fully uses the internet and Web pages,
these include all the basic characteristics of a Web site and are based on them for the
realization of an easy access to information. Consequently e-Learning resembles to the
Web sites with an ergonomic and simple user interface, while e-Learning courses need
to be simple but informative. Basic elements may be found on the starting page, such
16 BUBATU R., POP E., BARBU C., PETRE V.

as: the name of the course, the summary, the objectives and the navigation menu of the
course. From the access to information point of view, it is ideal that any 4 level course
architecture to be accessed by only three clicks. Such course architecture usually
contains 4 hierarchical levels [1].
Level 1: Called Course;
Level 2: Called Chapter;
Level 3: Called Pages;
Level 4: Called Subpages.
There are two ways of using e-Learning: the synchronous and the
asynchronous.
• Synchronous e-Learning means that teachers and students meet at a pre-
convened hour for the course.
• Asynchronous e-Learning means that students use the material they have at
their disposal on the Web site, which is sufficient enough and may be used at
any given time in any place, the relation with the teachers and colleagues being
made on-line.
Synchronous e-Learning
Synchronous e-Learning resembles classroom training but there still are a lot
of differences between them. Usually the teacher and the students are together in an
open conference where PowerPoint may be the most known presentation instrument
but it also requires a web format delivery mechanism. For the courses taught in the
classroom, probably, the most known transmission system is the shared board which
may be used to see the content of the presentations and to allow the trainer to share the
desktop with the students, by using a projector. Therefore the trainers control what is
shown, heard and on the projected slides on the board, and through the question table
made by the student, he can give answers, realizing therefore the best communication
by instant messages.
Asynchronous e-Learning
Asynchronous e-Learning represents a guided student. The content is available
on-line for the students, and it has to be full so that the reference study may be
possible. Therefore, PowerPoint presentations are the poorest choices, a software
content presenter and a lot of other instruments being necessary for understanding the
course, for self-examinations, communication with the teacher and the colleagues,
applications, etc.
The following is a presentation of the characteristics of the two e-Learning
types from the point of view of their advantages and disadvantages.

2. THE SUPPORT OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP

Entrepreneurship is an attitude characterized by personal or group generate a

process of decisions and choices based on innovation and change, induced by the
contractor. Entrepreneurship can support, promote, stimulate and educate. In Figure 1
presents the block diagram of entrepreneurship support.
 E-LEARNING TECHNIQUE IN HUMAN RESOURCE 17

Distinguish four groups of elements of entrepreneurship support. The first 3

are groups for improving the entrepreneurial activity, the 4th is entrepreneurship
education that prepares medium and long term development.
Improving the entrepreneurial activity depends on the following: access to
finance, facilitate entry/ exit market and government support schemes.

Fig. 1The elements supporting of Entrepreneurship

In a recent study shows that lack of funding is the primary barrier to

entrepreneurship. SMEs do not qualify for bank credit access and then governments
can facilitate access to loans for start-up companies, bringing credit guarantee schemes.
Entrepreneurial activities are shaped or even determined by start-ups and
access to markets. Avoid discouraging entrepreneurial activities as a result of start-up
difficulties can be done by simplifying bureaucratic barriers to starting and developing
businesses in carefully balance the public interest, environmental protection and health
and safety standards.
The schemes of government support can’t replace proper functioning of
markets, but can complement and support other strategies to create an environment for
entrepreneurship and eliminating barriers to entrepreneurial behavior. Development of
entrepreneurship education programs or support, review existing and promote the
exchange of good practice can be a solution.

3. STRUCTURE OF E-LEARNING COURSES

Web type Courses, also called Web 2.0 have been lately developed for e-
Learning professional formation combining the best Web design and design training
techniques [2].
The characteristics of the course are the following:
• Ensure the training in the pre-established time;
• They are used a long term resource;
• The duration of the course is of 15 or 20 minutes;
18 BUBATU R., POP E., BARBU C., PETRE V.

Duration of a course
Here are a series of solutions regarding the minimization of the duration of
courses:
• The basic rule says that: a trainee needs 1 minute for each page.
• A chapter of the course needn’t comprise more than 15-20 pages, therefore 15-
20 pages per chapter.
• In order to create a functional course for a busy person, a first step is to divide
the course in segments of 15-20 minutes each.
• Dividing a course in 5 chapters, each of 15-20 pages, allows the trainee to
study a chapter per day and finish the course in one week. These have a feeling
of fulfillment if they are able to finalize learning a course in a relatively short
period of time.
• Longer courses are created in separate modules.
Courses Architecture
A simple and efficient method for designing a course is to divide the structure
material on 4 levels:
Level 1: The course
The first page presents the name of the course and a short summary. The
summary may also be the training objective of the course or a high level general view
composed of several phrases. The summary is very important because:
• Asynchronous learning does not have a trainer in front of the class to confirm
if what is learned is the correct thing.
• The trainers are interested in training when they have a reference framework
which may be composed of the objectives and a summary of the material to be
studied.

Fig. 2 The e-Learning Course

 E-LEARNING TECHNIQUE IN HUMAN RESOURCE 19

Level 2: Chapters
Each chapter has a title and a summary or a list of learning objectives. Also,
optionally, a list of the pages in the chapter may be given, for reaching more
objectives:
• The books are divided on chapters and sub-chapters in order to help readers
understand the material to be studied. The same reasoning is also applied to e-
Learning.
• For the future, the trainees who have studied the course may also use a chapter
and a direct information access guideline.
Level 3: Pages
A content page should provide:
• A summary, because an easy way of beginning a new subject is provided to the
course creators.
• The basic material also contains bookmarks helping the trainees to read
attached journals making therefore a difference. The best thing is the
journalistic style written material and which needs to be followed considering
a series of details.
• Optional information is on the fourth level, and they are also called as drill-
down elements. The detailed content should be provided only if the trainee
wants to, the provision of optional information drill-down made by the page.

Fig. 3 The page content of e-Learning Course

The screen should comprise approximately 400 words or 30 text lines, in order
to be easily displayed.
• Avid using edit on multiple columns. It happens that the trainers
forget to read the second column.
Level 4: Sub-pages
Level 4 subpages or drill-down page may be used to consolidate learning. These
pages amend the marked element on the contents pages. Often, a course creator may use
20 BUBATU R., POP E., BARBU C., PETRE V.

extra materials to create a course which contains more information accessed using the drill-
down, figure 4.
Drill-down pages may be: an article, a link for a web resource, an exercise; a
simulation, a movie and a test.

Fig. 4 A capture

Drill-down pages should be optionally accessed by the trainer. The display

experience level of the trainees is different, and need to wait for each simulation series,
even if they are not interested in order for them to continue the course.

4. CONCLUSIONS

E-Learning has already become a new learning system, the characteristics of

which are the following:
• It is appropriate for initial training of trainers as well as for
continuous formation in institutions and commercial companies;
• This learning system ensures the most efficient professional
formation considering the cost/quality ratio;
• Asynchronous e-Learning allows the formation and development of
the human resource, launching or designing new projects.
• As a major disadvantage we may appreciate the hardware-software
cost of the system and the difficulty in realizing specific on-line courses.

REFERENCES

[1]. Rosen A., E-learning 2.0 Proven Practices and Emerging Technologies to Achieve
Results.
[2]. Kay Lehman, Lisa Chamberlin, Making the Move to e-Learning. Putting Your
Course On-line.
[3]. Allen, I.E., &Seaman, J.(2007). On-line nation: Five years of growth in on-line
learning.Nehjedham, MA: Sloan-C.
[4]. Pop E., Bubatu R., Teoria sistemelor I - Instruire prin e-Learning, Editura
Universitas, ISBN: 978-973-741-299-7, Petrosani 2012.
 Annals of the University of Petroşani, Electrical Engineering, 14 (2012)

VIRTUAL INSTRUMENTATION USED TO BUILD

AN ELECTRIC MOTOR SIMULATOR

NICOLAE PĂTRĂŞCOIU1 , CAMELIA BARBU 2, CECILIA

ROŞULESCU3

Abstract: In this paper we propose a state – space model for the DC motor build for
constant flux and considering two inputs: supply voltage and load torque. The three states of the
resulted model are represented by angular speed, angular displacement and current supply and
either of these states can be an output variable for simulation model. Consequently, the system’s
model has two inputs and three outputs. Using this model, LabVIEW functions and
programming structure is build a virtual instrument through which is possible to observe the
dynamic characteristics of the DC motor in different operating conditions

Keywords: modeling; simulation; human-computer interface; virtual instrument

1. INTRODUCTION

One of the most used actuator in control systems is direct current (D.C.) motor.
It is the means by which electrical energy is converted to mechanical energy. D.C.
motors have a high ratio of starting torque to inertia and therefore they have a faster
dynamic response.
In some application D.C. motors are used with magnetic flux produced by field
windings. The speed of D.C. motors can be controlled by applying variable armature
voltage. These are called armature voltage controlled D.C. motors. Wound field D.C.
motors can be controlled by either controlling the armature voltage or controlling the
field current. In this paper we consider modelling and simulation of an armature
controlled D.C. motor [2].
There are many types of D.C. motor and their detailed construction is quite complex
but it is possible to derive the equations for a satisfactory dynamic model from basic
electromagnetic relationships.

1
Assoc.Prof., PhD., University of Petrosani
2
Lecturer, PhD., University of Petrosani
3
Prof. “Grigore Geamănu” School
2
Ph.D Prof Eng. at University of Petrosani
3
Ph.D Prof Eng. at University of Petrosani
22 PĂTRĂȘCOIU N, BARBU C., ROȘULESCU C.

The general output variable of this actuator can be angular speed or angular
displacement motion, but coupling the motor axle with wheels or drums and cables it
can obtain the translational motion.

2. BUILDING THE SIMULATION MODEL

The physical model of an armature controlled D.C. servo motor is given in Fig.
1, where [2]:
ea, ia – armature supply voltage and current;
ef, if – field voltage and current;
Ra, La – armature winding resistance and inductance;
e – back electromotive force (e.m.f.);
ω(t) – angular speed;
Tm(t) – electromagnetic torque;
TL(t) – load torque
Armature
ia La
Ra
Rf i f
Field Lf eb
ea ef
? (t)Tm(t)TL(t)

Fig.1. Armature controlled D.C. motor

Applying the second theorem of Kirchhoff on supply circuit, applying the

equilibrium equation of torques on the axis of motor, known that the electromagnetic
torque is dependent on the excitation flux and also on the supply current in armature
circuit, and if the excitation flux is considering constant, it can be obtained the
complete model for the armature controlled D.C. motor [3]:

dia ( t ) 1 R k
= ⋅ e a ( t ) − a ⋅ ia ( t ) − ⋅ ω ( t )
dt La La L (1)
d ω (t ) F k 1
=− ⋅ ω ( t ) + ⋅ ia ( t ) − ⋅ T L ( t )
dt J J J

Considering the angular displacement α(t) instead of angular speed ω(t) like
output variable is necessary to include the relationship between these:
dα (t )
ω (t ) = (2)
dt
So based on equations (1) and (2) it can build the mathematical MIMO model
in state-space form so that is possible to use it into a program simulation.
 VIRTUAL INSTRUMENTATION USED TO BUILD 23
AN ELECTRIC MOTOR SIMULATOR

To build the state-space MIMO model, are defined the input, state and output
vectors [5], [8] i.e.:
• input vector u(t) whose 2 components is represented by armature voltage ea(t) and
load torque TL(t), i.e.:

⎡ ea ( t ) ⎤
u (t ) = ⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ T L ( t ) ⎦⎥ (3)

• state vector x(t) whose 3 components is represented by armature current ia(t),

angular displacement α(t) and angular speed ω(t), i.e.:

⎡ ia ( t ) ⎤
⎢ ⎥
x ( t ) = ⎢α ( t ) ⎥
⎢ ⎥ (4)
⎣ω ( t ) ⎦
• output vector y(t) whose 3 components we consider that is the same with state
vector components (relation (4)) so that is possible to simulate these three physical
variables.
Having these vectors is possible to write equations (1) in the matrix form [6], [8]:

Ra k 1
− 0 − 0
iS ( t ) La LaiS ( t ) La
e (t ) (5)
α (t ) = 0 0 1 ⋅ α (t ) + 0 0 ⋅ a
TL ( t )
ω (t ) k F ω (t ) 1
0 − 0 −
J J J

Bring on output vector definition the input-output equation can write in matrix
form:
1 0 0 iS ( t ) 0 0
e (t )
y (t ) = 0 1 0 ⋅ α (t ) + 0 0 ⋅ a
TL (t ) (6)
0 0 1 ω (t ) 0 0
Having now the mathematical model, described by matrices A, B, C, D is
possible to simulate the D.C. motor.
To realize the simulation of the DC motor are considered the shapes for
armature voltage and load torque variation shown in Fig.2

Fig.2. Inputs shapes

24 PĂTRĂȘCOIU N, BARBU C., ROȘULESCU C.

Using these shapes for the input variables that are applied to the motor, i.e.:
armature voltage and its load torque and the following Matlab sequence program, can
be obtained the graphs of variation for considered output variables, i.e.: current,
displacement and speed.
tfinal=10;
t=0:tfinal/1000:tfinal;
R=0.7; L=0.05; Km=0.05;
J=0.0001; F=0.005;
A=[-R/L 0 -Km/L;0 0 1;Km/J 0 -F/J];
B=[1/L 0;0 0;0 -1/J];
C=[1 0 0;0 1 0;0 0 1];
D=[0 0;0 0;0 0];
motor=ss(A,B,C,D)
u1=zeros(200,1);
u2=20*ones(601,1);
u3=zeros(200,1);
u=cat(1,u1,u2,u3);
T1=zeros(350,1);
T2=2*ones(301,1);
T3=zeros(350,1);
TO=cat(1,T1,T2,T3);
U=cat(2,u,TO)
lsim(motor,U,t)
Graphs obtained are shown in Fig.3

Fig.3. Outputs obtained by Matlab simulation

By using this simulation method can achieve remarkable results in terms of
accuracy of determining the values of the output variables [5]. This method has the
disadvantage of not allowing a dynamic change of the model by modifying the
parameters of the motor (like Ra, La, k, J, F) or changing shapes and parameters of
input variables.
This disadvantage can be eliminated by integration of the mathematical model
into a virtual instrument created in LabVIEW that allow the users the dynamically
settings of the parameters and choice of shapes and values of the input variables [1].
 VIRTUAL INSTRUMENTATION USED TO BUILD 25
AN ELECTRIC MOTOR SIMULATOR

3. CONSTRUCTION OF THE VIRTUAL SIMULATION TOOL

A program developed in LabVIEW is called a virtual instrument (VI) and it

has two components: the block diagram that represents program itself and the front
panel that is the user interface [9].
The front panel is the user interface of the virtual instrument and is built with
controls and indicators, which are the interactive input and output terminals [7].
The front panel has two components, one used to set the parameters of the
simulation and another used to collect the results obtained from simulation. Switching
between the two components is accomplished by the user via the Tab Control button.
The first component, called Simulation Process, contains elements (Control
type) through which the user can:
- sets the motor parameters (DC Motor Parameters): Ra [ Ω ], La [H], k [ N ⋅ m A ], J
[ kg ⋅ m2 ], F [ ( N ⋅ m) ( rad ⋅ sec ) ];
- sets simulation time:
- choose, from the list, the shapes for the input variables and sets their parameters
(amplitude and duration);
- choose simulation previews for current and/or displacement and/or speed
This part of the front panel also contains, elements of graph indicator type
through which it can display, on the user request, a preview to the input and output
variables, in other words the preview of the simulation [7], [8].

Fig.4. First component of the front panel of the simulator

The entire first component of the front panel is shown in Fig.4.

The second component, called Simulation Results, of the front panel of the
simulator allows the user, acquisition of the information about the dynamic behaviour
of DC motor.
26 PĂTRĂȘCOIU N, BARBU C., ROȘULESCU C.

This contains elements (Control type) through which the user can:
- select of display state - space equations form and select the transfer function, both
models are represented by coefficients calculated based on the DC motor parameters
set on the front panel;
- select and display the graphical results of the simulation, i.e. the graphical responses
for the imposed outputs, Fig.5

Fig.6. DC Motor simulation results

Fig.5. DC Motor models
For each selected output variable is open a window which display parameters
that are relevant to this dynamic system, such as: the peak value (maximum value) and
time of its occurrence, the steady state value and its determining time, rise time, falling
time, overshoot. For displacement, in case if, the load torque is greater than the active
torque occurs motor reversing and this situation is signalled by a flashing message
(OVER TORQUE) and a proper light indicator with displaying the time of its
occurrence, Fig.6.

Fig.7. Second component of the front panel of the simulator

 VIRTUAL INSTRUMENTATION USED TO BUILD 27
AN ELECTRIC MOTOR SIMULATOR

The entire second component of the front panel is shown in Fig.7.

After is built the front panel, is add code using graphical representations of
functions to control the front panel objects. The block diagram represents the program
under which the simulator run, and contains the graphical source code. Front panel
objects appear as terminals, on the block diagram. Block diagram objects include
terminals, subVIs, functions, constants, structures, and wires, which transfer data
among other block diagram objects.

Fig.8. Main program algorithm

28 PĂTRĂȘCOIU N, BARBU C., ROȘULESCU C.

The basic structure in realizing virtual instrument is While Loop that continues to
run the program until the Stop button on the front panel is pressed by the user.
The program is running in two sequences according to the main algorithm shown in
fig.8

Fig.9. The first sequence and the MathScript Node

User selects one of the shape (step, pulse or ramp) and the values for the two
variables input ua and TL and depending on constructive parameters of the DC motor,
with all values set also by the user on the front panel, is generates the state – space
model. By numerical simulation, based on this model, output variables are determined,
and also, are displayed state-space and transfer functions models of the DC motor. For
output variables defined dynamic system parameters are calculated, namely: maximum
value, steady state value, rise time, falling time, overshoot
The main element of the first sequence is the Control and Simulation Loop in
conjunction with MathScript Node [4].
Control and Simulation Loop is one of the components of the LabVIEW Control
Design and Simulation Module. With this module it can construct plant and control
models using transfer function, state-space model, or zero-pole-gain model, also it can
 VIRTUAL INSTRUMENTATION USED TO BUILD 29
AN ELECTRIC MOTOR SIMULATOR

analyse system performance with tools such as step response, pole-zero maps, and
Bode plots. This module allows simulating linear, nonlinear, and discrete systems with
a wide option of solvers. With the LabVIEW Control Design and Simulation Module,
it can analyse open – loop model behaviour, design closed-loop controllers, simulate
online and offline systems, and conduct physical implementations. Simulation time is
set from corresponding control on the front panel and this is the only parameter of the
loop.
The state – space model of the DC motor is placed into Control and Simulation
Loop through a MathScript. MathScript is a high – level, text – based programming
language. MathScript includes more than 800 built – in functions and the syntax is
similar to MATLAB, it can also create custom – made m-file like in MATLAB. To
process scripts in LabVIEW it can use LabVIEW MathScript Window or a MathScript
Node. If is necessary to integrate MathScript functions (built – in or custom – made m-
files) as part of a LabVIEW application and combine graphical and textual
programming, like this application, it used MathScript Node.
The first sequence of the program and the MathScript Node used to introduce the
DC motor model into program is shown in Fig.9
DC motor parameters are introduced into the model and these can be changed
interactively via the corresponding buttons on the front panel. The output from the
MathScript Node, is SS (state-space) object called motor, and is a 2D matrix which is a
representation of the state-space system dynamic equations that corresponding to the
general forms (9) and (12). It can extract from this output, the matrices A, B, C and D
but also other information, such as: properties, state names, transport delay. This
object, together with the input vector, is used to generate the output vector yT = [ia, α,
ω] through LabVIEW simulation function State – Space. Each of the three components
of the output vector can be identified using the Index Array function that returns the
element or subarray of n-dimensional array corresponding to the index value. After
identifying any of these three components can be visualized on the front panel, through
a graphic indicator. The obtained vector is also processed through the Collector
function. This function collects a signal at each time step of the simulation and returns
a history of the signal value and the time at which this function recorded each value in
the history. Based on the signal history can be identified, in the next sequence, the
values of dynamic regime.

4. CONCLUSIONS

It is known that computer simulation is an experimental method based on a set

of techniques by which operating with virtual things, the functioning of a real system
or process is understood. To understand the functioning of systems dynamics,
simulation environments such as Matlab or Simulink are used, and these simulations
can be made based on corresponding mathematical models. These simulation
environments are very powerful in terms of numerical calculation, but offer few
facilities for interactive modification of model parameters and/or the simulation
conditions.
30 PĂTRĂȘCOIU N, BARBU C., ROȘULESCU C.

The simulator that we propose combines the computing power of the Matlab-
Simulink environment with interfacing facilities provided by the LabVIEW
programming environment. In this way, it can possible to understand the dynamics of a
system such as a DC motor, following its chart of response to different stimuli or
different operating conditions. On the other hand, by obtaining the mathematical model
expressed by transfer function in various operating conditions of the DC motor, this
one can be used in modelling of complex systems in which the DC motor represents a
subsystem.

REFERENCES

[1]. Faraco G., Gabriele L.Using LabVIEW for applying mathematical models in
representing phenomena, Computers & Education Vol. 49, Issue 3, 2007, pp 856-872
[2] Fransua, A. - Masini si actionari electrice. Ed. Tehnica, Bucuresti 1986
[3] Golnaraghi F., Kuo C. B., Automatic Control Systems, 9th Edition, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. (2010)
[4] Halvorsen H.P.- LabVIEW MathScript. Tutorial, Telemark University College,
Department of Electrical Engineering, Information Technology and Cybernetics, 2011
[5] Jagan, N.C. -Control Systems, 2th Edition, Modelling of Elements of Control
Systems, BS Publications, (2008).
[6] Matko, D., Karba, R.-Simulation and Modelling of Continous Systems Prentice Hall,
New York, 1992
[7] Pătrăşcoiu N.-Sisteme de achizitie si prelucrare a datelor. Instrumentatie virtuala Ed.
Didactica si Pedagogica, Bucuresti, 2004
[8] Pătrăşcoiu N.- Modeling and Simulation of the DC Motor Using Matlab and
LabVIEW, International Journal of Engineering Education, Vol. 21, No. 1, 2005, pp. 49-54
[9] * * * LabVIEW. User Manual, National Instruments, April 2003 Edition Part
Number 320999E-01
 Annals of the University of Petroşani, Electrical Engineering, 14 (2012)

AUTOMATIC MONITORING SYSTEM OF A

WAREHOUSE BY GSM

ARON POANTA1, BOGDAN SOCHIRCA2

Abstract: Along with Ethernet data transmission, the GSM data transmission is widely
spread all over the world. The evolution of cellular telephony makes that the GSM devices is a
part of our life. If a system has a GSM capability that system can be interrogated or commanded
from every part of the world. In this paper we integrate a GSM transceiver with a
microcontroller system in order to obtain a surveillance system with GSM capability, system
that can be monitored from everywhere.

Keyword: monitoring system, GSM, surveillance, AT commands, microcontroller,

SMS, surveillance system.

1. INTRODUCTION

The GSM system history begins in 1982 when the European Conference of
Postal and Telecommunications Administrations (CEPT), consisting then by
telecommunication administrations of twenty-six nations took two important decisions.
The first was to establish a team named "Group Special Mobile" (from here we
have the term "GSM" that exists today for Global System for Mobile Communications)
to develop a set of common standards for future pan-European cellular network. The
second was to recommend that two bands of 900 MHz for the system to be set aside.
CEPT has taken these decisions in an attempt to solve the problems created by
uncoordinated development of individual national mobile communication systems
using incompatible standards. Failure to use the same terminal in different countries
while traveling in Europe was one of these problems, another problem was the
difficulty to establish a mobile communications industry across Europe that could be
competitive on world markets due to lack of larger markets with common standards.
By 1986 it was clear that some of these cellular networks without quality would remain
similar to the early 90s.
As a result, a directive was given for two frequency bands of 900 MHz, although
in a somewhat less than those recommended by CEPT to be kept exclusively for a pan-

1
Ph.D Prof Eng. at University of Petrosani
2
Ph.D Lecturer Eng. at University of Petrosani
32 POANTA A., SOCHIRCA B.

European service to be opened in 1991. At the same time members make

progress GSM excellent produces appropriate standards. A major decision was to
adopt a digital rather than an analogue.
GSM was taken over in 1989 by ETSI (European Telecommunications
Standards Institute) and they finalized the GSM standard in 1990. GSM service started
in 1991. Also this year was renamed the Global System for Mobile Communications
(GSM).

2. GSM ENCRYPTION [2]

The GSM encryption is one of the best available encryption. Along with the
Ethernet transmission, the GSM transmission data is an affordable system, very
suitable for fast and cheap transmission data.
GSM network utilizes an algorithm called A3 authentication algorithm in order
to authenticate mobile users and protect the network from unauthorized service access.
Figure 1 shows the stages of the authentication process between MS (Mobile Station)
and a GSM network represented by a BS (Base Station).

Fig.1. GSM authentication process

First, the AuC generates a random 128-bit token (RAND), which is sent to the
Mobile Switching Centre (MSC).
The MSC sends RAND through BS to the MS as an authentication challenge.
 AUTOMATIC MONITORING SYSTEM OF A WAREHOUSE BY GSM 33

The MS uses RAND and the secret subscriber key Ki, which is stored in the SIM
card, as input arguments for the A3 algorithm in order to produce a 32-bit response
(SRES).
The AuC retrieves the MS’s shared secret key from the key database, and uses
the same algorithm to produce the SRES, which is sent to the MSC.
Finally, the MS sends SRES as an authentication response back to the MSC
through BS.
The MSC verifies that the SRES received from MS is identical to the SRES
generated in AuC and authenticates the MS
In order to protect signaling and user data, the GSM uses 2 algorithms. The A8
algorithm generates the encryption key, whereas the A5 algorithm performs the actual
data encryption.
The figure 2 shows the encryption key generation. Both the MS and the AuC
utilize the Ki and RAND, which are already known from the authentication process, as
input arguments for the A8 algorithm. The output is the 64-bit encryption key Kc,
which is sent from the AuC to MSC. MSC then sends Kc to the MS, to which the BS is
connected.

Fig.2. GSM encryption key generation process

Figure 3 shows the GSM encryption process. A5 is a symmetric encryption

algorithm and thus the same input arguments are used for both encryption and
decryption. The A5 algorithm receives Kc and a 22 bit frame dependent input
(COUNT) and produces ciphered data-streams using a 114-bit key-stream
34 POANTA A., SOCHIRCA B.

Fig.3. GSM encryption process

3. THE HARDWARE DESCRIPTION [1] [4]

The development board which is used for test and debugging is a development
board from MikroElektronika called PICPLC16 V6, [5] [6] [7] generally used to
develop industrial, home and office control devices. The system features GSM/GPRS
communication, 16 relays, 16 opt coupled inputs, RS485, RS232, serial Ethernet, etc.
(Fig.4)

Fig.4. The development board

 AUTOMATIC MONITORING SYSTEM OF A WAREHOUSE BY GSM 35

It uses a Microchip microcontroller PIC18F4520 (Figure 5.) witch have

fallowing characteristics:
• C compiler optimized architecture.
• 75 instructions (83 with extended instruction set enabled).
• 4x phase lock loop (PLL) frequency multiplier allows clock speeds up to
40MHz.
• Up to 10 MIPS performance.
• Internal oscillator block.
• 20 interrupt sources.
• Priority levels for interrupts.
• 8 x 8 single-cycle hardware multiplier.
• Power management features.
• 32K bytes (16384 x 16-bit words) of Flash program memory.
• 1536 bytes of SRAM data memory.
• 256 bytes of EEPROM data memory.
• 36 I/O pins with individual direction control.
• High current 25mA source/sink for direct LED drive.
• 13 channels of 10-bit A/D.
• Two analog comparators.
• Four timer/counters (one 8-bit and three 16-bit).
• Enhanced USART module.
• Master synchronous serial port (MSSP) module supporting I2C and SPI.
• Parallel slave port (PSP).
• Programmable brown-out reset.
• Programmable high/low-voltage detect.
• In-circuit serial programming (ICSP) and in-circuit debug (ICD) via two
pins.
• 5V operation.
• Operating temperature range of-40°C to +85°C.
• 40-pin DIP package.

Fig.5 PIC 18F4520 pin out

36 POANTA A., SOCHIRCA B.

The communication between microcontroller and the GSM module is realized

with AT command. AT is the abbreviation of ATtention. Every command line starts
with "AT" or "at". That's why modem commands are called AT commands. Many of
the commands that are used to control wired dial-up modems, such as ATD (Dial),
ATA (Answer), ATH (Hook control) and ATO (Return to online data state), are also
supported by GSM/GPRS modems and mobile phones. Besides this common AT
command set, GSM/GPRS modems and mobile phones support an AT command set
that is specific to the GSM technology, which includes SMS-related commands. [8] [9]
[10] [11]
Next are presented some of the tasks that can be done using AT commands with
a GSM/GPRS modem or mobile phone:
* Get basic information about the mobile phone or GSM/GPRS modem. For
example, name of manufacturer (AT+CGMI), model number (AT+CGMM), IMEI
number (International Mobile Equipment Identity) (AT+CGSN) and software version
(AT+CGMR).
* Get basic information about the subscriber. For example, MSISDN
(AT+CNUM) and IMSI number (International Mobile Subscriber Identity)
(AT+CIMI).
* Get the current status of the mobile phone or GSM/GPRS modem. For
example, mobile phone activity status (AT+CPAS), mobile network registration status
(AT+CREG), radio signal strength (AT+CSQ), battery charge level and battery
charging status (AT+CBC). * Establish a data connection or voice connection to a
remote modem (ATD, ATA, etc).
* Send and receive fax (ATD, ATA, AT+F*).
* Send (AT+CMGS, AT+CMSS), read (AT+CMGR, AT+CMGL), write
(AT+CMGW) or delete (AT+CMGD) SMS messages and obtain notifications of
newly received SMS messages (AT+CNMI).
* Read (AT+CPBR), write (AT+CPBW) or search (AT+CPBF) phonebook
entries.
* Perform security-related tasks, such as opening or closing facility locks
(AT+CLCK), checking whether a facility is locked (AT+CLCK) and changing
passwords (AT+CPWD).(Facility lock examples: SIM lock [a password must be given
to the SIM card every time the mobile phone is switched on] and PH-SIM lock [a
certain SIM card is associated with the mobile phone. To use other SIM cards with the
mobile phone, a password must be entered.])
* Control the presentation of result codes / error messages of AT commands. For
example, you can control whether to enable certain error messages (AT+CMEE) and
whether error messages should be displayed in numeric format or verbose format
(AT+CMEE=1 or AT+CMEE=2).
* Get or change the configurations of the mobile phone or GSM/GPRS modem.
For example, change the GSM network (AT+COPS), bearer service type (AT+CBST),
radio link protocol parameters (AT+CRLP), SMS center address (AT+CSCA) and
storage of SMS messages (AT+CPMS).
 AUTOMATIC MONITORING SYSTEM OF A WAREHOUSE BY GSM 37

* Save and restore configurations of the mobile phone or GSM/GPRS modem.

For example, save (AT+CSAS) and restore (AT+CRES) settings related to SMS
messaging such as the SMS center address.

4. THE SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

In this paper we propose to implement an automated alert system with GSM

alerts. Surveillance system has 8 rooms to be supervised by our system (we considered
that in the warehouse are offices); in every room is a motion sensor [3] that will be the
trigger system, but the sensors can be modified with other types like: fire sensors, some
special gas sensor (depending on what parameter we want to supervise) or other type of
devices that can trigger our system. The number of rooms monitored can be changed,
the model is made for 8 rooms (Fig.6), but it can be increase the number of rooms,
which is limited only by the number of digital inputs of the microcontroller used. In the
fallowing figure we imagine a scenario for placing sensor, motion sensors, in front of
every door. Sensors are draw with yellow color.

.
Fig.6 Example of warehouse monitored

In phone's memory card is stored a predefined number of messages (SMS), one

message for each room. The message is stored as "deposit" followed by the deposit
number. Can be stored as many SMS that the telephone support, in some cases for a
particular combination of events to be sent a proper SMS. The system can also send
38 POANTA A., SOCHIRCA B.

SMS not only to a number but to several numbers. All this numbers are set by program
with AT command, command specific for the GSM module.
At apparition of an intruder in the secured perimeter, the present sensor will
signal that and through the development board, the microcontroller will send alert
through SMS.
The system has a refresh rate of 25 seconds. If the intruder does not leave in 25
seconds, the system will send back a message that will warn the intruder presence in
the area again.
Also the system can take some preventive measure, like in this case can switch
the light in the room, or other measure.
The code is written in MikroC, and the fallowing code is set the GSM number
where the message will be sent, and the select of the third SMS stored on the SIM card.
(fig.7)

if (BUTTON(&PORTD,0,1,1)) {
delay_ms(500);
UART1_Write_Text("AT+CMGS="); Delay_ms(1000);
UART1_Write(0x22);
UART1_Write_Text("0762293453");
UART1_Write(0x22);
UART1_Write(0x0D);
Delay_ms(1000);
if (BUTTON(&PORTD,2,1,1)) {
delay_ms(500);
UART1_Write_Text("AT+CMSS=3");
UART1_Write(0x0D);
delay_ms(25000);
Fig.7 Example of code

REFERENCES

[1] Sochirca B., Poanta A., - Proiectarea și dezvoltarea aplicațiilor cu microcontroler,

Editura Universitas, 2012.
[2] http://wireless.arcada.fi/MOBWI/material/CN_1_6.html
[3] Pătrășcoiu N. -Senzori și traductoare, curs, 2010
[4] Pop E., Leba M., Microcontrollere si automate programabile, Editura Didactica si
Pedagogica, Bucuresti, 2003
[5] http://mikroe.com
[6] PICPLC16V6 user manual
[7] MikroICD Quick Guide
[8] http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp
[9] PIC18F4520 datasheet
[10] http://en.wikipedia.org/wik/Hayes_command_set
[11] http://www.developershome.com/sms/atCommandsIntro.asp
 Annals of the University of Petroşani, Electrical Engineering, 14 (2012)

ELEARNING, MODERN EDUCATION ALTERNATIVE

BASED ON INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY. INDICATIV
GUIDE
EMIL POP1, ROXANA BUBATU2, CAMELIA BARBU3,
MARIA POP4

Abstract: This paper analyzes how to use of alternative education eLearning. This is a
type of learning, education or training, in which teachers, instructors use information
technology for teaching, learning and assessment in combination with the internet that reduce
distance, time and eliminate classroom allowing the students to access learning resources
(courses problems, laboratories, processes, tests, examples of best practices, communication
and social networks, access to their results, etc.) without limits, constraints and stress.
The first part of the paper presents the concepts used in eLearning, the types of training
and learning through eLearning goals.
Continue are treated eLearning principles and methods, and in the last part of the work is
done eLearning a guide in which is evidenced every step to achieve a successful course in
format eLearning.

Keyword: eLearning, the eLearning principles, methods, eLearning guide.

1. INTRODUCTION

The Internet has come to confirm and strengthen the advantages that it provides
experts about distance learning, openness, flexibility, efficiency and especially
interactivity. Education based on "support of electronic" is called eLearning, which
means using information and communication technologies in education.
ELearning is a type of learning, education or training, in which teachers and
instructors use information technology for teaching, learning and assessment in
combination with the Internet that reduce distance, time and eliminate classroom
allows students to access resources educational training (courses, problems, labs,
processes, tests, examples of best practices, communication and social networks,
access to their results, etc.) in at their own pace and convenient ways for them without
limits, constraints and stress [1], [3].

1
Ph.D Prof Eng. at University of Petrosani
2
Ph.D Student at University of Petrosani
3
Ph.D Lecturer Eng. at University of Petrosani
4
Ph.D Prof Eng. at University of Petrosani
40 POP E., BUBATU R., BARBU C., POP M.

Training institutions are now very receptive to the formation of eLearning, as

investors spend millions of dollars teaching solutions for eLearning in different areas.
We can say that investors can accurately decide the transition from one technology to
another or from one methodology to another, but this cannot be without employee
involvement and without measuring of their effectiveness, because every institution
needs clear ideas and goals concentrates and the best goals are those that can be
recovered and measured.

1.1. E-Learning Objectives

In the last 10 years, hundreds organizations have trying incorporation of

eLearning in their development plan, but not all have succeeded because they have
failed to reach expectations demanded by investors. For example, it is possible that a
department staff can attain a much higher level of education, if they receive support
from managers who need to come up with ideas and new objectives in terms of
training, even if they have not experienced practice. But, instructors are expected to
employees achieve in the future a development plan by which to modernize the
institution. In case of a company is used for eLearning training of the staff. The
executive staff can go in parallel with suppliers because they can present new solutions
that put into practice leading to achievement goal. This arrangement of training can
lead to improved productivity depending on the priority list.
In terms of retention, no need to achieve a high level of knowledge in the
classroom, because the eLearning format can be accessed at any time. An effective
system of eLearning is the model support at any time, by which students can refresh
their knowledge when they need to perform a procedure, or when they are an
unexpected situation. Through eLearning they can find keywords and anytime to
access a unit course, but that means that they learn how to find and access the
information they need [1], [2].
The benefit of using online courses in comparison with other methods for
providing information, such as online documents in Word or PowerPoint, is that the
eLearning has been created to explain concepts by presenting the same information in
different ways, what is easier for students to understand new information and follow
new procedures.

2. PRINCIPLES AND METHODS ELEARNING

From the classic way to higher education by correspondence on the Web has
changed the way content of storing and means of communication between teachers and
students, keeping a few principles [4]:
• The principle of openness, because of this principle the offer of courses is
diversified and can cover many training needs. This allows the same institution to
offer several courses simultaneously without problems linked to the number of
students who participate;
 ELEARNING, MODERN EDUCATION ALTERNATIVE BASED ON INFORMATION 41
TECHNOLOGY. INDICATIV GUIDE

• Principle of flexibility. The flexibility of space, time and pace of learning means
that each student may consult printed materials, audiovisual resources, online
materials, etc., under all conditions of time and space;
• Democratization of education;
• The socialization and interactivity. New technologies enable the sharing of timely,
easily and frequency between students and teachers;
• The importance of motivation.
Focusing on formative eLearning as a method shall we say firstly, that it allows
a complete the remote training where students and teachers meet in physical space
during the course or the training activity or during the course blende learning when
there are physical meetings between trainees and students.
A clear classification in terms of pedagogical education, the eLearning is
synchronous and asynchronous type:
• Synchronous is the process to learning that is taking place simultaneously. The
Communication between teacher and student takes place in real time, using
technology to classroom, chat room, video installations, computers etc.;
• Asynchronous is the process in which there is no simultaneity, quite the contrary.
Students accessing material created by trainers, but the tools used can be different
but anyway they must use the Internet.
Once taken the decision to organize a training eLearning, the first thing to do is
training action planning. Correct planning should include the following phases:
• The analysis system of description of objectives and goals to achieve;
• The design of a model for to obtain these goals and objectives of educational
development;
• The development model, including the creation of training materials;
• Implementation of the model, which involves the implementation and distribution
of training materials;
• Evaluation, which allows analysis results and objectives in order to improve future
model.
The organization of entire online course requires the answer to three fundamental
questions such as the:
• Identification of problematic cores, that is the response to the training needs
detected, taking into account the socio-institutional context, goals and objectives of
the training;
• Once identified those cores will be fixed priorities between them, namely the
determination a hierarchy of importance of their approach.
• Finally, the most important is to formulate goals, must be understood as goals,
results that need to be achieved through formative action. In this sense, we must not
lose sight of that although the objectives are formulated to be focused on the
learner, they can also function as key point of reference for the institution providing
training with a view to assess what is appropriate to the plan parties.
42 POP E., BUBATU R., BARBU C., POP M.

3. PREPARATION COURSES IN ELEARNING FORMAT

Content disciplines will need to have some basic characteristics:

• Have a logical structure;
• Have the appropriate objective reality;
• To be current and relevant with training needs;
• Be exemplary and representative;
• Be transferable and applied in other fields of knowledge;
• Sustainable and not obsolete;
• Be appropriate for the cognitive development of students;
• Significant for student;
• Functional and usable;
Once it was established course content in accordance with rules outlined
above, must be thought of and defined presentation and virtual organization, so that
access to it and understand it to be as quick and simple as possible.
The instruments pedagogical specific to online courses are:
• Teaching materials;
• Assessment tests;
• Practical cases;
• Forum;
• Virtual communities.
The structure of materials teaching for a course in format eLearning, made a
so-called eLearning Guide, which is divided into 3 stages:
A. Course format
COURSE TITLE
Course Objectives: (recommended is 1 paragraph), will explain what
the teacher wants that pedagogical objectives for student to the end of
course.
1. Chapter Title
Presentation: (recommended are 3 rows) short description of contents.
1.1. Title Section
1.1.1. Subsection
1.1.2. Subsection.
Glossary
Recommended bibliography
Web pages
Indexes
 ELEARNING, MODERN EDUCATION ALTERNATIVE BASED ON INFORMATION 43
TECHNOLOGY. INDICATIV GUIDE

B. The drafting
a. Clarity, basic rules of politeness to facilitate learning;
b. Communication should be direct and concise;
c. Using enumeration, followed by developing the above description of the
main ideas and important concepts, etc.;
d. The basic rule says that a student he needed one minute per page;
e. A section of a course shall not contain more than 15-20 pages, so 15-20
minutes;
f. To create a course that works well, begin by dividing the course into
segments of 15-20 minutes;
g. Breaking a course in 5 chapters, each of 15-20 pages allow the student to
study a chapter a day and so the ends in a week. They have a sense of
accomplishment when they see that they can complete the course in a
relatively short time;
h. Longer courses are created in modules of 5-15-20 chapters.
A chapter should provide:
• A summary as this provides an easy way for course designers start a
new topic.
• The material should contain marking points: that students read the
material attached with a different medium and thus make the
difference, for example, an article, an exercise or simulation;
• Optional information occupies the third level, hyperlink;
• Detailed content should be given only if the student wishes.

C. Presentation
The technicians and teachers can collaborate effectively, and to achieve the
desired objectives will be able to use materials such as: graphics, photos, icons,
animations, movies and any other instrument for obtaining a friendly and attractive
material.

4. EVALUATION THROUGH ELEARNING

Depending on the pedagogical strategy that was adopted by the trainer, the
assessment or test self will have or not impact on the course.
The possibility most widely used and convenient is that the test is a simple tool
to verify that the student has assimilated content of the course. The IT system has to
enable that once finished the test, the student may know the number of correct and
incorrect answers. The test should not exceed 15 questions.
44 POP E., BUBATU R., BARBU C., POP M.

The assessment of students

To evaluation is assigned a very important part in the process, so in most cases
trainers and managers at human resources tend to concentrate heavily on testing
desiring to highlight [3]:
1. Identification the theoretical knowledge of courses;
2. Identifying the practical knowledge of courses;
3. Identifying the level of skill and understanding;
4. Reflects toward the future thinking of the students;
5. Expressing their new ideas of students help trainers in the development of
new methods.
Assessment methods:
• Realization of online exams;
• The questionnaires with open questions, such as: "Define the term or list of
tools to ..."
• The questionnaires with closed questions so-called "test grill", which have
the advantage that they have been developed and programmed the platform, with
correct answers and standard feedback.
Evaluating the trainers
It's about trying to determine far as possible if we are running the program
adapted to the needs and objectives, so will be subject to review following elements:
awareness of the problems, working, reporting how learners competence in and
technical knowledge, organizational skills, facilitation skills, skills assessment,
minimal technical skills, evaluating the trainers can be on several levels:
External evaluation - by other trainers or external trainers;
Inter-evaluation - by other trainers during a training program in which they work
as a team or delivering a training program with a trainer and co-trainer [4];
5. CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, a study was conducted on e-Learnig education, methods, principles
and the drafting and passage rates of classical format of the format online. Knowing
these principles and openness to e-Learning, is improving and developing teaching
skills, attracting students and resources, increase the prestige and institutional
development.
REFERENCES
[1] Bela Markus, Hungary, Learning Piramyds, From Pharaohs to Geoinformatics FIG
Working Week 2005 and GSDI-8 Cairo, Egypt April 16-21, 2005
[2] Bubatu R., Barbu C., The e-Learning education impact in human resource training,
5th International Symposium Occupational Health and Safety – SESAM 2011
[3] ROSEN A., E-learning 2.0 Proven Practices and Emerging Technologies to Achieve
Results
[4] Vasista K., Srini Tatapudi, N. Vasista, N. Sarma, S. Sarma, Knoledge management
strategy for NGOS Towards Contributing to Corporate Social Responsability: A View
from Tatapudi Trust, International Jurnal Of Marketing, Financial Services &
Management Research, Vol. 1 No.4, April2012, ISSN 2277 3622
 Annals of the University of Petroşani, Electrical Engineering, 14 (2012)

INFRARED MEASUREMENT OF THERMOELASTIC

STRESS ON MECHANICAL COMPONENTS

Zvonko DAMNJANOVIĆ1, Dragan MANČIĆ2, Dragoljub LAZAREVIĆ3,

Radoje PANTOVIĆ4

Abstract: Combining thermal imaging techniques measurements tension and Thermal

imaging analysis gives a general picture of the distribution of tension. In this work presented
visual and virtual instrumentation based on infrared analysis of thermoelastic stress. A simple
test The parts of the construction where the highest tension occur are determined by the thermal
analysis. The TSA also helps to make a faster and in a predictable manner, without need for
extensive iterative investigations, what reduces both time and costs.

Key words: TSA Software, Thermoelastic stress analysis, Infrared thermography,

Structural health monitoring, Thermoelasticity.

1. INTRODUCTION

Thermoelastic stress analysis is based on the principle of thermoelastic

measurements. This principle is well known in gases: adiabatic compression or
expansion caused by temperature variations. This effect exists in solid and liquid, and
the temperature difference but they are very small compared to gas.
Usually compression solid element causes temperature rise and cause traction
state temperature reduction, as illustrated in Figure 1.
The theory of thermoelastic effect was initiated by Weber [1] and Kelvin[2]
isotropic homogeneous material under adiabatic conditions, then proceed Blot [3] and
Rocca&Bever[4] in the modern mechanical and thermodynamic theory. Within the
elastic range, material submitted to stretching or compression stresses experienced
reversible negative or positive temperature ("~ 1 milli Kelvin for 1 MPa stress in mild
steel) Thermoelastic stress analysis using radiometry consists of measurements with
1
Technical Faculty in Bor, University of Belgrade, Serbia, zdamnjanovic@tf.bor.ac.rs
2
Faculty of Electronic Engineering, University of Niš, Serbia,
dragan.mancic@elfak.ni.ac.rs
3
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Niš, Serbia,
dlazarevic@masfak.ni.ac.rs
4
Technical Faculty in Bor, University of Belgrade, Serbia, pan@tf.bor.ac.rs
46 DAMNJANOVIĆ Z., MANČIĆ D., LAZAREVIĆ D., PANTOVIĆ R.

Fig.1. Temperature and volume variation in solids

scanning infrared radiometer, these very small temperature variations of the sample
under mechanical loading, then calculate the stress map with adequate model
thermoelastic coupling. [5]. First studies that using a standard infrared camera
completed in early 1980. [6-8]. To achieve adequate solutions in terms of stress
measurement, statistical noise rejection method was previously proposed to improve
the resolution of standard thermal infrared thermography ekuipments[9-10]. Statistical
advantage of our procedure is that no synchronization necessary link between the
testing machine and IR equipment. Thermal resolution of about 2 mK, responds to
stress resolution of about 2 MPa for steel, will take less than 5 minutes in industrial
tests, [11] operating procedure can be easily adapted to any infrared thermography
camera. Usually in thermoelastic stress analysis, hypothesis adiabaticiti applied,
ignoring the heat conductivity of the sample. If this is the case at high frequencies or
low loading conducting material, it is much more uncertain in most current tests. In the
case of academic sample, the influence of heat diffusion is quantified by means of the
finite element model of thermoelastic coupling, according to the experimental results.
Moreover, adiabaticiti criterion is rigorously established. Finally, several techniques
have been proposed inverse to restore attenuated thermal contrasts under nonadiabatic
conditions, and the results obtained by the successor model of thermal diffusion are
presented. [12]
Concept of thermoelastic stress analysis based on infrared thermografy and
stress-pattern analysis by thermal emission is presented. This technique uses computer
enhancement of infrared detection of very small temperature changes in order to
produce digital output related to stress at a point on the surface of a structure, a stress
graph along a line on the surface, or a full-field isopachic stress map of the surface.
Under cyclic loading, at a frequency high enough to assure that any heat transfer due to
stress gradients is insignificant, the thermoelastic effect produces a temperature change
proportional to the change in the sum of the principal stresses. Although calibration
corrections must be made for use at widely differing ambient temperatures, the
technique works over a wide range of temperatures and on a variety of structural
materials including metals, wood, concrete, and plain and reinforced plastics[13], [14].
 INFRARED MEASUREMENT OF THERMOELASTIC STRESS ON 47
MECHANICAL COMPONENTS

2. THERMOELASTIC STRESS ANALYSIS (TSA) MEASUREMENT

PRINCIPLE

Explanation of the thermoelastic effect, measurement principle, history and

applications can be found in [3]. Thermoelasticity is based on the thermoelastic effect,
i.e. every substance (solid, liquid or gas) changes its temperature if volume changes
due to external loading. For an homogeneous solid material, if no heat exchange take
places (i.e. the loading is sufficiently quick) the temperature change ΔT can be related
to the stress by the following equation (1) [15], proposed the first time by Lord Kelvin
in Encyclopaedia Britannica 9th edn. In 1878:

T α ( Δσ 1 + Δσ 2 )
ΔT = (1)
Cp ρ

where Δσ 1 + Δσ 2 represents the sum of the stress time fluctuation in two

perpendicular directions on the specimen surface (i.e. the first stress invariant time
fluctuations), α is thermal expansion coefficient, T is absolute temperature of the
component, ρ denotes density and CP corresponds to specific heat at constant pressure.
In order to apply this measurement principle to detect stress maps, it is therefore
necessary to measure a spatial distribution of temperature changes. In order to have a
non contact stress measurement technique temperature changes can be measured
without contact on the surface on a loaded mechanical component by a differential
thermocamera. Typically temperature fluctuations are measured synchronous with a
reference signal, related to the loading cycle of the mechanical component. The data
processing is performed by the lock-in technique, that mix the output signal from the
infrared detector with a reference signal related to the dynamic loading.
The new idea proposed here is that the measurement of heat movie with high
speed and high resolution thermocamera. Here DeltaTherm 1560 system produced by
the Stressphotonics benefits. At each dinamic random time signal recorded at each
pixel thermal film evaluation power spectrum is performed. Map amplitude spectrum
of each peak detected represent the map of the first stress invariant at that frequency or
operating mode forms in terms of stress, according to equation (1).
This measurement technique could appreciate the obvious benefits of intrusive
techniques, using acceleration sensors as a contact for example, but it is also important
to respect the benefits not contact other optical techniques.
A possible approach for thermal processing film in order to obtain operational
mode shapes described by many newspapers, possibly useful technique for thermal
film processing. Brincker R., Zhang, L., Andersen, P. (2000). - Brincker, R. and
Andersen P. (1999) - R Brincker., Zhang, L., Andersen, P. (2000) - H. Herlufsen and
N. Moller, Bruel & Kjaer, Denmark (2002) - Aoki, M. 1987 - Viberg, J. (2007). [16].
48 DAMNJANOVIĆ Z., MANČIĆ D., LAZAREVIĆ D., PANTOVIĆ R.

3. EXPERIMENTAL PART
3.1. Used equipment for testing

For recording and analysis was used infrared camera Varioscan 3021ST,
JENOPTIK Laser, Optik, Systeme GmbH producer (Fig. 2). The basic characteristics
are: Measuring temperature range from -40°C do +1200°C and Thermal sensitivity
±0.03ºC at 25°C. Spectral range 8–12μm, Detector type MCT (HgCdTe), Detector
cooling- Liquid nitrogen, 360 x 240 pixels.

Fig.2. Varioscan 3021ST, JENOPTIK Laser, Optik, Systeme GmbH used in this research

Varioscan high resolution is a high-quality optical measuring slow-scan

thermographic system, which scanning the object field in a raster using a single
element detector. Varioscan high resolution (model 3021ST) is a thermographic system
for the wavelength range of 8–12μm, width temperature resolution of ±0.03ºC and
temperature measuring range of -40 to 1200ºC. The camera operates on the principle of
object scanning. The object is scanned through a two-dimensional reflecting scanner.
The horizontal scanner scans in lines with 360 pixels each, and recording at a
frequency of 135Hz. This scanner operates as a resonance oscillator driven by a DC
motor. The vertical scanner builds up the complete image from the individual lines. At
an image refresh rate of 1Hz up to 240 lines can be captured. VARIOSCAN high
resolution can also operated with the following resolutions (pixel x lines): 360x200,
360x100 and 360x50, with image refresh rates 1s, 0.4s and 0.2s (depending on number
of lines).
On the Model 3021 are used MCT (HgCdTe) detectors and having an edge
length of 50x50μm. The Model 3021-ST works with an integrated Stirling cooler. The
output signal of the detector is amplified, digitized width 16bits, visualized with an 8bit
resolution (256 colors) and transferred for further processing to the PC-104 module.
Every color of the displayed thermogram represents a defined temperature. The
implemented control software Irbis controls all camera functions.
The implemented control software Irbis controls all camera functions.
 INFRARED MEASUREMENT OF THERMOELASTIC STRESS ON 49
MECHANICAL COMPONENTS

InfraTec's state-of-the art IRBIS ® 3 software package is the ideal tool for fast
thermographic image data analysis and comfortably creating reports in Microsoft
Word. Several lens packages with application specific expansion modules are
available. IRBIS ® 3 is compatible with all infrared camera systems of InfraTec's
product range.
Basic functions
• Support for infrared camera file formats of InfraTec's product range
• Multi-lingual user interface
• Visualisation of thermal images with screen/printer-optimized colour palettes
• Manual and automatic temperature range selection
• Temperature profiles along any lines and across any measured areas
• Automatic indication of maximum and minimum temperature mean value
• Print and export of thermal images or tables of measured values
• Display of up to 10 coloured isotherms
• Image improvement through digital filtering
• Integrated Word-based report function Highlights
• Additional graphic and image-editing functions
• Freely definable colour wedges and enlargement factors
• Accumulation of recorded thermographic images
• Visualisation of images in differential image mode
• Various models for emissivity correction (also by pixel)
• Establishement of temperature values differences of thermal images
• Multi-window option
• Various statistics functions
• Set up of video sequences

3.2. Results and discussion

Tests were performed on the testing machine of 100 kN (10 /91 ZDM type,
accuracy class 1, "WPM Industriewerk Leipzig" VEB Thürengen Industriewerk
Rauenstein, Masch. Nr. 2214/22- 1963) at the Laboratory of Mechanical Materials
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering in Niš (Fig. 3).

Fig.3. Test in Laboratory

50 DAMNJANOVIĆ Z., MANČIĆ D., LAZAREVIĆ D., PANTOVIĆ R.

Fig.4. Thermogram

Table 1. Temperature values for some parts

of the temperature changes vs. time diagram

Fig. 5. Diagrams temperature changes vs. time with thermograms in specific points

4. CONCLUSION

The experimental results for steel specimens, considered in this paper, indicate
the fact that the testing of metal structures requires new contactless methods. A joint
measurement concept Thermoelastic Stress measurement system from an extended
infrared and digital image correlation technique has been presented. One of the
advantages of the presented procedure, in addition to the greatly simplified
 INFRARED MEASUREMENT OF THERMOELASTIC STRESS ON 51
MECHANICAL COMPONENTS

experimental test set-up, is the fact that the relevant thermo-mechanical fields are
directly evaluated into a finite element mesh, and hence the interface with numerical
simulations aiming at identification does not involve any unwanted loss of accuracy in
unnecessary projection steps for the comparison. Combining thermal imaging
techniques with measurements using a measuring tape tension can lead to great benefit
in maintaining these structures. The proposed procedure of non-destructive analysis
provides good basis for a wide range of investigations and eliminates, or reduces, the
need of expensive destructive tests. The TSA also helps to make a numerical analysis
faster and predictable, without need for extensive iterative investigations, what reduces
both time and costs.
Acknowledgement. This work was carried out within the project TR 35034,
TR 33040 and TR 33027 financially supported by the Ministry of Education and
Science of the Republic of Serbia.

REFERENCES

[1] Weber W., Über die spezifische Wärme fester Körper insbesondere der Metalle,
Annalen der Physik and Chemie, 96, 177-213 (1830).
[2] Thomson W., On the Dynamical Theory of Heat, Trans. Royal Soc. Edinburgh,
20, 261-283 (1853).
[3] Biot M.A., Thermoelasticity and Irreversible Thermodynamics, J.Appl. Phys.,
27(3), 240-253 (March 1956).
[4] Rocca R., Bever M.B., The Thermoelastic Effect in Iron and Nickel as a
Function of Temperature, Trans.Am.Inst.Mech.Eng., 188, 327-333 (Febr. 1950).
[5] Belgen M.E., Infrared Radiometric Stress Instrumentation Application Study,
NASA CR-1067 (1968).
[6] Henneke E.G., et al., Thermography - An NDI Method for Damage Detection, J.
Metals, 31,11-15 (1979).
[7] Blanc R.H., Giacometti E., Infrared Radiometry Study of the Thermomechanical
Behaviour of Materials andS tructures, First International Conference of Stress
Analysis by ThermoelasticTechnics, Sira Ltd, London (November 1984).
[8] Nayroles B., et al., TEl~thermograph & infrarouge etmEcanique des structures,
Int. J. Eng.Sci., 19, 929-947 (1981).
[9] Evaluate the Amplitude of Cyclical Noisy Signal in IR Thermography, NATO ASI
Series, Series E: Applied Sciences, 262 (1993).
[10] Offermann S., et al., Thermoelastic Stress Analysb with Standard Infrared
Equipments by Means of Statistical Noise Rejection, Res. Nondestruct. EvaL,
7(4), 239-251 (1996).
[11] Offermann S., Beaudoin J.L., Mechanical Stress Pattern Analysis with a
Standard Infrared Camera and Statistical Treatment, lnt. Conf.MAT-TEC 96,
Marne la VallEe, 25-27 (1996).
[12] Offermann S., et al., Thermoelastic Stress Analysis Under Nonadiabatic
Conditions , Experimental Mechanics, Vol. 37 (4).
[13] Marendić P., et al., Uvod u termoelastičnu analizu naprezanja, P. Marović, M.
Galić, L. Krstulović - Opara, Drugi susreti Hrvatskoga društva za mehaniku,
pages 43-48. Split, 2008.
52 DAMNJANOVIĆ Z., MANČIĆ D., LAZAREVIĆ D., PANTOVIĆ R.

[14] Di Renzo A., et al., Non contact measurements of stress fields on rotating
mechanical components by thermoelasticity, http://sem-proceedings.com/26i/
sem.org-IMAC-XXVI-Conf-s13p06-Non-Contact-Measurements-Stress-Fields-
Rotating-Mechanical-Components.pdf
[15] Harwood N., et al., An introduction to thermoelastic stress analysis, Adam
Hilger Publishing, 1991.
[16] Flori R., et al., Operational modal analysis by thermoelasticity, http://www-
b.unipg.it/misure/data/articles/Operational%20modal%20analysis%20by%20
thermoelasticity.pdf
 Annals of the University of Petroşani, Electrical Engineering, 14 (2012)

HCI: INTERACTIVE 3D WEB APPLICATIONS

LORAND BOGDANFFY1, EMIL POP 2

Abstract: The paper analyses the possibility of using a new type of user interface,
stepping up from the standard 2-dimensional into 3-dimensional. The reason is to create a more
immersive, natural environment, easier user interaction, offering extended accessibility features,
as well as being more entertaining.

Key words: 3D, interface, Silverlight, head tracking, stereoscopy.

1. INTRODUCTION

Technological advances are always pushing high end technology into

consumer markets, anything that is in a concept state or used only by developers and
scientists, might as well be on our desktops in a few years. A good example for that are
the advances made in 3D monitors. It seems like one of our priorities in entertainment
(mainstream consumer) and some parts of high end research in different domains like
medicine for example, is bringing the world, real or virtual, as realistically as possible
in front of our eyes, ears, maybe even touch sometime in the not so distant future.
Viewing 3D is perfectly natural; we just didn’t have the technology to bring it in our
homes yet. More and more, 3D monitors and consumer cameras are becoming
available, but this is only to record and watch later. In this paper, different approaches
are analyzed to see how a real time 3D user interface could be designed as to increase
accessibility, have its usage as natural as possible, and be accessible to the mainstream
consumer, from anywhere, requiring as little hardware as possible.

2. 3D VIEWING TECHNOLOGIES

The purpose is simulating human vision. Like most species, humans have
stereoscopic vision, meaning we have two eyes, two light sensitive sensors, placed
adjacent to each other, about 6-7 cm apart. This is the most important and basic thing
to consider and it means that any artificial imaging device we use must have this
stereoscopic feature and capture two separate images to be able to recreate a scene.

1
Ph D. Student at the University of Petrosani, lorandbo85@yahoo.com
2
Ph D. Professor at the University of Petrosani, emilpop@upet.ro
54 BOGDANFFY L. , POP E
Having this source, now we need a way to display it. No matter what, each
image must be seen by one eye. There are several methods:
- Anaglyph: this technology dates back to the beginning of the twentieth
century, and the way it works is by eliminating color components from each of the two
images (red from one image, green and blue from the other) so that after overlaying the
2 images obtained simultaneously and using glasses with red and cyan filters, most of
the green-blue (cyan) image is seen using the red filter, and most of the red image is
seen using the cyan filter. This is the simplest form of 3D vision, accessible to anyone,
even printable on paper, the downside being the low quality of the formed image,
ghosting, resulting in eye strain.
- Passive glasses: a more modern approach that we see in many 3D cinemas is
the use of polarized passive glasses. The two frames that form the stereoscopic image
are presented one after the other, fast enough that the viewer is unaware of it, and by
using light polarization, one frame is seen by just one eye, and the next by the other
and so on. This technology is available for the general consumer, but is being used
mainly in cinemas and one of its downsides is, because of how polarization works, any
tilt applied to the glasses will let light through the wrong side of the glasses creating a
ghosting effect.
- Active glasses: this is the technology that entered in the mainstream user
homes allowing watching of 3D images and videos using a 3D capable monitor, and
active glasses. The Left & Right images are presented one after each other at a high
frame rate (60 frames / source), and using an infrared communication system the
monitor sends a synchronization signal to the glasses witch use LCD filters to
alternately block light from one eye and the other. This technology is mature, only
small improvements are still made, the image is almost perfect.
- Lenticular and Parallax Barrier: it’s a “no glasses” technology, the two
images are interleaved vertically, and vertical strips are used to block the images form
each eye so that left sees only the left components and the right just the right,
downsides are that the user has a limited range of movement, the image resolution is
reduced to half. This technology is used for mobile devices, and it’s difficult to
implement on large screens [4].
- Other technologies: the 3D evolution is trying to go towards “no glasses” 3D
using special monitors still in development, but one thing in common these viewing
methods have is that the source is the same: stereoscopic.
- Viewer Tracking (or head tracking). This comes to play only in interactive
sources, in generated virtual environments. It means the viewed scene is changed
according to user location, even if the image is presented on a planar monitor; this
gives a good impression of a 3D world. The methods above, except Parallax barrier or
technologies that require you to remain still, could benefit from head tracking, as long
as the source isn’t recorded visually, rather recreated as a 3D environment.

3. WHY 3D INTERFACE

It’s not just about the way the virtual world is displayed, 2D or 3D, but also
about the user interaction [1]. These days, most of us use a 2D desktop; web pages are
 HCI: INTERACTIVE 3D WEB APPLICATIONS 55

2D, the 20+ year old “mouse” works on 2 axes, what if we could have a 3-axis pointer?
How about no pointer at all? Just gesture recognition [2]. Well these things are not far
from entering our homes, the only problem is there is no standard yet, different
technologies are being developed [1], and they are being used on game consoles for
different games, practical use is limited to high end users in domains like engineering,
etc.
In the following I will present an idea that could be basis for future
development of human computer interfaces. The project has 2 components, one that
handles user location and indicator position, and one that provides the visual feedback.
The tracking side of the project uses two simple cameras, capable of a high
resolution of 1280x720 and about 20 frames a second. The cameras chosen are off the
shelf available to the end-user “webcams”, connected via two USB ports.

4. THE APPLICATION

The program is developed in C# using Silverlight 4. Silverlight is a plug-in

developed by Microsoft compatible with standard web browsers like IE, Firefox,
Chrome, etc. It is capable of accessing video and audio inputs available on a computer.
The great thing about Silverlight is the capability of creating fast, responsive interfaces,
but this is just 2D, with some perspective tricks, so no shading, lights or cameras.
The main goal is to design a user interface that will have depth. Objects can be
placed outside the monitors XY plane, at a depth of Z. This is actually just an illusion,
there’s no way to draw an object off-screen, but instead, its projection will be drawn.
Unifying the planes should be the first thing to consider, to have a common measure
unit of placement in space, whether real or virtual space.
Placing an object on the interface will always have an XYZ coordinate in
millimeters, an algorithm will calculate the location in pixels the objects projection has
to be placed so it appears to the user to be in the respective XYZ position. For this
some things have to be considered. In a plane, we can place objects on screen at X-
pixels horizontally and Y-pixels vertically. So placing an object in the middle of the
screen means placing it in half Screen Pixel Width and half Screen Pixel Height.
Resolution of the monitor is read by the application, physical size reading is
not possible, so the user is required to input the physical screen width in millimeters. A
constant will store the pixels/distance ratio.
In the first part, the user location determination method is presented. The paper
doesn’t focus on an advanced face recognition algorithm [3], because the difficulties
that changing light on the users face due to changing image on the screen, or even no
light on the user, and of course extra processor time. So rather than complicate it, a
simple marker, backlit marker will be used for tracking the user. Also, a marker will be
used as an indicator used to interact with the interface.
Placement of the cameras: the cameras will use a simple stereoscopic view
setup, placed one by the other at a measured distance that we will name CMoffset. The
setup is important for getting the most accurate distance determination. A guideline for
the CMoffset value: if the user will be usually close, viewing a regular 20-24” monitor,
56 BOGDANFFY L. , POP E
value should be smaller, if the user is farther away, value should be greater. If possible
the cameras should be in the same plane as the monitor.
One of the challenges is to make this application flexible, so no matter what brand
or type of imaging device is used, the program should work in the same way for
everyone. To achieve that, we must consider that different cameras will have different
view angles. To accurately measure distance with this setup, a camera calibration
procedure is needed. The acquired image resolutions are known, defined, in this case,
the high definition camera records a stream of images with a reduced resolution of
640x360, width/height ratio of 16:9 (or 1.77), still the cameras view angle has nothing
to do with its resolution, so an easy way to find out is when placing the cameras side
by side, parallel, measuring the distance between them ( CMoffset ) and measuring the
closest distance an object can be placed so that it shows in both images (ObjminDist). If
we know these values, a simple formula is used to determine the viewing angle:

(1)

Fig 1: Representation of real versus Fig 2: Top view of the cameras view
virtual world angles

5. CONFIGURATION

Knowing CMviewAngleX it’s just a matter of multiplying with our frame ratio to
find CMviewAngleY. The application will automatically determine the viewing angle of
the cameras when provided with the CMoffset and ObjminDist values.

(2)

Having this angle enables us to determine also the vertical view angle (because
we already know the image w/h ratio) and most importantly to determine an interest
point’s location from the two images. Silverlight can connect to the imaging devices,
 HCI: INTERACTIVE 3D WEB APPLICATIONS 57

and provide a succession of image vectors. Two sources are supported images are
taken from both of them. The first step in locating any objects of interest is eliminating
any background interference, by looking only at movement. This is fine, because we
are only interested to change the interface in the event of real world actions occurring.
So, by eliminating the static environment by subtracting 2 sequential images, only parts
of the image with motion remain. In the remaining image, made up only by motion
components, the algorithm looks for a pattern or something specific to the
indicator/marker used, like color or brightness.
Search Algorithm: Some optimizations in recognizing the same pattern in
both images are implemented. Because of acquiring stereoscopic images, contents in
one image will likely be found in the other image as well, with minor differences,
depending on the similarity of the image acquisition devices, . So after isolating
motion, a check for similarities is done, objects with different distances will be easier
to locate. The location in space of the found objects of interest (user, indicator) will be
determined on all axes (XYZ) starting with the distance from the image acquiring
devices, the Z-axis. To determine this axis, the object (in this case the indicator or user)
will eventually be represented in the acquired frames by only 1 pixel in each. Having
this location on the X axis (the Y should be the same in both) determining Z is simple:

(3)

Obj1z is measured in millimeters and everything on the right of the equation is

pixels. After getting the distance to our, user or indicator, represented on the Z axis, the
real world location X and Y coordinates have to be determined, and this is done using:

(4)

(5)

Now we have the real world coordinates of the objects (user and an indicator)
we seek, we will focus on the applications user interface.
58 BOGDANFFY L. , POP E

Figure 3: Application interface

6. THE INTERFACE
The built interface is a demo / concept, witch for now only display’s basic
shapes, but these shapes are visible in a 3 dimensional environment. An option to
display the interface in anaglyph mode is added, but this option and the glasses are not
a requirement to actually perceive the 2 dimensional objects as being at different
depths because of the user tracking feature, that rearranges the objects projections on
the 2D monitor according to observer location. This of course is only visible live, not
on paper unfortunately. The user has the possibility to look around objects, and to
eliminate occlusion if it’s possible, just like real-world objects set in space. The
interface is drawn taking into account the objects depth, object that are closer are
scaled.

7. CONCLUSIONS
Considering what we have seen and the exponential rate at which technology is
developing, it is clear that at some point in the near future we will have some sort of
virtual interactive environment at the touch of our fingertips, in our homes. It’s still
unknown what method of displaying this environment will be used, maybe
holographic, or something similar to what was presented in this paper. This is just a
concept but could easily be built on, adding other functionality like interactions using
gestures, using an actual 3D accelerated environment that will be available for use in
modern web browsers that will support it natively, or by using an external plug-in like
Silverlight.
REFERENCES
[1] R. Kjeldsen, J. Kender, Toward the use of gesture in traditional user interfaces, in:
International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition, 1996
[2] C. Maggioni, K.B., Gesture computer — history, design and applications, in: R. Cipolla, A.
Pentland (Eds.), Computer Vision for Human-Machine Interaction, Cambridge, 1998
[3] P.A. Viola, M.J. Jones, Rapid object detection using a boosted cascade of simple features,
in: IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, 2001
[4] *** - Wikipedia.org
 Annals of the University of Petroşani, Electrical Engineering, 14 (2012)

FLEXIBLE MEASURING SYSTEM FOR DISTANCE BASED

ON OMRON PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER

ROXANA BUBATU1 PETRE VAMVU 2 CAMELIA BARBU 3 EMIL POP4

Abstract: This paper present an automated system for measuring distances with
improved flexibility. The system is based on a PLC device coupled with a number of encoders
and performs multi axes measurement. The measuring parameters and the functionality of the
system can be modified in real time by operator using a HMI (Human Machine Interface). This
real time modification of the measuring system parameters leads to a great degree of flexibility
of the system and improved efficiency.
The advantages of the designed system and the functional value where tested through
an implementation on a pole driving machine. Through this implementation we succeeded to
improve quality and speed of pole driving task proving the system worth, reliability and
improved efficiency of an automated system including this measuring system.

Keywords: Measuring system, programmable logic controller, distance

1. INTRODUCTION

One of the most sought-after goals in mechanical industry and automation of

civil construction nowadays is performing a fast and accurate measurement in an
automated fashion [1].
One solution for enhancing existing automation solution is to integrate an
automated measuring system to the production process. Compare with conventional
techniques the automated measuring process is faster, more reliable and as an
advantage is free from human operator influence. The flexible measuring system for
distances is design with regards to a certain application.

________________
1
Ph.D. Student, University of Petrosani
2
Ph.D Assistant Professor, University of Petrosani
3
Ph.D. Lecturer, University of Petrosani
4
Ph.D. Professor Eng.Mat., University of Petrosani
60 BUBATU R., VAMVU P., BARBU C., POP E.

2. PROBLEM FORMULATION

The application was designed regarding the automation process of a pole

driving machine. This machine is a self-driven piece of equipment that uses two
caterpillar tracks for movement as depicted in figure 1. The machine has a mobile arm
used to load the pole and driving that pole into the ground. The arm can be moved in a
direction parallel with the machines caterpillar tracks. The mobile arm can perform a
fine tune of the position where the pole will be inserted.
The coarse positioning is realized by moving the entire piece of equipment on
the vicinity of the place where a new pole will be inserted. The pole insertion into the
surface is realized with the help of a hydraulic system which use the hydraulic pressure
to perform a rapid and powerful knock on the top of the pole.
Taking into account that for most of the applications where this machine is
intended to be used, the distance between the poles is fixed the process of measuring
and marking the positions where the pole should be inserted is very time consuming.
Also this manual measuring and marking of the positions for the poles necessitate few
others crew members.
This type of machine
described before is usually used
for installing poles for road
safety barriers. The density of
poles for the road safety barriers
is high and the introduction of
an automated solution for
measuring and positioning the
equipment will increase
efficiency and speed.
In order to introduce an
automated measuring system on
this machine we have taken into
account that the total distance is
a sum between the distance
Fig.1 Pole inserting machine drove by the machine and the
distance travelled by the mobile arm. Also the flexible measuring system has to be able
to be scaled to for different type of equipments, to be able to accept modifications of
the measuring parameters, to display the travelled distance and different type of alarms
related to travelled distance and to be programmed to activate an alarm or a signal
when the distance travelled match the programmed distance.

3. PROBLEM SOLUTION

For determining the distance very precise we have used a measuring system
that include two precise rotary encoders, a display panel and a high speed PLC [2]. The
encoders used are high resolution encoders so the result delivered by those two
encoders is very accurate.
 SYSTEM FOR MEASURING DISTANCES APPLIED TO CATERPILAR TRACKS 61
MACHINES

One encoder is placed near the caterpillar track. A specific diameter wheel was
mounted on the encoder shaft, and the wheel is in permanent contact with the surface.
This encoder placed near the caterpillar track measure the distance travelled by the
machine on the ground.
A second encoder is positioned on the mobile arm and the measuring wheel
fitted on the encoder shaft is in close contact with a part fixed on the machine itself.
The two encoders deliver their signals to the PLC unit. The PLC is able two
register the pulses from the encoders and store them into special internal counters. Also
on the PLC unit is connected a 2 line multifunctional display. On this multifunctional
display we can observe the distance travelled by the machine, the distance travelled by
the mobile arm, the total distance travelled by the entire system. Also using this
multifunctional display unit we can modify the encoders parameters, the parameters
specific to the dimensions of the measuring wheels fitted on the encoders’ shafts. The
system is able to emit alarms when the machine has travelled close enough to the next
position where the pole will be inserted.
The designed system allows the operator and engineer to modify many
parameters like:
- Distance between the poles
- Distance set off alarm
- Encoder parameters
- View of distance using pulse encoder coordinates
- View of the distance recorded by each encoder
The system allows the user to
modify the set distance between the
poles in order to view on the
display the remaining distance to be
travelled to the next position. The
system also allows the user to
modify the distance threshold at
which the proximity alarm will
trigger. Do to wear on the
measuring wheel fitted on the
encoder shaft the parameters of
encoders have to modifiable
through this display in order to
realize the calibration of the device.
Fig.2 High speed encoder mounted on The measuring system uses high
the mobile arm speed rotary encoders which
delivers up to 2000 pulses for each
rotation. The encoders are very small pieces of equipments, the whole package
weighing just 100 grams.
This is a multifunctional display which can be connected to virtually any PLC
that uses a Com Link Protocol.
62 BUBATU R., VAMVU P., BARBU C., POP E.

Setting and displaying the parameters is done through the NT2S display (figure
2). This is a multifunctional 2 lines by 16 characters which includes 6 functional
buttons.
By altering the parameters
through the display, they are
immediately modified in the
program implemented on the PLC.
The multifunctional display can
be programmed to display up to 30
different screens of which design
and content are set through the
specialized NTXS software.
Surfing the screens is done by
special buttons on the display or
the PLC can send a command to
the display of which screen to
Fig.3 NT2S Multifunctional display become active.
The brain of the system is the
CP1E PLC (figure 4). This PLC has the ability to accept encoder pulses on two
especially included channels from
high speed encoders. This ability
makes this PLC one of the best
tools for intelligent electric drive
applications. Also this
characteristic allows us to use this
PLC to create a flexible
measurement system for
distances.
The functions implemented by
the PLC are presented in the
following section. After the self
testing realized on the boot up
process the internal counters are
incremented or decremented by
the movement on the encoder’s
shafts. The internal counters store Fig.4 CP1E PLC
theirs values in 2 sixteen bits
variables.
Parallel with these two others mathematical functions are running. Those
functions take the counters values and multiply them with the parameters so the output
of those mathematical functions represents the travelled distance in millimeters.
Those functions take into account the number of pulses register by the internal
counter, the diameters of the measuring wheels fitted on the encoder’s shafts and the
characteristic of the encoder, the number of pulses for each rotation.
The mathematical function implemented has the following expression:
 SYSTEM FOR MEASURING DISTANCES APPLIED TO CATERPILAR TRACKS 63
MACHINES

NP
Output = ⋅π ⋅ D (1)
4 ⋅ EC
Where:
N P - represent the number of pulses registered by the encoder.
EC - represent the encoder constant (number of pulses for each rotation).
D - represent the diameter in millimeters of the measuring wheel fitted on the
encoder shaft.
The results are stored in 2 variables which are used to express the distance
travelled by the mobile arm and by the machine itself using the caterpillar tracks.
Also parallel with the functions described before the PLC is performing others
tasks like: control of the display unit, transmitting and receiving the parameters to and
from multifunctional display, calculating the remaining distance to the target point,
triggering the proximity alarm,
resetting the counters when a
new measuring task is initiated.
The mathematical functions are
implemented through a number
of ladder blocks as we can see in
figure 5.
The design of the screens and
the parameters used were created
using the versatile menu of the
NTSX software. Also using the
software mention above I created
the Tag list used to reference the
name of the variables with the
parameters stored in the common
address space DM.
Fig.5 Ladder blocks for implementing The common address space is
mathematical functions used as a distributed environment
between al the units of a system.
The parameters from the
common address space can be modified by any unit which is part of the system and has
access right to the common address space.
First screen of the application displays the distance travelled by the machine
from the position where the last pole was inserted.
The number displayed represents the distance travelled by machine on
caterpillar tracks summed with the distance travelled by the mobile arm. Also on the
first screen is depicted the remained distance to the target position.
Also using the functional buttons on the multifunctional display on screen
number one we can set the value for the distance between two consecutive poles used
to calculate the target position.
64 BUBATU R., VAMVU P., BARBU C., POP E.

The screen number two display the distance recorded by each encoder. The
screen number 3 allows us to set the trigger distance for the alarm proximity. By using
this proximity alarm the operators can maneuver rapidly the machine and using the
mobile arm can do a fine adjustment to the target position.
The screen number 4 allows the user to introduce the parameters for the
encoders and measuring wheels in order to calibrate the machine. This set up of the
values assure the correct transforming of the encoder pulses in millimeters units,
assuring the calibration of the machine. On the screen number 5 the number of pulses
registered by each encoder is depicted.

4. CONCLUSIONS

By introducing the measuring system for distances described before on the

pole insertion machine the necessity of a second crew used to mark the insertion
positions of the poles was no longer needed. Also this system brings more accuracy
and faster speed on the process of insertion of the poles.
The benefits of this system were not resuming to just increasing of the speed
and accuracy but also the hole procedure of operating the machine was changed in
order to increase productivity. By introducing the flexible measuring system for
distances on the pole driving machine the operator of the machine drive along and
introduce the poles where the system tell him to. A day or two later a team of workers
come and mount the road safety barriers. The flexible measuring system conducted to a
reduction of the number of workers with 40 percents and an improvement of
productivity with 35%.

REFERENCES

[1]. Paziani F.,Giacomo B., Tsunaki R.H - Robot measuring form errors, Elsevier Robotics
and Computer Integrated Manufacturing 25, 2009
[2]. Fawaz K., Merzouki R., Ould-Bouamama B. - Model based real time monitoring for
collision detection of an industrial robot, Elsevier Mechatronics journal, Vol. 19, 2009
[3]. Pătrăşcoiu N., Tomuş A.M. - Events Acquisition and Sorting Technique Using Virtual
Instrumentation, 9th International Carpathian Control Conference ICCC´2008, Sinaia, 2008
 Annals of the University of Petroşani, Electrical Engineering, 14 (2012)

POSITION CONTROL OF ABB ROBOT

ANGELA EGRI1, VALI-CHIVUTA SIRB2, OLIMPIU STOICUTA 3

ABSTRACT: Our goal was to developed, implementated and practical

experimentated an XYZ position control system for a ABB industrial robot. The electrical
motors used are induction squirrel cage motors. The position adjustment system is based on a
vectorial control, sensor-less, of the mechanical speed of the induction motor. The speed
estimation and components of the rotor flux is made using the Luenberger Extended Estimator.
The design of the adaptation component is based on V.M. Popov hypersensitivity. In the final
the position adjustment of the ABB robot is analyzed using Matlab - Simulink.

KEY WORDS: Luenberger observer, induction motor, sensor-less, vectorial control,

Matlab – Simulink.

1. INTRODUCTION

In this paragraph we will present a possibility for the deduction of the

estimation law of one or more parameters, when the first solution of the problem is
used in order to simultaneously identify the states and the parameters. In order to
realise the adaptive mechanism we presume that the equations of the two models are
linear equations in which we suppose that only the A matrix contains the parameters
that we need to estimate. This is the case of the induction motor regardless whether we
identify speed or rotor resistance. For calcules we will consider the most general case
in which the reference model is really the induction machine and the adjustable motor
is a Luenberger [1] observer, whose outputs are the estimated values of the stator
currents and rotor fluxes. In order to deduce the adaptive law we need to consider as
outputs of the observer only the estimated stator currents. Now we can write the
equations of the two models like this:
⎧ d
⎪ x = A ⋅x + B ⋅u (1)
⎨ dt
⎪⎩ y = C ⋅ x

1
Assoc. prof. eng., phd. at the University of Petroşani;
2
Lecturer eng. ,phd. at the University of Petroşani;
3
Lecturer eng. ,phd. at the University of Petroşani
66 EGRI A., SIRB V., STOICUTA O.

⎧ d
⎪ xˆ = A ⋅ xˆ + B ⋅ u + L ⋅ ( y − yˆ ) (2)
⎨ dt
⎪⎩ yˆ = C ⋅ xˆ
in which the A,B and C are the matrixes of the stator currents model – rotor fluxes, and
the gain matrix of the observer, L, is built according to the construction algorithm of
the estimator presented in the preceding paragraph. In the case of the adjustable model
the A matrix is noted with tilde (~) because is built on the estimated parameters.The
generality of this case compared to the one in which both models are observers results
from the existence of the L and C matrixes. In order to build the adaptive mechanism,
for start we will calculate the estimation error given by the diference:
e x = x − xˆ (3)
Derivating the relation (3) in relation with time and by using the relations (1) and (2)
the relation (3) becomes:
d
e x = A ⋅ x − A ⋅ xˆ + L ⋅ ( C ⋅ x − C ⋅ xˆ ) (4)
dt
Expression (4) can also be written as:
d
ex = (A + L ⋅C )⋅ e x + (A − A ) ⋅ xˆ (5)
dt
This equation describes a linear system in reversed connection with a non-
linear system. The non-linear system receives at its entry the error between the outputs
of the two models, and, as output, has the term ( A − A ) ⋅ xˆ . If we consider the two
systems connected in negative reaction we will note with:
ρ = − (A ) ⋅ xˆ
− A (6)
As one may notice, this problem is frequently treated in the literature of the
non-linear systems, being exactly the configuration of the Lure problem [2], and of one
of the problems treated by Popov [3] (fig.1). Considering, according to the Popov
terminology [3], the non-linear block described by Φ ( e y ) the integral input- output
index associated to it is:
⎡ t1 ⎤ (7)
η ( t 0 , t1 ) = R e ⎢ ∫ eT
⎣t0
y (t ) ⋅ ρ (t )d t ⎥
⎦

Fig . 1. Control loop of Lure problem

In which we have introduced the following notation:

eT ⎡ T
y = ⎣e y 0 0⎤ (8)
⎦
in order to preserve the compatibility between the dimensions of the input and output.
In order for block to be hyper-stable a necessary condition is:
 POSITION CONTROL OF ABB ROBOT 67

t1 (9)
η (0 , t 1 ) = 0
T
∫ e y (t )⋅ ρ (t )d t ≥ − γ 2 (0 )

for any input-output combination and where γ ( 0 ) is a positive constant. Under these
circumstances, using the relation (6) the expression (9) becomes:
t1 (10)
η (0 , t ) = − ∫ e T
y ( t ) ⋅ ( A − A ) ⋅ xˆ ⋅ d t ≥ − γ
 2 0
( )
1
0
~
In the following we will presume that the error A − A is determined by only one of the
parameters of the electrical equations of the induction machine. In this case we may
write:
A − A = ( p − p ) ⋅ A e r (11)
where p is the respective parameter (speed or rotor resistance), and A er is a constant
matrix, with elements depending on the place where p appears in A matrix’s
coefficients.For any positive derivable f function we can demonstrate the following
inequality:
K ⋅ ∫
t1 d f
⋅f ⋅dt ≥ −
K
⋅ f 2 (0 )
(12)
0 dt 2
On the other hand, using the relation (11), the expression (10) becomes:
t1 (13)
(
η 0, t
1 )= − ∫ eT
0
y (t ) ⋅ (p − p )⋅ A er ⋅ xˆ ⋅ d t ≥ − γ 2 (0 )

Using the relations (12) and (13) we can write the following relations:
f = p − p (14)
−eT
df (15)
y ⋅ A e r ⋅ xˆ = K ⋅
dt
From the relation (15) it immediately results that:
− k ⋅ eT
y ⋅ A e r ⋅ xˆ =
d
(p − p ) (16)
dt
Because K is a constant and then, in case of a slower p parameter variation related to
the adaptive law, we can write:
pˆ = p = k ∫ e T
y ⋅ A e r ⋅ xˆ ⋅ d t
(17)
Relation (17) represents the general formula used to build an adaptive law. The “k”
constant is chosen so that we get a good estimation regime.

2. EXTENDED LUENBERGER OBSERVER (ELO)

This observer is a solution based on the use of an adaptive mechanism, in

which the reference model is the induction motor, and the adjustable one is a
Luenberger-type linear state observer. The output being both components of the stator
currents in the unitary system of the stator measured for the first and estimated for the
second. More than that, estimated rotor fluxes are used to realise the direct orientation
after the rotor flux (DFOC )command (fig. 2). The equations of the Luenberger
observer are those given by the relations (2) in which the matrixes A, B, L and C are
those obtained within the preceding paragraph. The adaptive mechanism is deduced
from the general expression (17), considering that, in this case we have:
68 EGRI A., SIRB V., STOICUTA O.

⎡i − ˆi ⎤ ⎡e ⎤ ⎡ î ⎤
⎢ ds d s ⎥ ⎢ yd s ⎥ ⎢ ds ⎥
⎢ − ˆi q s ⎥ = ⎢ e yq s ⎥ ; ⎢ î ⎥ (18)
e y = ⎢iq s ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ x̂ = ⎢ q s ⎥
⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ ψˆ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ dr ⎥
⎣ 0 ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦ ⎢ ψˆ q r
⎣
⎥
⎦
and the A er is:
⎡ 0 0 0 a
1 4 ⎤
(19)
⎢ ⎥
1 ⎢ 0 0 − a 0 ⎥
A er =
ω − ω
⋅ (A − A ) = ⎢ 1 4
⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 − 1 ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 1 0 ⎥⎦

Under these circumstances we obtain:

ˆ = k ∫ eT
ω y ⋅ A er ⋅ xˆ ⋅ d t (20)
Introducing in (40) the relations given by (18) and (19) we obtain:
ωˆ = k ∫ ⎡ e ⋅ ψˆ q r − e y q s ⋅ ψˆ ⎤ ⋅dt (21)
⎣⎢ y d s d r ⎦⎥
in which we considered the arbitrary character of the k constant.Within numerical
implementation of the ELO algorithm, the relation (21) is computed by using one of
the methods for numerical evaluation of the integral. Sometimes, instead of the
adaptive law (21) a more complex form is used:
ωˆ = k ⋅ ⎡e ⋅ ψˆ − e ⋅ ψˆ ⎤ + k ∫ ⎡ e ⋅ ψˆ − e ⋅ ψˆ ⎤ ⋅ dt
(22)
p ⎣⎢ yds qr yqs dr ⎦⎥ i ⎣⎢ yds qr yqs dr ⎦⎥
in which appears a proportional component of the same expression that is integrated,
from the need to have two coefficients to control the dynamic of the speed estimation.

Fig . 2 . Extended Luenberger Observer

3. VECTORIAL SPEED CONTROLL SYSTEM

The block diagram of the control system of the mechanical angular speed ωr
of the induction motor [4] with a direct orientation after the rotor flux (dfoc) is
presented in fig. 3. In figure 1 we marked with B2 the control block of the speed control
system with direct orientation after the rotor flux (DFOC) and with B1 the extended Luenberger
observer block (ELO). Some of the equations that define the vector control system are
given by the elements which compose the field orientation block and consist of:
 POSITION CONTROL OF ABB ROBOT 69

⎧ ∗ 1 ⎡ iqs2 λ ⎤
⎪u dsλ = ∗ ⋅ ⎢b11∗ ⋅ v∗dsλ − a13∗ ⋅ ψ r − a31
∗
⋅ r − z p ⋅ ωr ⋅ iqsλr ⎥
⎪ r
b11 ⎣⎢ r
ψr ⎦⎥
(23)
⎨
⎪ ∗ 1 ⎡ ∗ ∗ idsλr ⋅ iqsλr ⎤
⎪uqsλr = b∗ ⋅ ⎢b11 ⋅ vqsλr + a14 ⋅ z p ⋅ ωr ⋅ ψ r + a31 ⋅ ψ + z p ⋅ ωr ⋅ idsλr ⎥
∗ ∗

⎩ 11 ⎢⎣ r ⎥⎦

PI flux regulator (PI_ψ) defined by the Kψ proportionality constant and the Tψ

integration time:
⎧ dx6
⎪ dt = ψ r − ψ r
∗

⎪
⎨
(24)
Kψ
⎪ i d∗ s λ = ⋅ x6 + K ψ ⋅ (ψ ∗
r − ψ r )
⎪⎩ r
Tψ

Couple PI regulator (PI_Me) defined by the K M proportionality constant and the TM

integration time:
⎧ dx
⎪⎪ d t = M
7
− M ∗
e e (25)
⎨
⎪ i q∗ s λ = K M ⋅ x 7 + K M ⋅ (M ∗
e − M e )
⎪⎩ r
TM

Mechanical angular speed PI regulator (PI_W) defined by the Kω proportionality

constant and the Tω integration time:
⎧ dx
⎪ = ω − ω 8 ∗
r r
(26)
⎪ dt
⎨ K ω
⎪ M e∗ = ⋅ x8 + K ω ⋅ (ω ∗
r − ω r )
⎪⎩ Tω

Current PI regulator (PI_I) defined by the K i proportionality constant and the Ti

integration time:
⎧ dx
⎪⎪ d t = i
9
− i ∗
dsλ r
; dsλ r

⎨
⎪ v d∗ s λ = K i ⋅ x 9 + K i (
⋅ i d∗ s λ r − i d s λ r )
⎪⎩ r
Ti
⎧ d x10
⎪⎪ d t = i q∗ s λ r − i q s λ r (27)
⎨
⎪ v q∗ s λ = K i ⋅ x 1 0 + K i ⋅ (i ∗
qsλ − iqsλr )
⎪⎩ r
Ti r

The calcules of the couple block (C1Me):

M e = K a ⋅ψ r ⋅ iqsλr (28)
Flux analyser (AF):
⎧ l2 l2
⎪ ψ r = ψ dr + ψ qr (29)
⎪
⎨ ψl q r ψl d r
⎪ s in λ r = ; cos λr =
⎪⎩ ψ r ψ r

Fig. 3. The block diagram of the DFCO

70 EGRI A., SIRB V., STOICUTA O.

4. THE VECTORIAL CONTROL SYSTEM FOR ABB IRB 140 ROBOT

The vectorial control system of the ABB robot’s position is based on the
vectorial speed control to wich a position loop is added around a PD (Proportional
Diferential) regulator wich has the following transfer function:
G θ ( s ) = K θ ⋅ (1 + T θ ⋅ s ) ( 30)
where: K θ is the proportionality coefficien, Tθ is the time differentiating constant of
the regulator. To show the role and performances of the tunig system shown above, we
will present in the following part, the studied industrial robot. In figure 4 the ABB IRB
140 robot with 6 axis (Fig . 5) as part of Computer Integrated Manufacturing System
from our Universty is presented. The extreme positions (Fig. 6) of the robot arm ABB
IRB 140 define the maximum possible workspace [5].

Fig .4. ABB IRB 140 Robot Fig. 5. ABB IRB 140 Axis

Positions at wrist center (mm) and Angle (degrees) for ABB IRB 140 robot is
listed in table 1. For an in dept and clear analasys of the robot we used Matlab –
Simulink [6] to create the mathematical model in dynamic mode of the robot presented
above. So, in figure 7 the Simulink block that implements this type of robot is
presented, together with it’s mathematical model. The defining ecuations for the
mathemathical model are:
T = J ⋅
d θ
+ C ⋅
2
dθ
+ G ⋅θ 1 1 (31)
1 1 2 1 1 1
dt dt

T2 = J 2 ⋅
d θ2 2
+ C 2 ⋅
dθ2
+ G 2 ⋅θ 2
(32)
dt2 dt
where: J1 and J 2 are the inertia moments of the joints one and two; C1 and C2 are the
Coriolis coefficients of joints one and two, G1 and G2 are the gravitational coefficients
of the two joints. In the mathematical model we considered joint 0 stationary so that
θ 0 = 0 [ g r a d e ] . Alfa1 and alfa2 are the accelerations of the two joints; w1 and w2 are the
speeds of the two joints and teta1 , teta2 the two joint’s angles wich are shown in fig. 7.
In the folowing we present the Simulink schemathic for the position’s regulation
system’s analisis of the ABB industrial robot.
 POSITION CONTROL OF ABB ROBOT 71

Pos. Pos.( Pos.( Angle( Angle(de

No . mm) mm) deg- g-
(Fig. X Z rees rees)Axis
6.) )Axis2 3
0 450 712 0 0
1 70 1092 0 -90
2 314 421 0 +50
3 765 99 110 -90
6 1 596 -90 +50
7 218 558 110 -230
8 -670 352 -90 -90

Fig. 6. ABB IRB 140 robot arms positions Table 1. Positions and Angles for ABB IRB 140

Fig. 7. Mathematical model in Matlab – Simulink

From the sismulation schemathic we notice that two systems of position

regulation are used designed around the vectorial speed control systems, refered to as
SRA1 si SRA2. The automated regulator type PD of the position presented in the
simulation schematic in the previous figure was implemented outside of the block
schematic of SRA1 and of SRA2. In the simulation, we took into consideration the
mechanical speed reduction used by joints one and two of the ABB robot. The
reduction coefficient for both of the joints is 1/130.

Fig. 8. Matlab – Simulink simulation schematic of the ABB IRB 140 robot
72 EGRI A., SIRB V., STOICUTA O.

In the simulation we created a trajectory generating block, where we imposed a

variation of the angle θ1 between ⎛ − π π ⎞ and of the angle θ 2 between ⎛⎜ − π π ⎞⎟ . After
⎜ ⎟ 4 4 ⎠
⎝ 6 6 ⎠ ⎝
simulating we get the folowing results, presented in graphical form in the figures 9 and 10.

Fig. 9. Variation in time of the imposed speed and the estimated

Fig. 10. Accelerations of joints

REFERENCES

[1]. Luenberger, D.G. : An induction to observers, IEEE Trans. On Automatic

Control, vol.AC.-16, no.6, pp.596-602, December 1971.
[2]. Cohen, G., Théorie algébrique des systèmes à événiments discrets, Centre
Automatique et Système, École des Mines de Paris, Fontainbleau & INRI
Rocquencourt, 1995.
[3]. Popov, V.M.: L’hyperstabilite des système automatiques , Dunod, Paris, 1973.
[4]. Kubota, H., Matsuse, K., Nakano T.: DSP – based speed adaptive flux observer
of induction motor, IEEE Trans. of Industry Applications, vol.29, no2.,
pp. 344-348, 1993.
[5]. Murphy, R.:Introduction to AI Robotics, MIT Press, 2000.
[6]. Pana, T.: Matlab in sisteme de actionare electrica, Ed.Mediamira,
Cluj-Napoca, Romania, 1996.
 Annals of the University of Petroşani, Electrical Engineering, 14 (2012)

WIND ENERGY - A SUSTAINABLE SOLUTION FOR THE

ECONOMIC REHABILITATION OF THE TURCOAIA
QUARRY AREA

ADRIAN NICOLAE DINOIU 1 EMIL POP 2

IOANA CAMELIA BARBU 3 ILIE CIPRIAN JITEA 4

Abstract: Renewable energy technologies are clean sources of energy that have a
much lower environmental impact than conventional energy technologies. Renewable energy
will not run out. Ever. So, with a good wind potential, Turcoaia area can have an economic
rehabilitation through implementation of wind energy and transformation of negative impact on
the environment in a positive impact.

Key words: renewable, wind, energy, Turcoaia, quarry, environment, modeling,

simulation.

1. OVERVIEW OF TURCOAIA AREA [1] [2]

Turcoaia village is situated in the north-west of Tulcea county, on the right

bank of the Danube. Distance from Tulcea is 64 km. Turcoaia village has a temperate
continental climate with sub-Mediterranean influences, summers are hot with low
precipitations and mild winters with strong winds. Its area is 56.51 km2, with a
population of 3695 inhabitants (census 2002), location 45 ° 07' N 28 ° 11'E. Area
specific activities: agriculture, fisheries, quarries stone operation, transportation,
forestry.
On the administrative territory of the commune Turcoaia, were two quarries:
Quarry Iacob Deal, the largest in the country and Turcoaia quarry called Fantana lui
Manole. Currently only Turcoaia quarry working anymore.

1
Ph.D. Student Eng., University of Petrosani
2
Ph.D. Professor Eng., University of Petrosani
3
Ph.D. Lecturer Eng., University of Petrosani
4
Eng., INCD INSEMEX Petrosani
74 DINOIU A., POP E., BARBU C., JITEA C

Information about the role that quarries had in the developmental economic activity of
Turcoaia and the negative impact it has on the environment are achieved through a
series of geographical research methods and processes: indirect geographic
observation by analyzing topographic and administrative territory map and direct
through which we were informed of the danger it represents dumps for land and houses
at the foot of Jacob Deal; geographical description, with which we saw the results of
the observation and a picture of the activity of both quarries and their effects, analysis
and synthesis used to highlight the evolution of them.
Macin Mountains are a mountain group belonging to the Dobrogea mountains.
These mountains are the most obvious residual witness of the late Paleozoic orogenesis
hercinic looking for Inselberg. Overall shape of a triangle with sharp, Macin Mountains
are the largest width between the village Turcoaia and Lozova valley, which reach 24
km. They take place in the direction NW-SE direction in the form of parallel ridges,
becoming more numerous and fragmented in the SW, with a main peak, starting in
Bugeac and up on Carpelit Hill.

Fig. 1. Victoria Peak, view from Turcoaia

This main mountain chain culminates with Tutuiatu top height (467m). In its
extension to the North West tip is Pietrosul Mare (426 m) and peak Pietrosu and
heights decrease gradually, reaching 100-170 m near the town Văcăreni and Bugeac at
95m. Southeast of the tip Tutuiatu, Macin Mountains main ridge continues through a
series of hilly peaks, as Costiag Hill (428m), Hill Negoiu with the top Piatra Mare (380
m), David Hill (354 m), Crapcea Hill (344 m), Carapcea Hill and Carpelit Hill (350 m).
The climate regime is temperate where summers are dry and winters are cold
and lack of moisture. The average annual temperature varies between 10,5 °C and 11
°C. Summer, in July, average temperatures is 22 °C and in winter, in January, the
average temperature value is -1,5 °C. Absolute maximum was recorded in 1968 at
Jurilovca of 38 °C.
 WIND ENERGY - A SUSTAINABLE SOLUTION FOR THE ECONOMIC 75
REHABILITATION OF THE TURCOAIA QUARRY AREA

2. RENEWABLE ENERGY [3] [10]

Wind energy - both on the ground and at sea, the wind has the power to
generate energy. Based on the evaluation and interpretation of data recorded, it follows
that in Romania, we can set up wind turbines with a total power of up to 14,000 MW,
which means a power input of about 23,000 GWh / year.
Solar Energy - It is an inexhaustible energy and therefore renewable. If we
exploit the full potential of solar in our country, we can substitute in this form about
50% of domestic hot water or 15% share of heat for heating current.
Hydro Energy - Another renewable energy that Romania's hydropower
potential is huge. Water is one of the most precious natural resources. Water is at the
same time and the best source for green energy. At present, Romania's hydropower
potential is exploited at a rate of 48%.
Biomass - fuel being used primarily for space and water heating and cooking.
Fully exploiting the potential of biomass involves using a fully residues of forestry,
sawdust and other wood waste, agricultural waste from grain or corn stalks, vine plant
debris, waste and urban waste.
Geothermal energy is suitable for space heating and water. Due to its location,
the main potential use is in rural areas - housing, greenhouses, aquaculture - at
distances up to 35 km from the place of removal.

Fig. 2. Map of renewable resources (Source: MEF)

Legend:
I. Danube Delta (solar energy);
II. Dobrogea (solar and wind);
III. Moldova (plain and plateau - micro hydro, wind and biomass);
IV. Carpathian Mountains (biomass, micro hydro, wind);
V. Transylvanian Plateau (microhydro);
VI. Western Plain (geothermal energy);
VII. Subcarpathian (biomass, micro hydro);
VIII. South Plains (biomass, geothermal and solar energy).
76 DINOIU A., POP E., BARBU C., JITEA C

2.1. Wind power [9] [11]

Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form, such as
electricity, using wind turbines. In windmills, wind energy is directly used for milling
grain and pumping water. At the end of 2011 globally are installed nearly 238 GW.
Only in 2011 were installed 40.5 GW by wind turbines.
Wind energy is produced in large wind farms connected to the network, but
also by individual turbines used for power generation in remote areas.
Advantages:
- The main advantage of wind energy is zero emission of pollutants and greenhouse
gases, because no fuels are combusted;
- No waste is produced. Production of wind energy production does not involve any
kind of a waste;
- Lower cost per unit of energy produced. The cost of electricity in modern wind power
has decreased substantially in recent years.
Disadvantages:
- A practical disadvantage is the variation of the wind speed. Many places on Earth
cannot produce enough electricity using wind power and because of this wind is not
viable in any location;
- "Visual pollution" - an unpleasant appearance - and also produce "noise pollution"
(too noisy). Others argue that the turbines affect the environment and surrounding
ecosystems, killing birds and large vacant land for installation.

2.2. Wind power potential [4] [7] [8] [12]

To its geographic location, with wide open horizon to NE, E, SE, S, SW and
W, in the studied area, characteristic of atmospheric dynamics is to be very active
during the year.
As the origin of air masses, contributing to the winds in this area, we mention
the following:
- in N winds are a result of the movement of polar air masses of continental origin,
cold and wet;
- they are followed by NE and E winds that originate in dry continental air masses,
moving from north-eastern Europe;
- S and SE winds generated by tropical continental air masses, usually hot and dry air
with high prevalence in the late spring and early summer (29% and 13% respectively);
- SW and W winds will generated by air masses of tropical origin - Maritime (Azores
anticyclone) that occur in the months of spring, summer and early autumn;
- NW winds generated by air masses of polar origin - sea, cold and wet, have lower
frequency (7%) was significantly greater than the frequency in the summer months
(32% in august), while contributing to increased producing rainfalls.
Prevailing winds are from the north, approx. 22%, plus those in the NE and
NW. Winds from south, south east and west are rare frequency, but higher intensity.
The moderate winds have the highest frequency (speed between 3-6 m/s), approx.
57%, followed by weaknesses (speed below 3 m/s), approx. 18-35%.
 WIND ENERGY - A SUSTAINABLE SOLUTION FOR THE ECONOMIC 77
REHABILITATION OF THE TURCOAIA QUARRY AREA

Kinetic energy of wind intercepted by the blades of a turbine unit of time (P)
depends on air density (ρ), the area covered by the rotor blades (πr2), and the cube of
wind speed (V3), reduced by a factor of power efficiency (fp) according to the formula:

P = 0,5*ρ*π*r2fp*V3 (1)

Proposed wind turbine type is Vestas V90-3.0 MW. Has a capacity of 3 MW

and is designed to be low weight, making it easier to transport and install and reducing
foundation costs thanks to its lower load.
Its innovative nacelle is lighter because its gearbox has an integrated main
bearing that eliminates the need for a traditional main shaft. Blade weight is also kept
to a minimum by using carbon together with glass fiber. The tower is lighter, too, as it
uses magnets instead of welding to attach the tower internals to the tower wall.
This turbine delivers exceptional performance and a high yield, and can be
supplied in a variety of hub heights (65-105m) to accommodate site-specific needs.
Rotor diameter is 90 m and Swept area: 6362 m2
If we know wind speeds at a height of 10 m, we can calculate wind speed at 80
meters height (2), average height at which you can install the nacelle.

V = V0*(H/H0)α (2)

where,
V – wind speed at 80m;
V0 – wind speed at 10m;
H – proposed height (80m);
H0 – original height (10m);
α – wind shear coefficient, equal with 0,14 for plan surface.

In the table 1 are

average monthly values of
temperature, relative humidity,
solar radiation, atmospheric
pressure, wind speed at 10m,
calculated wind speed at 80m
and available power at 80m
considering the V90 turbine
characteristics.

Fig. 3. Wind speed at 50m height

 78 DINOIU A., POP E., BARBU C., JITEA C

Wind Wind Produced

Relative Solar Atmospheric
Month Temperature speed speed power
humidity radiation pressure
(10m) (80m) (80m)
o
C % kWh/m2 kPa m/s m/s kW
January -0,6 76 1,45 100,9 5,5 7,4 760,8
February 0,4 73 2,24 100,7 5,4 7,2 720,1
March 5,1 66 3,21 100,6 5,9 7,9 939,2
April 11,6 58 4,33 100,2 5,0 6,7 571,6
May 17,5 53 5,56 100,3 4,3 5,8 363,6
June 21,4 54 5,92 100,1 4,2 5,6 338,8
July 24,0 51 5,96 100,1 3,8 5,1 250,9
August 23,6 50 5,27 100,2 3,8 5,1 250,9
September 18,8 54 3,96 100,4 4,2 5,6 338,8
Octomber 12,9 60 2,54 100,8 5,4 7,2 720,1
November 5,7 72 1,49 100,8 5,3 7,1 680,8
December 0.6 75 1,15 100,9 5,6 7,5 803,1
Annually 11.8 62 3,59 100,5 4,9 6,6 538,0

Table 1. Atmospherically conditions

3. TRANSFORMATION OF NEGATIVE IMPACT ON THE

ENVIRONMENT IN A POSITIVE IMPACT BY CREATING A WIND FARM
[5] [6]

The current land use is tailings deposition. Potential failure to achieve future
wind farms is under related natural resources.
Potential development is related of existing infrastructure: drinking water
networks, sewage networks, the existing road communication paths in the area.
Without implementation, studied site will retain the current use being operated
incorrectly and mismatch with actual intent regarding sustainable development and the
needs of the village Turcoaia current economic recovery of resources in the area,
namely the potential wind in the area.
Biodiversity:
- Flora of the site : Arrangement of vegetation in the area considered for the location of
wind farm, varies depending on the action of climatic factors. Level of exposure to
wind direction and consequently its dominant amount of moisture in the soil are the
main factors that determined the qualitative composition of steppe vegetation on the
site.
- Fauna in the site : Steppe and forest steppe fauna that characterize the locality
Turcoaia is represented by specific rodent species: ground squirrel (Spermophilus
citellus) orbetele (Spalax graecus), small hamsters (Mesocricetus newtons), steppe
polecat (Mustela Eversmann) present only in Dobrogea, plus reptiles: Dobrogea lizard
(Podarcis taurica), Guster (Lacerta viridis), horned viper (Vipera ammodytes Alpine),
land turtle (Testudo graeca), insects (locusts, crickets).
 WIND ENERGY - A SUSTAINABLE SOLUTION FOR THE ECONOMIC 79
REHABILITATION OF THE TURCOAIA QUARRY AREA

Impact on biodiversity:
- During construction works : Impact on local biodiversity during construction
objective is manifested mainly due to scraping for the construction of towers,
foundations, access roads, the dust produced by construction work and noise due to
machinery used. Construction of the wind farm will not affect the integrity of Macin
Mountains National Park, being at its limit. Should also be noted that much of the
effects on local biodiversity are temporary and reversible, manifesting only during
construction.
Estimated impact of environmental factors air:
- During the implementation plan: Emission sources of air pollutants are ground
sources, open (those that involve handling construction materials and soil tillage) and
mobile (machinery and trucks).
For ground handling operations, ballast and cement materials and related
disturbance on the embankment surface are sources of dust emission.
- During operation: the objective there sources of air pollution during operation
objective.
Impact on the soil and subsoil
- During construction works: Regarding the impact it can have on soil and subsoil
studied activity, it is recalled that the works will have a limited period of execution
time. With topsoil stripping, with storage of part, remove the natural cycle, the amount
of nutrients. A part of it will be restored, this circuit as ground vegetation layer
deposited will be used to rehabilitate land, including soil cover, where it will lend. In
this project is minimal scraping possible, with little impact on the ground.
- During operation: After construction, the wind turbine will not produce pollution on
soil and subsoil.
Recommendations:
- Wind power blade tips will be painted in bright colors to avoid their hitting by birds.
- Towers will be indicated by flashing red light, with a long delay between two
ignitions.
- It is forbidden to store equipment or motor vehicles on green spaces, except for the
site organization.
- Fertile soil restoration of affected areas, from the tower, so that no non-integrated
land remains in agricultural use outside the project provided.
- Placing turbines will be limited so the site perimeter, noise and vibration to the limits
imposed by standards.
- Fire prevention activities must be supported by appropriate measures according to the
legislation and manufacturers recommendations.
80 DINOIU A., POP E., BARBU C., JITEA C

Fig. 4. An overview of proposed wind farm in Turcoaia

4. MODELING AND SIMULATION OF WIND TURBINE VESTAS V90

[7] [8]

We know from V90 product brochure that blade length (R) is 44 m, swept area
(Ar) is 6362 m2 and nominal revolutions (ωT) 966 rad/s. Also we know the wind speed
(Ws) at 80 m (Table 1) and air density (ρ) for the Turcoaia area equal with 1,225 kg/m3.
So we can calculate the blade tip speed ratio (λ):

λ = (ωT * R) / Ws (3)

Now, if we know λ, we can calculate the power coefficient (Cp) which depends
of the blade tip speed ratio (λ) and the pitch angle (β). Usually, optimal, the pitch angle
is 0,18 so, we will use with that value. The Betz’s law, tell us that Cp maximum value
is 0,59, but in practice is between 0,2 and 0,4.

Cp(λ,β)= (0,44-0,0167*β)*sin{[π*(-3+ λ)]/(15-0,3* β)}-

- 0,00184*(-3+ λ)*β (4)

The mechanical power on the shaft of turbine is:

P = 0,5 * ρ * Ar * Cp * Ws3 (5)

The modeling of wind turbine V90 in MATLAB Simulink is presented in

figure (5) and the simulation in figure (6).
 WIND ENERGY - A SUSTAINABLE SOLUTION FOR THE ECONOMIC 81
REHABILITATION OF THE TURCOAIA QUARRY AREA

Fig. 5. V90’s MATLAB Simulink model

Fig. 6. a) Ws – Wind speed; b) P – Mechanical power; c) Cp – Power coefficient; d) λ – Tip

speed ratio.

5. CONCLUSIONS

The beneficial effect of producing electricity through clean methods cannot be

disputed, because this method ensures energy production eliminating specific
emissions of other methods.
82 DINOIU A., POP E., BARBU C., JITEA C

Wind turbines do not produce any pollution on the environment during

operation because wind energy is green energy.
Location area will not affect significantly flora and fauna in protected areas
(parks, reserves and so on).
Sitting wind turbines in the vicinity of human settlements is recommended in
the literature as migratory birds usually avoid this area and nesting and feeding areas
are chosen outside inhabited areas.
Wind turbines have a positive landscape and contribute to the local economy.

REFERENCES

[1]. http://turcoaia-online.webs.com/
[2]. http://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mun%C8%9Bii_M%C4%83cin
[3]. Barbu I. C, Pop E., Leba M. – Microsisteme energetice durabile regenerative,
Editura Didactica si pedagogica, Bucuresti, 2009
[4]. http://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/sse/RETScreen/
[5]. Petrescu T. - studiu de impact asupra mediului - Parc eolian comuna Cerna, Judetul
Tulcea
[6]. Petrescu T. – Raport de mediu – Construire parc de centrale eoliene si retele electrice
de racordare – sud II
[7]. Zobaa A., Bansal R. - Handbook of Renewable Energy technology, World Scientific
Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd., 2011
[8]. http://www.vestas.com/en/media/brochures.aspx
[9]. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_power
[10]. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energy
[11]. REN21 - Renewables 2012 Global Status Report, 2012
[12]. S.C. IPROMIN S.A. Bucuresti - Studiul de evaluare adecvata deschidere carierei de
piatra Valea lui Manole comuna Turcoaia, judetul Tulcea
 Annals of the University of Petroşani, Electrical Engineering, 14 (2012)

ROMANIA'S ENERGY POLICY AND SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT ALIGNED TO EU DIRECTIVES

SUSANA ARAD 1

Abstract: A safety increase in the energy supply and limiting the energy resources
importation in the circumstances of an accelerated economic development can be insured
through a strategy to develop Romania’s energy development. This requirement can be
achieved on the one hand, through the deployment of a policy supported by energy
conservation, energetic efficieny increase which leads to disconnecting the economic
development rythm and the evolution of energy consumption and on the other hand increase of
the renewable energy resources efficiency. Developing the renewable energy resources
potential gives real premisses to achieve strategical goals regarding the increase of safety in
energy supply by varying the sources and decreasing the percentage of energy resources
importation and developing on the long run the energetic department and protecting the
environment. In this paper we present a study regarding the strategic goals on the short,
medium and long run and the development level, the use and the potential of energy sources.

Keywords: energy, sustainable development, efficiency, renewable sources, CCS.

1. INTRODUCTION

The Romanian energetic sector has to be a dynamic sector, which should actively
support the economic development of the country and cutting down on the deviations
towards the European Union. For that purpose, the main objective of the strategy of the
energetic sector is complying with the required quantity of energy in the present as
well as on the medium and long run at a price as low as possible, fit for a modern
market economy and a civilized lifestyle standard, in quality conditions, safe supply
and keeping the sustainable development principles.
According to New Energy Policy of the European Union (EU) [1] developed in
2007, energy is an essential element for the development of the Union. But equally, it
is a challenge regarding the impact of the energy sector on climate changes, increasing
dependence on imported energy resources and increasing energy prices.

1
PhD. Associate Professor Eng. University of Petrosani
84 ARAD S.

To overcome these challenges, the European Commission (EC) considers

absolutely necessary for the EU to promote a common energy policy based on energy
security, sustainable development and competitiveness.
The Commission recognizes the importance of fossil fuels and especially coal
contribution to energy security. At the same time, the Commission emphasizes that
future use of coal, especially, must be compatible with the objectives of sustainable
development and climate change policy [6].
Total global energy demand in 2030 will be about 50% higher than in 2003, and oil
is about 46% higher. Certain known oil reserves can sustain current levels of
consumption only until 2040, and the gas until 2070, while global coal reserves
provide for more than 200 years even an increase of operation.
Projections indicate growth, which will require increased energy consumption. In
terms of the structure of primary energy consumption worldwide, evolution and
prognosis of reference made by the International Energy Agency (IEA) shows the
fastest growth over the next decade the share of renewable, and natural gas.
It is estimated that about a quarter of primary energy needs, globally, will be
covered by the coal. While increasing energy and coal consumption will increase. Data
from the World Energy Council (WEC) shows an increase of nearly 50% of global coal
extraction in 2005 than in 1980. Figure 1 is highlighted developments in energy
demand worldwide.
The Commission recognizes the importance of fossil fuels and especially coal
contribution to energy security. At the same time, the Commission emphasizes that
future use of coal, especially, must be compatible with the objectives of sustainable
development and climate change policy.
Total global energy demand in 2030 will be about 50% higher than in 2003, and oil
is about 46% higher. Certain known oil reserves can sustain current levels of
consumption only until 2040, and the gas until 2070, while global coal reserves
provide for more than 200 years even an increase of operation.
Projections indicate growth, which will require increased energy consumption. In
terms of the structure of primary energy consumption worldwide, evolution and
prognosis of reference made by the International Energy Agency (IEA) shows the
fastest growth over the next decade the share of renewable, and natural gas.

Fig. 1. The evolution of global energy demand (Source: WEO 2006, OECD/IEA 2006)
 ROMANIA'S ENERGY POLICY AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 85
ALIGNED TO EU DIRECTIVES

It is estimated that about a quarter of primary energy needs, globally, will be

covered by the coal. While increasing energy and coal consumption will increase. Data
from the World Energy Council (WEC) shows an increase of nearly 50% of global coal
extraction in 2005 than in 1980. Figure 1 is highlighted developments in energy
demand worldwide.

2. THE PRIORITY OBJECTIVES OF DEVELOPING THE ROMANIAN

ENERGETIC SECTOR

Romania's energy strategy complies policy directions set out in the EU and
contribute to achieving the targets set by the European Commission for all EU states.
Regarding the security of energy supply, the EU expects natural gas import
dependency to increase from 57% currently to 84% in 2030 and oil from 82% to 93%
for the same period [5].
One of the priority elements of the energy strategy is improving the energy
efficiency. Increasing energy efficiency is a major contribution to achieving security of
supply, sustainability and competitiveness, saving primary energy resources and
reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Representative synthetic indicator regarding the
efficiency of energy utilization at national level is energy intensity, or energy to
produce a unit of GDP.
Improving energy efficiency is one of the most important strategic objectives for
Romania, given that in the structure of the national economy and especially the
industry there are still activities using energy resources as raw materials, mainly
petrochemicals and fertilizers industry.
Energy intensity is a global indicator which allows the association of a country's
energy consumption to the economic activities in the country. The report that expresses
the energy intensity is directly proportional to the physical records (annual energy
consumption) and inversely proportional to monetary records.
To measure the time variation of the energy intensity of a country the annual values
of GDP expressed in constant national currency of the country (Gross Domestic
Product at current prices and inflation corrected) can be used.
In terms of sustainable development, it should be noted that, in 2007, the energy
sector is, in the EU, one of the main producers of greenhouse gases.
If drastic measures are not taken in the EU, with the current rate of energy
consumption evolution and existing technologies in 2007, greenhouse gases emissions
will increase in the EU by about 5% and about 55% globally by 2030. Nuclear power
is currently one of Europe's largest renewable energy without CO2 emissions. Nuclear
power plants provide in 2007 a third of EU electricity production, thus having a real
contribution to sustainable development.
In terms of competitiveness, the EU internal energy market ensures the
establishment of fair and competitive prices for energy encourages energy savings and
attracts investments in the sector [5].
The EU is becoming increasingly exposed to instability and rising prices on
international energy markets and to the consequences of the oil reserves becoming
86 ARAD S.

gradually monopolized by a small number of owners. Potential effects are significant:

for example, if the oil price rises to 100 USD / barrel in 2030, energy imports in the
EU-27 would cost about 170 billion EUR, which means a value of 350 EUR / year for
each EU citizen.
European Commission proposes in the set of documents that are the New EU
Energy Policy the following objectives:
- reduction of greenhouse gas emissions by 20% by 2020 compared to those in 1990;
- increasing the share of renewable energy in the total energy mix from less than 7%
in 2006, to 20% of total EU energy consumption by 2020;
- increasing the share of bio-fuels to at least 10% of the energy content of transport
fuels by 2020;
- reduction of global primary energy consumption by 20% by 2020.
On October 19th 2006, the EC adopted the Energy Efficiency Action Plan, afferent
to the Directive 2006/32/EC on energy end-use efficiency and energy services,
containing measures with which the EU could make measurable progress towards
achieving its main objective, namely reducing its global primary energy consumption
by 20% by 2020 [2].
Successful implementation of this plan would materialize in the EU as a reduction
of energy consumption in 2020 to about 13% currently (2007).

3. THE IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT

The energy sector is a major source of pollution as a result of extraction, processing

and combustion of fossil fuels. In 2005, the burning fuel for energy production resulted
in about 88% of total national emissions of NOx, 90% of SO2 and 72% of the
particulate matter released into the atmosphere.
In the context of EU accession the Directive 2001/80/EC regarding large
combustion plants has been transposed into the Romanian legislation and it’s being
implemented. Large combustion plants were inventoried, of which 78 must be in line
with the requirements of environmental regulations, installments, until 2017.
Also Landfill Directive 1999/31/EC was transposed into Romanian legislation.
Under these conditions, 20 landfill (ash and slag heaps in the energy industry that uses
plant-based "hydro-transport") will be retrofitted to comply with environmental
requirements until 2013.
It is known that all plants burning fossil fuels produce CO2, which is the main cause
of global warming. To maintain the important role of fossil fuels in the energy balance,
solutions must be identified and implemented to reduce the impact of using these fuels
on the environment. In this sense, the solution of capturing and storing the CO2 (CCS)
emissions will have to be considered when designing and building new power plants.
At the same time, the current coal combustion technology will have to be replaced with
clean technologies substantially mitigating pollution by significantly reducing
emissions of SO2 and NOx and particulate matter generated by coal-fired boilers [3].
Impact on the environment through the application of energy efficiency policies can
be characterized by:
 ROMANIA'S ENERGY POLICY AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 87
ALIGNED TO EU DIRECTIVES

- emissions reduction in general and greenhouse gas emissions (CO2), in

particular; it is estimated, thus, the reduction by 4-7 million tones of CO2 emissions per
year by using fuel, harnessing this potential being an important source of funding;
- locally reducing environmental impact, both at the production and consumption
of energy;
- pollution of surface and groundwater reduction by avoiding discharge of large
quantities of wastewater from fuel production to the end user;
- soil pollution reduction by reducing large quantities of slag and ash deposited
with electricity producers and/or heat energy.
A country’s energy intensity is the ratio of the total energy consumption and GDP.
Depending on the total considered consumption there can be determined:
- primary energy intensity by considering the total primary resources
consumption;
- final energy intensity, by considering the total final consumption;
- electricity intensity by considering the final electricity consumption.

4. THE RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES POTENTIAL

Theoretical potential of Renewable Energy (RES) in Romania is presented in Table
1 [4].
The available potential of these sources is much smaller due to technological
limitations, economic efficiency and environmental restrictions [7].
Tabel 1. Energy potential of renewable energy in Romania
Source Yearly Economic Application
energy equivalent
potential energy
(thousand
toe)
Solar 60x10^6 1.433,0 heat
energy GJ 103,2 electricity
1.200
GWh
Wind 23.000 1.978,0 electricity
energy GWh
(theoretical
potential)
Hydro 40.000 516,0 electricity
energy GWh
of which < 6.000
10 MW GWh
Biomass 318x10^6 7.597,0 heat
and biogas GJ electricity
Geothermal 7x10^6 GJ 167,0 heat
energy
88 ARAD S.

Effective harnessed potential of wind energy and hydropower is significantly

inferior to the technical harnessed one due to environmental restrictions (sites with
prohibition of use).
It is necessary to devise studies on the impact of wind turbines on bird migration
and defining a clear and unique map of areas where the construction of wind and
hydropower units is not suitable for environmental reasons.
Use of renewable energy sources has a significant impact on the national power
system and there is needed:
• Studies on the impact of taking over the power carried by wind turbines, micro
hydro and cogeneration using biomass by the electricity transmission and
distribution network (voltages ≥ to 110 kV) in different scenarios, in areas with
high potential;
• The development of transport and distribution networks into a smart grid concept;
• Construction of new electricity generating capacity with high flexibility in
operation and market development capabilities to counter and/or to limit the
negative effects of uncontrollable variability of wind and micro hydro energy.

5. ZERO EMISSION SOLUTIONS TO THE GLOBAL CLIMATE

CHALLENGE

Carbon Capture and Storage CCS is a process that consists of separating and
recovering carbon dioxide (CO2) from flue gases at large power or industry
installations, then transporting it and injection it into a deep underground geological
formation for storage. CO2 is the major greenhouse gas contributing to global
worming. All combustions of fossil fuels like gas, oil and coal generate CO2 emissions
that accumulate in the atmosphere and increase the greenhouse effect [8].
The first approach for reduction in CO2 emissions focuses on the technology mix.
No single form of power generation will address the dual challenge of securing the
supply of reliable and affordable energy and affecting a rapid transformation to a low-
carbon system of energy supply. It will take all types of generation technologies such
as nuclear and renewable.
The second approach for CO2 reductions is that of production efficiency and energy
management. In this field it must look to solutions for both new and existing plants.
With 60% of the total of CO2 emissions in 2030 coming from plants that exist today,
solutions must continue to be developed and implemented that increase their efficiency
and enabled smart generation.
CO2 Capture and storage CCS describes a technological process by which at least
of 90% CO2 is captured from large stationary sources transported to a suitable storage
site then stored in geological formations deep underground. In the Figure 2 is shown
the CCS process.
Founded in 2005 on the initiative of European Commission, the European
Technology Platform for Zero Emission Fossil Fuel Power Plants (known as the Zero
Emission Platform, or ZEP) represents a unique coalition of stakeholders united in
their support for CO2 Capture and Storage (CCS) as a critical solution for combating
climate change.
 ROMANIA'S ENERGY POLICY AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 89
ALIGNED TO EU DIRECTIVES

Fig.2. CCS value chain

Zero Emissions Platform (ZEP) works to reduce climate change through policy
strategies and technology solutions that reduce greenhouse gas emissions. In order to
make emission-free solutions prevail, ZEP takes an active, constructive part in the
political climate debate to help politicians, industry and consumers choose climate
friendly solutions.
ZEP believes that emission-free alternatives exist for all energy use.
Romanian energy policies will need to evolve to take into account EU climate
change policies and legislation. To model the power generation of a specific country,
predictions and forecast must be combined with reasonable assumptions made on
likely outcomes. Approaching the electricity generation system in Romania presents
many unique challenges in this regards. The Electricity Production Industry EPI in
Romania is currently undergoing rapid change, with much of the present infrastructure
to be replaced in the next decade. Existing fossil, nuclear, hydro and renewable
capacities are modeled based on the projections from both the unpublished Draft
Strategical Directions and Objectives for Romania Energy Sector for the period 2011-
2035 and the Romanian National Renewable Action Plan (2010) [4], [5].
In 2007, the European Commission began to create an economic and legal
framework to support flagship demonstration CCS power plant projects. This
demonstration projects aim to show the potential of CO2 capture and storage while
testing the technology at scale, gaining valuable know how, reducing capital costs
through gained experience. The Getica CCS project has been proposed as a flagship
European demonstration project, demonstrating capture transport and the permanent
storage of 1.5 million tones of CO2 pro annum.
This first Romanian demonstration CCS facility is proposed to be retro-fitted to the
330MW lignite - fired power unit no. 6 owned by the Turceni from Oltenia Energy
Complex.
90 ARAD S.

CONCLUSIONS

Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) will provide the chance for exploiting new
technologies with application to all fossil fuels, first in terms of energy production
based on natural gas.
All combustions of fossil fuels like gas, oil and coal generate CO2 emissions that
accumulate in the atmosphere and increase the greenhouse effect
The first approach for reduction in CO2 emissions focuses on the technology mix.
No single form of power generation will address the dual challenge of securing the
supply of reliable and affordable energy and affecting a rapid transformation to a low-
carbon system of energy supply. It will take all types of generation technologies such
as nuclear and renewable.
In this respect focus areas are:
- Renewable energy production;
- Energy efficiency in buildings Carbon capture and storage (CCS);
- Electric power for the offshore petroleum sector;
- Emission reduction in industry;
- Carbon neutral transport;
- Climate friendly agriculture and forestry.
However, financial contributions from businesses will never affect our climate
policy views, neither does it indicate approval of business practices.

REFERENCES

[1]. Commission of the European Communities - Communication from the Commission to

the European Council and the European Parliament - An Energy Policy For Europe {Sec
(2007) 12} Brussels, 10.1.2007 Com (2007) 1 Final.
[2]. Commission of the European Communities - Communication from the Commission –
Action Plan for Energy Efficiency: Realising the Potential {SEC (2006)1173} {SEC
(2006)1174} {SEC(2006)1175} - Brussels, 19.10.2006 COM(2006)545 Final.
[3]. Guvernul Romaniei: National sustainable development strategy Romania 2013-2020-
2030, Bucuresti, 2008.
[4]. Guvernul Romaniei: Planul Naţional de Acţiune în Domeniul Energiei din Surse
Regenerabile (PNAER), 2010.
[5]. Monitorul Oficial al României, Partea I, Nr. 781/19.XI.2007. Strategia energetica a
Romaniei pentru perioada 2007-2020, Bucuresti 5.09. 2007.
[6]. Arad, S., Arad V., Julian C., Tendinţe actuale în producerea şi utilizarea ca resursă
energetică a cărbunelui din Valea Jiului Revista Minelor, nr 9-10/2008, pp. 12-16, ISSN 1220–
2053 cod CNCSIS 293, (C), Infomin Deva Publishing House, 2008.
[7]. Samoila, L. B., Marcu, M. , Vaida, M., Guiding and Orientating System for Solar
Panels, Proceedings of 10-th International Conference on Environment and Electrical
Engineering, Rome, Italy, 2011,
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=5874636.
[8]. Stepanescu I., Rehtanz C., Fotău I., Arad S. Marcu M., Popescu, F., Implementation
of small water power plants regarding future virtual power plants. Proceedings of the IEEE
International Conference on Environment and Electrical Engineering, Rome, Italia, 2011.
[9]. www.alstom.com/power.
 Annals of the University of Petroşani, Electrical Engineering, 14 (2012)

MEASUREMENT OF THE HALF DECAY TIME FOR

CHARACTERIZATION OF TEXTILES USED IN
POTENTIALLY EXPLOSIVE ATMOSPHERES,
REGARDING SAFETY AT ELECTROSTATIC
DISCHARGES

MIHAELA PĂRĂIAN1, EMILIAN GHICIOI2, SORIN BURIAN3,

NICULINA VĂTAVU4, ADRIAN JURCA5, FLORIN PĂUN6, LEONARD
LUPU7,

Abstract: The static electricity is one of the potential ignition sources for the explosive
atmospheres. In order to ensure an appropriate level of safety against explosions in Ex
endangered areas, it is of a major importance to take adequate protective measures for
preventing electrostatic discharges from persons.
Preventing formation/discharging of static charges from persons suppose an assembly of
measures and means to ensure appropriate paths for charges leak out (dissipation) to earth.
This can be achieved by using dissipative clothing, appropriate electrically conductive
footwear, appropriate flooring or other means for charge discharging to earth.
The requirements regarding PPE for use in explosive atmospheres are given in the
European Directive PPE 89/686/EEC [Government Decision no. 115/2004 + Government
Decision no.809/2005]. The Directive stipulates that PPE intended for use in explosive
atmospheres must be so designed and manufactured that it cannot be the source of an electric,
electrostatic or impact-induced arc or spark likely to cause an explosive mixture to ignite.
The test methods of textiles in general and the textile fabrics in particular, for assessment of
protective performances against static electricity have been in a continuous development,
together with development of new materials, dissipative from an electrostatic point of view.
Within INSEMEX, a modern test stand had been carried out and experimented, for
determination of the half decay time of charges on textile materials or the screening factor, for

1
Ph.D.Eng. - scientific researcher Ist degree at INCD-INSEMEX Petroşani
2
Ph.D.Eng. - scientific researcher IInd degree at INCD-INSEMEX Petroşani
3
Ph.D.Eng. - scientific researcher IInd degree at INCD-INSEMEX Petroşani
4
Ph.D.Eng. - scientific researcher IIIrd degree at INCD-INSEMEX Petroşani
5
Ph.D.Eng. - scientific researcher IIIrd degree at INCD-INSEMEX Petroşani
6
Ph.D.Eng. - scientific researcher IIIrd degree at INCD-INSEMEX Petroşani
7
Ph.D.Eng. - scientific researcher IIIrd degree at INCD-INSEMEX Petroşani
92 PĂRĂIAN M., GHICIOI E., BURIAN S., VĂTAVU N., JURCA A., PĂUN F., LUPU L.

the purpose of assessing the dissipative capacity of charges on textile materials used in
manufacturing protective garment, according to the requirements defined at European level.

Keywords: electrostatics, explosive atmosphere, hazard, personal protective equipment,

garment, fabrics

1. INTRODUCTION

The paperwork presents the development of laboratory tests for determination of

electrostatic performance properties of the personal protective equipment (PPE)
intended for use in potentially explosive atmospheres, according to the new European
principles and practice in the labor safety and health field.
Romania, as a member state of the European Union, undertook in national
legislation the European Directives. Thus the Government Decision no. 115/2004 was
elaborated, regarding establishing of the essential safety requirements for the personal
protective equipment and the conditions for placing them on the market, modified by
HG 809/2005, which transposes the Council Directive no. 89/686/EEC of 21
December 1989 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to
personal protective equipment, amended by Directives 93/68/EEC, 93/95/EEC and
96/58/EC.
The PPE Directive 89/686/CEE (HG 115/2004+HG 809/2005) provides that PPE
intended for use in explosive atmospheres must be so designed and manufactured that
it cannot be the source of an electric, electrostatic or impact-induced arc or spark
likely to cause an explosive mixture to ignite
Preventing formation of electrostatic charges on person or on neighboring elements
suppose an assembly of measures and means to ensure adequate paths to earth
(dissipation) for the charges. This can be achieved by making use of dissipative
clothing, footwear with a proper electric conductivity and adequate flooring or other
means for discharging the charges to earth.
The main assessment criteria for the protective performances of materials and
equipment is limitation of the electric resistance values, since it's a well known fact
that as the resistance value decreases, the risk of dangerous electrization of materials
decreases also. A safety limit of the electric resistivity is 5×1010Ohms, usual for
textiles used in manufacture for protective garments [2], [6], [7]. One of the most
widely used material in clothing items is the 100% cotton. The textiles made of 100%
cotton are adequate from the electrostatic point of view, respectively of electric
resistivity, but only in conditions of a relative humidity higher than 65%. This implies
a limited intended use for the garment items manufactured of 100% cotton, determined
by the humidity conditions existing at workplaces. This is why new types of
electrostatically dissipative materials had been developed, as well as new test methods
for these, in order to assess conformity with the specific Ex requirements based on the
half decay time criterion or screening factor. According to SR EN 1149-5, the
electrostatic dissipative material shall meet at least one of the following requirements:
 MEASUREMENT OF THE HALF DECAY TIME FOR CHARACTERIZATION OF 93
TEXTILES USED IN POTENTIALLY EXPLOSIVE ATMOSPHERES, REGARDING
SAFETY AT ELECTROSTATIC DISCHARGES

- t50% < 4s or S > 0,2, tested according to the test method 2 (induction charging) of EN
1149-3:2004, where t50% is the half decay time of charge and S is a protective
coefficient;
- a surface resistance of less than or equal to 2,5×109 Ω, on at least one surface, when
material is tested according to EN 1149-1.
For materials containing conductive threads in a stripe or grid pattern the spacing of
the conductive threads in one direction shall not exceed 10 mm in any part of the
garment. For testing of personal protective clothing regarding its protective
performances from a point of view of dangerous electrostatic discharges in igniting
flammable atmospheres, there is no recognized standardized method, and the fourth
part of SR EN 1149 is yet work in progress.
Development of requirements for the PPE (personal protective equipment) used in
environments with explosion danger is a frequently occurring topic on the work agenda
of CO-ORDINATION OF NOTIFIED BODIES PPE – Directive 89/686/CEE.
Within INSEMEX Petroşani researches had been carried out, in the field of the
explosion hazard of explosive atmospheres shown by static electricity, test stands had
been executed, and a specific laboratory with test apparatus of last generation for
testing of technical equipment exists, with high performance apparatus to ensure the
required environmental conditions, since it's a well known fact that in order to model
the maximum electrization conditions, a low relative humidity of 25-30 % is required
[1],[3].
In the context of a general continuous development and perfecting the laboratory
tests policy, up to the level of the newest achievements in the field, this year a new test
stand had been carried out, for measurement of textile materials charge dissipation
capacity according to method 2, Induction charging, in SR EN 1149-3 Protective
clothing. Electrostatic properties. Part 3:Test methods for measurement of charge
decay.

2. TEST STAND CARRYING OUT AND LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS

FOR MEASURING THE CHARGE DISSIPATION CAPACITY - CHARGING
BY INDUCTION

2.1 Test method principle

The test method principle: Charging of the test specimen is carried out by an
induction effect. Immediately under the test specimen, which is horizontally arranged,
a field-electrode is positioned, without contacting the specimen. A high voltage is
rapidly applied to the field-electrode. If the specimen is conductive, or contains
conducting elements, charge of opposite polarity to the field-electrode is induced on
the specimen. Field from the field-electrode which impinges on the conducting
elements does not pass through the test specimen and the net field is reduced in a way
that is characteristic of the material under test. This effect is measured and registered
behind the specimen with a suitable field-measuring probe.
94 PĂRĂIAN M., GHICIOI E., BURIAN S., VĂTAVU N., JURCA A., PĂUN F., LUPU L.

As the amount of induced charge on the test specimen increases, the net field
registered by the measuring probe decreases. It is this decrease in field that is used to
determine the half decay time and the shielding factor.

2.2 Description of the test stand for measurement of the charge dissipation
capacity

Fig. 1 Arrangement of equipment for measurement of the dissipative capacity of charges -

induction charging

The principle graph of the test stand for measurement of the charge dissipation
capacity - the induction charging method, for the purpose of laboratory testing of
textiles used in manufacturing of garments used in environments with explosive
atmospheres having in view conformity assessment with the essential safety
requirements in the PPE Directive is shown in figure 1.
The test stand (fig. 1) consists in: Field-electrode (a polished stainless steel disc,
(70±1) mm diameter, fixed to an insulating support) (1), Support ring (a metal ring,
(100±1) mm internal diameter, connected to earth and positioned concentric to the
field-electrode); Specimen clamping rings (2), Voltage generator capable of producing
a (1200±50) V step voltage on the field electrode within 30 ms (direct current voltage
supply of 5000 V and a HT fast switch) (3), Field-measuring probe (a metal disc,
(30,0±0,1) mm diameter (4), surrounded by an earthed guard ring (5) and connected to
an electronic electrometer (6) then to an oscilloscope (7) to record the time related data
from the field-measuring probe output. The time resolution and response time of the
recording device has to be 50 μs.
In figures 2 and 3 the test stand is shown without and with the test sample.
 MEASUREMENT OF THE HALF DECAY TIME FOR CHARACTERIZATION OF 95
TEXTILES USED IN POTENTIALLY EXPLOSIVE ATMOSPHERES, REGARDING
SAFETY AT ELECTROSTATIC DISCHARGES

Fig. 2 Test stand without the test sample

Fig. 3 Test stand with the test sample

2.3. Laboratory tests

Laboratory tests had been carried out, on materials known as complying with the
96 PĂRĂIAN M., GHICIOI E., BURIAN S., VĂTAVU N., JURCA A., PĂUN F., LUPU L.

SR EN 1149-5 requirements, having in view experimentation of the new test method

and the new test stand carried out.
In figures.2 and 3 are shown the results obtained for two typed of materials tested.

Fig. 4 Testing of sample no.1

Fig. 5 Testing of sample no.2

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Experimentation in laboratory of the new method, had the purpose identifying the
factors of influence for ensuring tests repeatability and reproducibility. Complying
with the requirements of the SR EN 17025 [5] had been in view, in order to extend the
laboratory competency field adding the method of determining the charge's half decay
time.
As specified in the SR EN 1149-3 Annex, tribo-charging tests repeatability and
reproducibility is never at the same level with the ones regarding resistance
measurement, but in the EN 1149-3 method they are at a satisfactory level, and the
charging capacity of various materials can be well compared through these tests.
 MEASUREMENT OF THE HALF DECAY TIME FOR CHARACTERIZATION OF 97
TEXTILES USED IN POTENTIALLY EXPLOSIVE ATMOSPHERES, REGARDING
SAFETY AT ELECTROSTATIC DISCHARGES

Comparison between the results obtained by two laboratories showed differences of

less than a factor of eight for test method 1. An inter-laboratory trial for method 2,
using 5 different materials and 5 participating laboratories, in 3 different locations,
showed a repeatability and reproducibility standard deviation as follows:
Parameter S
Repeatability standard deviation, sr 0.004
Reproducibility standard deviation, 0.009
sR
Half discharge time t50
Repeatability variance 30%
Reproducibility variance 40%
Thus, accuracy of the results obtained in the accredited test laboratory have to be
also confirmed, in the future, by inter-laboratory tests.

3. CONCLUSIONS

The test stand carried out complies with the requirements in SR EN 1149-3. The
implemented test complies with the requirements in SR EN 17025 in order to ensure
the test laboratory competency.
By modernizing the testing / development capacity of the laboratory regarding PPE
used in environments with explosion hazards, INCD-INSEMEX may become an
important provider of specialized services for the PPE providers
(manufacturers/distributors), users, the market inspection bodies or the control bodies
in Romania and abroad.

REFERENCES

[1] Arad, S., Arad, V., Lupu, L., The remote control of Electric Devices, Protection, Control
and Monitoring Systems. Industrial Electronics, 2006 IEEE International Symposium on,
Proceedings of IEEE, vol I, pp 267-272, Montreal, Que, 2006, ISSN 0018-9219, ISBN 1-4244-
0497-5. INSPEC Accession Number: 9132144, DOI 10.1109/ISIE.2006.295604,
[2] Haase J., Vogel C., Testing and evaluation of electrostatic behaviour of electric
inhomogeneous textiles with core-conductive fibers.
[3] Lupu, L., Paraian, M., Ghicioi, E., Arad, S., Selection of technical equipment intended
for use in underground firedamps mines, Proceedings of MPES2006, pp. 166-172, ISBN 88-
901342-4-0, Edited by M. Cardu, R. Ciccu, E. Lovera, E. Michelotti printed in Italy by
FIORDO srl-Galliate, Torino, Italy, 2006
[4] Paraian M., s.a., Dezvoltarea metodelor de încercare pentru evaluarea performantelor de
protecţie la electricitatea statică ale echipamentelor individuale de protecţie utilizate în
industrie în locuri cu pericol de explozii – MELSTEIP, PN 07 45 02 13 – 2012.
[5] *** SR EN 1149-5: 2008 „Îmbrăcăminte de protecţie. Proprietăţi electrostatice. Partea 5.
Cerinţe de performanţă pentru materiale si cerinte de proiectare”.
98 PĂRĂIAN M., GHICIOI E., BURIAN S., VĂTAVU N., JURCA A., PĂUN F., LUPU L.

[6] *** SR EN 1149-3: 2004 „Îmbrăcăminte de protecţie. Proprietăţi electrostatice. Partea 3.

Metodă de încercare pentru măsurarea capacităţii de disipare a sarcinilor”.
[7] *** SR EN ISO/CEI 17025 Cerinţe generale pentru competenţa laboratoarelor de încercări
şi etalonări.
[8] *** CLC/TR 50404 June 2003 Electrostatics - Code of practice for the avoidance of hazards
due to static electricity (CENELEC TC 31 (sec)388, august 2002: prEN xxxxx Electrostatics.
Code of Practice for the avoidance of hazards due to static electricity).
[9] *** IEC TR 60079-32: Explosive atmospheres - Part 32: Electrostatics.
[10] *** SR EN 61340-2-1:2004 ver.eng. Electrostatică. Partea 2-1: Metode de măsurare.
Capabilitatea materialelor şi produselor de a disipa încărcările electrostatice.
[11] *** SMT4-CT96-2079 “The evaluation of the electrostatic safety of personal protective
clothing for use in flammable atmospheres”.
[12] *** G6RD-CT-2001-00615 , ESTAT-Garments “Protective clothing for use in the
manufacturing of electrostatic sensitive devices”, Duration March 1, 2002 – February 28,
2005.
[13] *** Council Directive 89/686/EEC of 21 December 1989 on the approximation of the
laws of the Member States relating to personal protective equipment.
 Annals of the University of Petroşani, Electrical Engineering, 14 (2012)

PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT OF AC ELECTRIC

DRIVES USING FIELD ORIENTED CONTROL AND
DIGITAL SPEED TRANSDUCERS

RAZVAN SLUSARIUC1, FLORIN GABRIEL POPESCU 2, MARIUS

DANIEL MARCU 3

Abstract: High performance drives, such as vector controlled drives, employ field oriented
control and require current feedback as an integral part of their control loops. In these cases
motor current is not simply limited at a pre-defined level. It is controlled to match a
continuously changing torque demand. The vector components of the stator current in each
phase are calculated, which requires current from all three phases. Using a digital position
transducer can increase the accuracy of speed and torque response.

Key words: torque, feedback, encoder, sensorless.

1. INTRODUCTION

Up to the end of the 1980s, high performance drive applications inevitably required
the use of a DC drive. However, the high maintenance requirements of DC drives have
encouraged the development of alternative solutions. Vector controlled AC drives have
evolved to provide a level of dynamic performance that has now exceeded that of DC
drives.
Closed-loop vector control is not required for every AC VSD application, in fact
only on a minority of applications. But there are a number of applications that
inherently require tight closed-loop control, with a speed regulation better than 0.01%
and a dynamic response better than 50 radians/sec. This dynamic response is about 10
times better than that provided by standard V/f drives.

1
PhD. Student Eng. at University of Petrosani
2
Ph.D. Assistant Eng. at University of Petrosani
3
PhD. Associate Professor Eng. University of Petrosani
100 SLUSARIUC R., POPESCU F.G., MARCU M.D.

2. A MATTER OF PERSPECTIVE

One way to understand how FOC (sometimes referred to as vector control) works is
to form a mental image of the coordinate reference transformation process.
If you picture an AC motor operation from the perspective of the stator, you see a
sinusoidal input current applied to the stator. This time variant signal generates a
rotating magnetic flux. The speed of the rotor is a function of the rotating flux vector.
From a stationary perspective, the stator currents and the rotating flux vector look like
AC quantities.
Now, imagine being inside the motor and running alongside the spinning rotor at
the same speed as the rotating flux vector generated by the stator currents. If you were
to look at the motor from this perspective during steady state conditions, the stator
currents look like constant values, and the rotating flux vector is stationary.
Ultimately, you want to control the stator currents to obtain the desired rotor
currents (which cannot be measured directly). With coordinate reference
transformation, the stator currents can be controlled like DC values using standard
control loops.[1]
The control block diagram for a high performance vector control AC drive system
is essentially a cascaded closed-loop type with speed and torque control loops: • There
are two separate control loops, one for speed and the second for current. This control
strategy is similar to that used for the control of a DC drive.

− Speed loop controls the output frequency, proportional to speed.

− Torque loop controls the motor in-phase current, proportional to torque.[3]

• The speed reference command from the user is first fed into a comparator, from
where the error controls the speed regulator.
• The speed error signal becomes the set point for the torque (current) regulator.
This signal is compared to the calculated current feedback from the motor circuit
and the error signal determines whether the motor is to be accelerated or decelerated.
• There is a separate control loop for the flux current (V/f regulator).
Finally, the signal passes to the PWM and switching logic section, that controls the
IGBTs in such a way that the desired voltage and frequency are generated at the output
according to the PWM algorithm (sine-coded, star modulation, VVC, etc.).
Although a shaft mounted incremental encoder can be used to measure speed in an
AC drive, it is often considered to be an additional expense. In some cases it is difficult
to mount on the motor, for example when motors have integral brakes.
Even when an encoder is not used, the cascaded closed loop control can still be
implemented because speed can be calculated by the active motor model, but with a
lower level of accuracy due to the difficulty of calculating slip, particularly at very low
speeds. Vector controlled drives which do not use encoders are usually referred to as
sensorless vector drives.
 PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT OF AC ELECTRIC DRIVES USING FIELD 101
ORIENTED CONTROL AND DIGITAL SPEED TRANSDUCERS

Fig.1. Block diagram of the flux-vector converter control circuit

The dynamic response of vector control drives, which do not use an encoder, is
usually inferior to those that do.
Typical applications for this type of high performance VS drive are:
• Crane and hoist drives
• Re-winders on paper and steel-strip lines
• Paper machines
• Printing machines
• Positioning systems for automated manufacturing lines etc.
When setting up high performance VSD controllers, a modest proportional gain
gives a good transient response, while the integral gain gives high steady state
accuracy. PI controllers have the advantage that they can maintain a non-zero output to
drive the converter although their input is zero. This is an advantage in closed-loop
control because high accuracy should lead to zero error at the controller input.
Suitable values of P and I determine the step and ramp parts of the response
respectively and have to be calculated for each inverter–motor–load combination. [2]
• The values of P and I for the speed loop are dependent on the motor flux, load
friction and inertia as they influence the response of speed to current.
• The values of P and I for the current loop depend on the inverter gain, motor
resistance and leakage inductance, since they influence the response of current to the
motor frequency.
In modern digital drives, the P and I values for both current and speed loops can be
set by keypad or, alternatively, most modern digital drives usually include an algorithm
for self-tuning.
This removes the difficulties of ‘tuning the loops’, which was traditionally
necessary with older analog DC drives. The P and I gains of the speed loop can be
102 SLUSARIUC R., POPESCU F.G., MARCU M.D.

setup during commissioning to meet application requirements and seldom need to be

changed.
There are a number of disadvantages of the vector controlled AC drive, when
compared to a DC drive:
The vector controller is far more complex and expensive when compared to the
simple cascade controller of a DC drive.
Encoder speed feedback is usually necessary to obtain accurate feedback of the
motor shaft speed. Fitting these encoders to a standard squirrel cage AC induction
motor is often difficult and makes the motor more expensive.
In recent years, ‘Sensorless’ vector control has been developed where an encoder is
not required. The approximate speed is calculated by the processor from the other
available information, such as voltage and current. However, the speed accuracy and
dynamic response of these drives is inferior to those using encoders.
The nature of the drive itself often requires the AC motor to operate at high torque
loadings at low speeds. The standard squirrel cage AC induction motor then requires a
separately powered cooling fan, installed at the ND end of the motor.
Regenerative braking is more difficult with a vector drive than with a DC drive.
Resistive type dynamic braking systems are most often used with AC vector control
drives.

3. CURRENT FEEDBACK IN AC VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES

Current feedback is required in AC variable speed drives for a number of purposes:

• Protection, short circuit, earth fault and thermal overload in motor circuits.
• Metering, for metering and indication for the process control system.
• Control, current limit control and current loop control. Several methods have
been developed over the years to measure the current and convert it into an electronic
form suitable for the drive controller. The method chosen depends on the required
accuracy of measurement and the cost of implementation.

The main methods of measurement are as follows:

• Current shunt, where the current is passed through a link of pre-calibrated
resistance. The voltage measured across the link is directly proportional to the current
passing through it. This method was often used in drives with analog control circuits.
• Hall effect sensor, where the output is a DC voltage, which is directly
proportional to the current flowing through the sensor. High accuracy and stability over
a wide current and frequency range are amongst the main advantages of this device.
This device is commonly used with modern digital control circuits.

The performance of a normal core type current transformer is usually not adequate
for power electronic applications because its performance at low frequencies is poor
and accuracy of measurement of non-sinusoidal waveforms is inadequate.
 PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT OF AC ELECTRIC DRIVES USING FIELD 103
ORIENTED CONTROL AND DIGITAL SPEED TRANSDUCERS

4. CURRENT FEEDBACK IN HIGH PERFORMANCE VECTOR DRIVES

High performance drives, such as vector controlled drives, employ field oriented
control and require current feedback as an integral part of their control loops. In these
cases motor current is not simply limited at a pre-defined level.
It is controlled to match a continuously changing torque demand. The vector
components of the stator current in each phase are calculated, which requires current
from all three phases. This can be achieved preferably with one hall effect CT in each
output phase or alternatively two in the output phases and one on the DC bus. [5]
If only two-phase sensors are used, the third phase can be calculated from them,
however the bus current sensor is still required for device protection.
High accuracy motor current feedback is also necessary to provide control of motor
torque. Torque control is necessary in applications such as rewind/unwind systems,
hoists, winches, elevators, positioning systems, etc.

5. SPEED FEEDBACK FROM THE MOTOR

In closed-loop speed control of electric motors and positioning systems, the speed
and position feedback from the rotating system is provided by transducers, which
convert mechanical speed or position into an electrical quantity, compatible with the
control system.
The following techniques are commonly used today:

• Analog speed transducer, such as a tachometer generator (tacho-generator),

which converts rotational speed to an electrical voltage, which is proportional to the
speed, and transferred to the control system over a pair of screened wires.
• Digital speed transducer, such as a rotary incremental encoder, which converts
speed into a series of pulses, whose frequency is proportional to speed. The pulses are
transferred to the control system over one or more pairs of screened wires.
• Digital position transducer, such as a rotary absolute encoder, which converts
position into a bit code, whose value represents angular position. The code is
transferred digitally to the control system over a screened parallel or serial
communications link.

Single-turn absolute rotary encoders generate a parallel digital output, which

represents the angular position of the shaft over one revolution. Each angular position
is represented by a code, comprising several digital bits (Table 1). The rotating optical
disk has multiple tracks, one for each bit of the output code. Even if the power fails,
once restored, the position of the shaft is accurately known without any resetting
routine, as would be required for incremental encoders.
One revolution (360o) is divided into a specified number of positions. The number
of possible positions (position resolution) depends on the number of tracks printed
onto the disk.
104 SLUSARIUC R., POPESCU F.G., MARCU M.D.

Table 1. The relationship between the number of tracks (bits) on the disk and the
resolution of an absolute rotary encoder
No. of tracks Resolution Resolution Resolution
(bits in code) (No. of positions) (deg per position) deg/min/sec
1 2 180.000 180000’00’’

2 4 90.000 90000’00’’

3 8 45.000 45000’00’’

4 16 22.500 22030’00’’

5 32 11.250 11015’00’’

6 64 5.630 5037’30’’

7 128 2.810 2048’45’’

8 256 1.410 1024’23’’

10 1024 0.350 0021’06’’

12 4096 0.0880 0005’16’’

16 65 536 0.00550 0000’20’’

The binary absolute encoder uses a binary number (counting system to the
base 2) to represent the position number of the shaft (Figure 2).

.
Fig.2. Binary code
 PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT OF AC ELECTRIC DRIVES USING FIELD 105
ORIENTED CONTROL AND DIGITAL SPEED TRANSDUCERS

Analog speed transducers are increasingly being replaced by digital devices, which
are more compatible with modern digital control systems.
The graph below shows a drive operating with and without an encoder, and a U/f
drive. [4]

Fig.3. Load disturbance response

Notice the difference with and without an encoder. You can clearly see the response
to the step load and the recovery time. The same can be seen when the load is removed.
Contrast that against the U/f response, which recovers much slower. The high
bandwidth current regulators and high performance speed regulator ensure that the
drive using a digital speed transducer delivers high dynamic performance.
In the following table can be observed that speed transducers used with field
oriented control method increase the accuracy of speed from 0.5% to 0,001%.
Table 2. Speed transducers used with field oriented control method
DC drive V/f flux V/f flux Field Field
with vector vector with oriented oriented with
encoder sensorless encoder sensorless encoder
Speed 0.01% 1% 0.1% 0.5% 0.001%
accuracy
Torque 10-20 msec 100 msec 10-20 msec 1-10 msec 1-10 msec
response
106 SLUSARIUC R., POPESCU F.G., MARCU M.D.

6. CONCLUSIONS

In this case o variable speed drive used with field oriented control method can be
observed that when using a digital speed transducer it’s a major improvement when the
requirement of the system is a very accurate speed and torque response.
Experiments and simulations in typical operating conditions demonstrate high
dynamic performance during speed and flux tracking including load torque rejection,
which is of the same order as for standard field-oriented solutions with speed
measurement.
Even though it may seem an added expense to the entire cost of the system, if the
demand is a speed more accurate than 0,01% and 50 rad/sec then a digital transducer is
a must.

REFERENCES
[1] Jorge Zambada, Sensorless Field Oriented Control of PMSM Motors, Microchip
technology, Chandler, 2007.
[2] Malcom Barnes, Practical Variable Speed Drives and Power Electronics, Newnes, 2003.
[3] Marcu Marius Daniel, Convertoare statice in actionari electrice, Editura TOPOEXIM,
Bucuresti, 1999.
[4] Rockwell Automation, Publication DRIVES-WP002A-EN-P , June 2000.
[5] http://machinedesign.com
 Annals of the University of Petroşani, Electrical Engineering, 14 (2012)

SAFETY REQUIREMENTS FOR ELECTRICAL

EQUIPMENT USED FOR COMMUNICATION IN AREAS
WITH HAYARD OF EXPLOSIVE ATMOSPHERES

SORIN BURIAN1, JEANA IONESCU2, MARIUS DARIE3,

TIBERIU CSASZAR4

Abstract: The paper aims to identify opportunities for correct association of electrical
hand machines for communications in potentially explosive atmospheres.

Keywords: Explosion protection, intrinsic safety, conditions of interconnection.

1. INTRODUCTION

Unprecedented increase in the degree of interconnection of systems and industrial

platforms while extending technologies involving combustible revealed a new
imperative of maintaining reasonable risk of explosion [1],[3]. Such low current
systems have reached a considerable weight in technological systems on industrial
sites.
On the other hand according to Directive 99/92/EC approach necessary to maintain
acceptable levels of risk of explosion involves the use of atmospheric monitoring
systems and explosion protection.
Monitoring systems can contribute both interlock means the process by means of
prediction and the time available to the occurrence of events such as exceeding
allowable levels [1].

1
PhD. Eng., IInd degree scientific researcher, INCD INSEMEX Petroşani,
2
PhD. Eng., IInd degree scientific researcher, INCD INSEMEX Petroşani
3
PhD. Eng., IInd degree scientific researcher, INCD INSEMEX Petroşani
4
PhD. Eng., IIIrd degree scientific researcher, INCD INSEMEX Petroşani
108 BURIAN S., IONESCU J., DARIE M., CSASZAR T.

avoidance of the ignition

of explosive atmospheres

prevention of the formation

of explosive atmospheres
air /
oxigen
combustible
substances

igntion
source

Fig. 1 Basic principles for the protection of explosion

2. TYPES OF PROTECTION

Dramatic accidents in underground mines susceptible to firedamp in Europe have

led stakeholders to start a crystallization process research and effective security
measures resistance explosions.
Thus the late 19th century the foundations were laid capsular flameproof enclosure
protection and early 20th century arises intrinsic safety type of protection. As time
went explosion protection solutions have been extended to surface and were
diversified.
Currently the types of protection are regulated worldwide through IEC and are
grouped into three divisions as follows: for explosion protection of electrical
equipment for use in atmospheres of gases, vapors, mists fuel then the explosion
protection of electrical equipment operating in spaces powder, lint, fibers, fuel and last
subdivision - Non-electrical equipment [5].
Types of explosion protection of electrical applicability of technical solutions are
classified as explosion protection: protection types that separate ignition source of
potentially explosive atmospheres (p, m, o, q, v, tD); types of protection that controls
ignition source (i, e, tD), other types of protection (d, NL, nA, nC,).
Electric utilized communications in potentially explosive atmospheres falls in
weak currents. This explosion can be protected with most types of protection. Statistics
types of protective equipment use low current prevalence highlights the type of
protection flameproof enclosure followed by intrinsic secretion, increased security and
encapsulation.
Except protection type intrinsic safety protection all other explosion protection only
manifests in the area bounded by carcass equipment.
 SAFETY REQUIREMENTS FOR ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT USED FOR 109
COMMUNICATION IN AREAS WITH HAYARD OF EXPLOSIVE ATMOSPHERES

Type of protection intrinsic safety (i) involves limiting energy and heating at the
circuit devices so they can not be the source of ignition for potentially explosive
atmospheres. This explains the need to take into account the additional conditions need
to be considered when interconnecting circuits concerned gears [1]. Also this particular
type of protection intrinsic safety distance determines a possible manifestation of
explosion protection.

igntion
ia,ib,ic source e

p, m, o, q, v

air / combustible
oxigen substances

ex plosive atmosphere

Fig. 2 Types of protection

The technical solutions underlying types of protection, they have affinities for
different types of equipment. Such security intrinsic (i) is applicable only low current
circuits when equipment for large equipment applies almost exclusively the type of
protection encapsulation pressurized (p). Identifying appropriate explosion protection
solution from design phase will lead to the development of low-cost equipment and
easy to operate.

parti de c irc uite Ex ma

c om ponente m ic i Ex mb

E x ia m as ini rotative c u perii

E x ib aparatura de c urenti s labi butoane pornit – oprit
aparataj elec tric de c om utatie
E x ic
Ex d
Ex e
Ex nA m as ini rotative
trans form atoare de putere m ic a
Ex nC c orpuri de ilum inat
s is tem e dis tribuite de c ontrol
Ex o
c utii de borne/ram ific are
Ex nL
Ex nZ

panouri de c ontrol Ex px
analiz oare
aparataj elec tric Ex py
aparatura agabaritic a Ex pz

Fig. 3 Apparatus - types of protection

110 BURIAN S., IONESCU J., DARIE M., CSASZAR T.

3. CONDITIONS OF ELIGIBILITY

Explosive atmospheres where combustible substances frequency were divided into

three zones as follows: Zone 0 - the area where combustible substance is present
continuously, Zone 1 - the area where combustible substance is present frequently or
periodically as a result of normal operation of the plant technology, Zone 2 - the area
where combustible substance is present sporadically due to defective functioning of the
system predictable technology.
Explosion protection types and categories (according to ATEX) or levels of
protection (IEC) provided allowing electrical apparatus protease only in certain areas
in the diagram in Figure 4.
Other eligibility requirements are those relating to employment subgroups and
temperature classes.

Zona 0
Ex ma
Ex ia

Zona 1
Ex mb

Ex px
Ex ib

Ex d

Ex e
Ex nC
Ex nA

Ex nZ

Ex pz
Ex ic

Zona 2

Fig. 4 Eligible types of protection for explosion hazardous areas

4. TYPES OF PROTECTION INTERCONECTING

With few exceptions, circuit protection equipment with type of protection intrinsic
safety [3] has electrical connections unprotected parts of electrical explosion known as
associated equipment. Due to this, related equipment shall be located outside the
explosive atmosphere or otherwise be protected with additional adequate protection.
Applications such as dispatching or monitoring plants fall when associated equipment
 SAFETY REQUIREMENTS FOR ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT USED FOR 111
COMMUNICATION IN AREAS WITH HAYARD OF EXPLOSIVE ATMOSPHERES

located outside areas with explosive atmospheres, control circuits and interlocking of
switching equipment if the equipment falls associated with other types of protection.

explosive atmosphere
(ia), (ib), (ic) ia, ib, ic

d, e, p, m, o, q, v

(ia), (ib), (ic) ia, ib, ic

Fig. 5 Associated apparatus

5. INTERCONNECTION CONDITIONS
Interconnection circuits protected equipment protection type intrinsic safety is
limited by the conditions of interconnected. These conditions guaranteeing
interconnection limitations reflected energy and surface temperature.
Thus for intrinsic safety interface are specified parameters: voltage, current, power,
inductance, capacity as maximum values are denoted with the index "a" (out).
The report is specific cable inductance and resistance has implications for not only
the type and length of interconnecting cable used.
Parametric specify the index "i" (in) is admissible values for devices with intrinsic
safety interfaces for interconnection with other devices protection protected all type of
intrinsic safety.
Failure to determine the interconnection conditions invalidation type of protection
even if the equipment remains functional.

L o/R o

Co Li/Ri Lo

Ci Li
Um
Io Uo

Ii Po Ui

Pi

Fig. 6 Interconnection conditions

112 BURIAN S., IONESCU J., DARIE M., CSASZAR T.

6. CONCLUSIONS

Interconnection circuits protected communication equipment protection type

intrinsic safety is limited by the conditions of interconnection.
If used other types of protection such as flameproof enclosure, encapsulation
enhanced security and interconnection conditions are applicable only to protected
circuits type of protection intrinsic safety.

REFERENCES

[1]. Arad, S., Arad, V., Lupu, L., The remote control of Electric Devices, Protection, Control
and Monitoring Systems. Industrial Electronics, 2006 IEEE International Symposium on,
Proceedings of IEEE, vol I, pp 267-272, Montreal, Que, 2006, ISSN 0018-9219, ISBN 1-4244-
0497-5. INSPEC Accession Number: 9132144, DOI 10.1109/ISIE.2006.295604.
[2]. Darie, M., (2009), Study regarding the ignition capability of potentially explosive
atmospheres from low currents electrical installations – Protection interfaces for low currents
installations in areas with hazard of explosive atmosphere, Partnerships Program execution
stage I.
[3]. Burian, S., Ionescu, Jeana., Darie, M., Csaszar, T., Andriş, Adriana., (2007)
Requirements for installations in areas with explosive atmosphere, other than mines,
INSEMEX – Petrosani Publishing House, ISBN: 978-973-88590-3-6.
[4]. Simion, S., Baron, Octavia., Basuc, Mariana (2004) Explosion risk, Europrint Publishing
House, Oradea.
[5]. Lupu, L., Paraian, M., Ghicioi, E., Arad, S., Selection of technical equipment intended
for use in underground firedamps mines, Proceedings of MPES2006, pp. 166-172, ISBN 88-
901342-4-0, Edited by M. Cardu, R. Ciccu, E. Lovera, E. Michelotti printed in Italy by
FIORDO srl-Galliate, Torino, Italy, 2006.
 Annals of the University of Petroşani, Electrical Engineering, 14 (2012)

CONSEQUENCES OF CONNECTION OF
MICROGENERATORS TO NATIONAL POWER GRID.
CASE STUDY

CONSTANTIN BEIU 1, GEORGETA BUICĂ 2, CORNEL TOADER 3

Abstract: Electric energy production from independent sources is a trend of current period,
driven by lower prices than the imports or production of energy from conventional sources. It
should be noted that Romania was among the first countries acceding to the EU, who adopted
the European Directive 2001/77/EC into national law, regarding Romania's energy strategy for
the period 2007-2020. However, these manufacturers of electricity from renewable sources
must take into account certain technical and economic requirements, prior to connect the
generators. Also the producer of energy must take into account the legal provisions in this field.
The case study presented in this paper will detail the effects of connecting the micro-generators
to the low voltage public network, calculating the values of induced voltage in the medium
voltage network through power transformers, this voltage reaching the rated voltage of the
medium network. This case study aims to show that the connection to the public network of the
electricity power generators, without the approval of the distribution and system operator may
cause dangerous situations for the network and workers.

Keywords: microgenerator, power, system, connection, voltage.

1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

The promotion of producing energy from alternative energy sources is a priority of

present times, motivated by environmental protection, limiting energy dependence on
imports, by diversifying energy supplying sources and reasons of economic and social
cohesion [5].
Romania was among the EU candidate countries which transposed Directive
2001/77/EC into their legislation provisions (GD 443/2003, with the change in GD
958/2005) and set an indicative target for 2012 of 33% representing the share of energy

1
PhD. Student Eng. at University Politehnica of Bucharest
2
PhD. Eng , INCDPM “Al. Darabont” Bucharest
3
PhD. Professor Eng. at University Politehnica of Bucharest
114 BEIU C., BUICĂ G., TOADER C.

from renewable sources in gross inland consumption of electricity. Subsequently, by

GD 1069/2007 on the approval of the Energy Strategy of Romania for 2007-2020 were
set targets of 35% in 2015 and 38% for 2020, represents the share of alternative energy
in gross inland consumption of electricity.
2. CONDITIONS FOR CONNECTING A DISTRIBUTED GENERATION
SOURCES TO NATIONAL POWER GRID (NPG)
2.1. Technical requirements for connection to NPG
We would like to remind the minimal technical conditions known and regulated by
parallel implementation of two power sources:
a. The terminal voltages and equal electromagnetic voltage (module and
argument);
b. Rigorous equal operating frequency.
c. The difference of phases at the coupling time of sources to be zero (implying the
electromagnetic phases to be equal and symmetrical).
Thus, the failure of implementing these minimum requirements does not allow
parallel connection to NPG of generators including micro generators.
It states that the solution for connection of power users [6] to NPG must be agreed
upon and approved by distribution system operators, as appropriate [7], as follows:
d. The connection to the public network fee assessment
In this respect, as required by law [6] was developed the connection fee, Trac ,
defined by the relation:
Trac = Tcap _ rac + Tinst _ rac + Trl _ pif (1)
The terms have the meanings:
Trac - is the rate of connection to electric networks of medium and / or low voltage in
lei;
Tcap_rac - corresponding component of power capacity reserved to the user upstream of
the point of connection, its size is determined as the product of the approved power, S,
expressed in kVA and a specific tariff ai expressed in lei/ kVA, established based on
average costs;
Tinst_rac - corresponding component of the connection network, its size is determined by
the type of network, connection length of the branch and approved power, based on
some specific indices bi, representing average costs per unit (km, kW, pcs. etc.);
Trl_pif - corresponding component of acceptance, and energizing the user’s network,
determined on the basis of rates.
The prices and specific indicators are set according to the methodology, are
proposed by distribution operators, approved by the competent authority (ANRE) and
they are reviewed annually [8].
e. The comparison of power and energy losses between energizing solutions: from
NPG, partly from NPG and partly from local sources, entirely from local sources;
f. The determination of permanent regime and hence the voltage level for the
connection configuration of the chosen distributed generation source;
g. The calculation of three-phase short circuit currents due to NPG, for short
circuits that occur in the network where distributed generation source are connected;
 CONSEQUENCES OF CONNECTION OF MICROGENERATORS TO NATIONAL 115
POWER GRID. CASE STUDY

h. The calculation of all relay protections adjustments involved in case of

breakdown;
i. The assessment, by calculation, of all power quality disturbances caused by
distributed generation source, connected to the public network, serving the users of
electricity.

2.1. Legislative recommendations for connecting to NPG

Taking into account the legislation in force [6, 8], there are the following
components:
a. Steps to achieve a power generation plant
‐ Obtaining the necessary building permits and authorizations,
‐ Achievement of the objectives,
‐ Obtain a license to produce electricity,
‐ Obtaining the qualification for priority production of electricity from the
production capacity,
‐ Registering to Market Operator and to the Green Certificates Market
Operator (SC OPCOM SA)
‐ Signing up to OTS (Transelectrica SA);
b. Documents issued by the county or local public administration
‐ Certificate of urbanism - including details of all notices to be achieved;
‐ Building permit.
c. Documents issued by the grid operator where the local source of electricity will
be connected to:
‐ Placement approval - issued according to Methodology for issuing the
placement approval accepted by ANRE Order no. 48/2008;
‐ Connection technical approval - issued under the Connection Regulation of
users to local public electric network, approved by GD no. 90/2008.
d. Documents issued de ANRE
‐ Permit of establishment, according to the Regulation for licensing and
authorization in the electricity sector, approved by GD 540/2004, with amendments,
approved by GD 553/2007;
‐ Electricity production license, according to the Regulation for licensing and
authorization in the electricity sector, approved by GD 540/2004, with amendments
approved by GD 553/2007;
‐ Qualification for electricity priority production, according to qualification
Regulation for priority production of electricity from renewable energy sources,
approved by ANRE Order no. 39/2006.

3. CALCULATION OF STEADY STATE OF THE POWER SYSTEMS

3.1. Algorithm for material parameters of local power system components

Figure 1 shows the one-phase diagram of a power system that analyzes the technical
conditions for connection of a local generator to the National Grid.
116 BEIU C., BUICĂ G., TOADER C.

Local synchronous micro generator connected to the consumer's bars has the
following rated data:
• Three fase aparent power Sngt = 100 kVA;
• Rated synchronous speed rotation Ω =100⋅π rad/s (nn = 3000 rot/min);
• Number of pole pairs p = 1 pole pairs
• Rated frequncy fn = 50 Hz
• Flowing voltage and curent

Fig. 1. Single-phase diagram of a distribution network

• direct sequence rated percentage syncronous reactance of xs ;

• Direct sequence rated percentage over - transient reactance x’’d;
• Direct sequence rated percentage transient reactance x’d .

With the rated data, it can be calculated quantities of material for micro-
generator mentioned above. Thus:
• the synchronous resistance of the synchronous micro generator reported to low
voltage Rs = 0.
• supratranzitorie directă a microgeneratorului sincron raportată la joasă tensiune
Rd = 0.
• direct over-transient resistence of the syncronous micro – generator reported to
low voltage Rd = 0.
• inverse transient resistance of the syncronous micro – generator reported to
low voltage Ri = 0.
• Syncronous reactance of the syncronous micro – generator reported to low
voltage.
• Direct over transient reactance of the syncronous micro-genarator reported to
low voltage.
• Inverse transient reactance of the three fase syncronous micro-generator reported
to low voltage.
The rated data of the three phase transformer are:
• Primary rated voltage (medium voltage) Un1 = 20 kV;
• Secondary rated voltage (low voltage) Un2 = 0,4 kV;
• Transformation ratio k12 = 50
• Winding conection Δ/yo or Y/zo, vector group 5 or 11;
• Aparent power Snt ;
• Rated active power losses for shortcircuit test ΔPsc ;
 CONSEQUENCES OF CONNECTION OF MICROGENERATORS TO NATIONAL 117
POWER GRID. CASE STUDY

• The rated percentage voltage for shortcircuit test usc ;

• Rated active power losses for not loaded test ΔPo ;
• Percentage electric curent for not loaded test io = 3,1%.
With the rated data, it can be calculated the transformer parameters as equivalent
diagram adopted for given sequence of the transformer, as follows:
• Transformer windings resistance relative to the medium voltage or low voltage.
• transformer windings impedance relative to medium voltage.
• transformer windings Reactance relative to medium voltage.
• Complex expression of transformer impedance relative to medium voltage.
• No-load apparent power.
• No-load active power Po.
• No-load reactive power of the transformer.
• Complex expression of no-load power of the transformer.

3.2. Local power system modeling

Single-phase equivalent circuit connected to the system shown in Figure 1 is shown
in Figure 2.For single-phase equivalent circuit connected to the system in Figure 1 is
drawn the vector diagram in Figure 3, which can model operating equations for the
steady state regimes (normal or fault - short circuit) for the analyzed power system. For
accurate modeling of the network it is proposed to represent the equivalent circuit in
Figure 3, in which are indicated: So - used power for no-load distribution transformer
from the supplier patrimony, Sc - equivalent full load of the user connected to the
distribution board and is defined by the expression:

Sc = Pc + j ⋅ Qc (2a)
π
U n mt ⎛ p ⎞ j⋅c⋅ 6
k= ⋅ ⎜1 ± ⋅e (2b)
U n jt ⎝ 100 ⎟⎠
Where
Unmt and Unjt rated voltage transformer windings, p - percentage value of the step
voltage control on a plug, c − transformer connection group and x - number of the plug
on which the transformer works.

Fig. 2. Connection diagram to the network of a micro-generator

The remaining quantities in Figures 3 and 4 are defined similar as powers So or Sc

and have the meanings:
118 BEIU C., BUICĂ G., TOADER C.

generator terminals;
Sg'' – Apparent power injected to low
voltage of micro-generator;
E – EMV behind the synchronous
reactance of the micro-generator;
Xd – Synchronous reactance connected
Fig. 3. Single phase diagram of the related to the low voltage of the micro-
system generator;
Ung – Rated voltage of the micro-
generator;
Sng – Apparent power of the micro-
generator;
xd – Rated percentage synchronous
reactance;
Psc – Rated active power losses of the
transformer;
uSC –percentage short circuit voltage
of the transformer;
UnT – rated winding voltage to which
Fig. 4. Vector diagram of the related
they are related;
system SnT – rated apparent power of the
transformer;
Sg – Flowing apparent power of the k – complex transformation operator
Micro-generators; defined in the relation (2b).
Sg ' – Apparent power to the micro-
Next will be presented relations needed to solve the steady state system. Thus,
apparent power of the generator can be defined by the relation:
Sg = S′g + ΔSg (3)

where the power losses associated with the generator are:

2 2
ΔSg = j ⋅ X d ⋅ S′g Ug (4)

and the apparent power injected to distribution board is defined as:

S′′g = S′g − Sc (5)
If the power losses associated with the transformer are:
2 −2
ΔST = ZT ⋅ S′o Uo (6)
If the voltage Uo, is known, then the rms values of the voltages Ug and E are
determined by relations:
S*o
U g = U o + ZT ⋅ şi
Uo
 CONSEQUENCES OF CONNECTION OF MICROGENERATORS TO NATIONAL 119
POWER GRID. CASE STUDY

( )
*
E = U g + j ⋅ X d ⋅ S′g U g (7)

With the above relations, was calculated steady state for three-phase generator
whose rated data are shown in Table 1, the data obtained are given below. Thus, Table
1 shows the material and consumption data and Table 2 shows the calculation results of
steady state, using appropriate relations [1-4].
Table 1. Quantities of material and consumption data of a synchronous micro-generator
connected to NPG
Generator connected to 0,4 kV Load of the generator
Sgn Ung In xd Xg Eg P3g Q3g S3g
kVA kV A % Ω kV kW kVAr kVA
200 0,4 166,7 125 1 0,46 8,1 16,8 18,6
200 0,4 166,7 125 1 0,47 18,1 23,5 29,7
200 0,4 166,7 125 1 0,50 33,2 33,6 47,2
200 0,4 166,7 125 1 0,53 48,2 43,6 65
200 0,4 166,7 125 1 0,56 63,3 53,7 83
200 0,4 166,7 125 1 0,59 78,4 63,7 101
200 0,4 166,7 125 1 0,63 93,5 73,8 119
200 0,4 166,7 125 1 0,67 108,5 83,8 137
200 0,4 166,7 125 1 0,71 123,6 93,9 155
Local user Windings
P3f λ Q3f S3f ΔPT ΔQT
kW kVAr kVA kW kVAr
5,0 0,83 3,4 6,0 2,53 7,26
15,0 0,83 10,1 18,1 2,59 7,24
30,0 0,83 20,2 36,1 2,65 7,22
45,0 0,83 30,2 54,2 2,72 7,19
60,0 0,83 40,3 72,3 2,79 7,17
75,0 0,83 50,4 90,4 2,86 7,14
90,0 0,83 60,5 108,4 2,93 7,11
105,0 0,83 70,6 126,5 3,01 7,07
120,0 0,83 80,6 144,6 3,09 7,04

Table 2. Results for a synchronous micro-generator connected to NPG

tablou de j.t. mers în gol transformator
Ug -θ ΔP o io ΔQ o Sn k Uo U2 ΔPsc uk
kV º kW % kVAr kVA kV kV kW %
0,421 0,018 0,525 3,1 6,178 200 50 0,420 21 2,9 4
0,415 0,018 0,525 3,1 6,178 200 50 0,415 21 2,9 4
0,410 0,019 0,525 3,1 6,178 200 50 0,410 21 2,9 4
0,405 0,019 0,525 3,1 6,178 200 50 0,405 20 2,9 4
0,400 0,020 0,525 3,1 6,178 200 50 0,400 20 2,9 4
0,395 0,021 0,525 3,1 6,178 200 50 0,395 20 2,9 4
0,390 0,021 0,525 3,1 6,178 200 50 0,390 20 2,9 4
0,385 0,022 0,525 3,1 6,178 200 50 0,385 19 2,9 4

0,380 0,023 0,525 3,1 6,178 200 50 0,380 19 2,9 4

120 BEIU C., BUICĂ G., TOADER C.

5. CONCLUSIONS

Table 2 leads to the conclusion that the public electrical network connecting micro-
generator may lead to the need to the following requirements:
a. Connection to the public network fee assessment
b. The comparison of power and energy losses between energizing solutions: from
NPG, partly from NPG and partly from local sources, entirely from local sources;
c. The determination of permanent regime and hence the voltage level for the
connection configuration of the chosen distributed generation source;
d. The calculation of three-phase short circuit currents due to NPG, for short
circuits that occur in the network where distributed generation source are connected;
e. The calculation of all relay protections adjustments involved in case of
breakdown;
f. The assessment, by calculation, of all power quality disturbances caused by
distributed generation source, connected to the public network, serving the users of
electricity;
g. Detecting dangerous situations that require intervention with trained staff ,
working with appropriate equipment;
h. The obligation of correct installation of measuring equipment and proper use of
the various portable earthing equipment in public distribution networks.
REFERENCES
[1] Eremia M., Electric Power Systems, Electric Networks, Editura Academiei Române,
Bucureşti (Romanian Academy Publishing House, Bucharest), 2006.
[2] Pătrăşcoiu S, Stabilitatea sistemelor electroenergetice. Aspecte clasice şi moderne.
Editura MatrixRom, Bucureşti (Stability of power systems. Classical and modern aspects.
MatrixRom Publishing House, Bucharest), 2000.
[3] Sorina Costinaş, Asigurarea calităţii serviciului de alimentare cu energie electrică.
Seria Electrotehnică – Electroenergetică, Editura AGIR, Bucureşti, 2012 (Ensuring quality
power supply service. Series Electrical - Power Systems, AGIR Publishing House, Bucharest,
2012).
[4] Toader, C., Golovanov, N., Postolache, P., Porumb, R., Beiu, C., Conditions of grid
connection distributed generation sources. 8th International Conference on Industrial Power
Engineering, April 14-15, 2011 – Bacău, România.
[5] . *** Legea nr.318 / 2003 - a energiei electrice (Law no 318/2003 – of Electric energy).
[6] . *** HG nr.867 / 2003 pentru aprobarea Regulamentului privind racordarea
utilizatorilor la reţelele electrice de interes public. (GD no. 867/2003 for approval of the
Regulation regarding the users’ connection to the public electricity networks ).
[7] . *** Codul Tehnic al Reţelelor Electrice de Distribuţie, aprobat prin Decizia ANRE nr.
101/2000 (Technical Code of electricity distribution networks, approved by ANRE Decision no.
101/2000);
[8] . *** Metodologie de stabilire a compensaţiilor băneşti între utilizatorii racordaţi în
etape diferite, prin instalaţie comună, la reţele electrice de distribuţie, Ordin ANRE nr.28/2003
(Methodology for determining compensations between connected users at different stages
through common installation, at electrical distribution networks, ANRE Order nr.28/2003);
[9] *** Connection criteria at the distribution network for distributed generation, Task
Force, C6.04.01, October, 2005.
 Annals of the University of Petroşani, Electrical Engineering, 14 (2012)

THE MODERN ESTIMATION OF POWER FACTOR

MARIA DANIELA STOCHIŢOIU1, ALIN CRISTIAN GRUBER2

Abstract: Energy is a product with great economic, social, strategic and political values. It
is indispensable for any country’s economy as for industries, services and human activities. The
power factor is an important quality indicator for efficiency estimation of electrical energy.

Key words: active energy, reactive factor of distorting, geometrical power factor.

1. INTRODUCTION

The power factor determination is made to estimate the additional power losses in
the electrical webs due to the reactive power circulation between the active power
transportation. The power factor has a value which is depending by the local electrical
web configuration and it is emphases by the supplier agreement of electrical energy for
each customer [3].
It is important that the power factor do not be lower than neutral power factor. If the
power factor is lower than 0,92 and bigger than 0,65, the value of reactive power
quantity is calculated with the reactive energy price corresponding of the voltage from
the delimitation node. If the power factor is lower than 0,65 the value of the reactive
power quantity is calculated third of energy power price [4].
For the sinus waves, the power factor is:

P
1≥ λ ≡ PF =
≥0 (1.1)
S
P U ⋅ I ⋅ cos ϕ
λ ≡ PF = = =cos ϕ ; 0 ≤ cos ϕ ≤ 1 (1.2)
S U ⋅I

P – the active power [ W];

Q – the reactive power [ VAR];

1
Associate Professor Eng., Ph.D. at University of Petrosani
2
Professor at School Group Aurel Vlaicu Lugoj
122 STOCHIŢOIU M.D., GRUBER A.C.

S – the apparent power [VA].

For the deforming waves, the power factor is:

P P
λ ≡ PF = = (1.3)
S P2 + Q2 + D2

D – the distorting power [VAD]

Based on the power factor, the electricity company’s manager can monitories the
energetic behaviour and can assure the lowest possible cost for the energy supply. The
industrial manager also can estimate the efficiency of the electrical energy, avoiding
the situations which lead to expensive technologies or to damage the electrical devices.

2. THE MODERN ESTIMATION OF POWER FACTOR

The relation (1.3) can be written using the reactive factor and the distorting factor.
[1]
- the reactive factor of distorting status is define as the ratio between the reactive
power and the active power:
Q
ρ= (1.4)
P
- the distorting factor represents the ratio between distorting power and the
undistorting power:
D
τ = (1.5)
P + Q2
2

So,
P P P2 + Q2
λ ≡ PF = = . = cos ϕ . cos ξ (1.6)
S P2 + Q2 P2 + Q2 + D2

Where,
P2 + Q2
cos ξ = <1 (1.7)
P2 + Q2 + D2
In dependence with the reactive power and the distorting power, the relation (1.3)
becomes:

1 1
λ ≡ PF = . (1.8)
1+ ρ 2 1+τ 2
 THE MODERN ESTIMATION OF POWER FACTOR 123

The definition of the power factor doesn’t show the using level of available power
in the electrical web in the deformed regime, because the harmonically sources even
are the nonlinear receptors not the generators.
The term cos ϕ must be use only the variation in time of voltage and the current
waves are nonsinusoidal.
- the fundamental power factor and the true power factor [1]
It is necessary to have in view the electrical energy quality in the interface node of
supplier – customer taking in account the extending of nonlinearity of loads.
The supplier has the duty to deliver a voltage which has the wave characterized by the
true value of power factor of distorting the accepted limit.
For the low and average voltage webs the total distorting factor must be under 8%
conforming the European Standards EN 50160. The accepted levels of harmonics are
prescript by the same standard, too.
The supplier requires some limits of perturbation determined on the current wave as
the voltage does not be affected and to respect some standards quality indicators. The
devices used for monitories an analysis of electrical energy quality are showing two
values, one for the fundamental harmonic DPF and another one for the total power
factor PF .
Between these values can appear large difference and an uninformed energetic
engineering can take wrong decisions for compensation measurements of reactive
power using battery of condensators which can affect the quality energy due to the
amplification of harmonics.
DPF – the fundamental power factor at 50/60 Hz:
P1
λ1 ≡ DPF = cos ϕ1 = (1.9)
S1

PF – the total power factor:

P P
λ ≡ PF = = (1.10)
S U ⋅I
The PF includes the influences of harmonics above the active power and the
apparent power giving informations about the efficiency of the active power.
The active power in the no sinus regime is given by the sum of the active powers
corresponding of which harmonics:
P= ∑U I cos(α h − β h ) =
h h ∑U h h I cos(ϕ h ) = P1 + PH (1.11)
h =1 h =1

P1 - is the fundamental active power

P1 = U 1 I 1 cos ϕ1
PH - is the active power of each harmonic
124 STOCHIŢOIU M.D., GRUBER A.C.

PH = ∑U I cos(ϕ h )
h h
h ≠1
S1- is the apparent power of fundamental:
2 2
S 1 = U 1 ⋅ I 1 ; S 1 = P 21 + Q1 (1.12)
S- is the harmonical apparent power
( )(
S = (U ⋅ I ) = U 12 + U H2 I 12 + I H2 = S12 + S H2
2
)
(1.13)
The power factor can be defined by introducting the distorting factor THD for
current and fort the voltage.

IH ∑I 2
h
UH ∑U 2
h
k DI ≡ THD I = = h ≠1
2
(1.14); k DU ≡ THDU = = h ≠1
(1.15)
I1 I 1 U1 U 12
P P1 + PH (P / S )[1 + (PH / P1 )] =
So, λ ≡ PF = = = 1 1
S 2
S1 + S H
2
1 + (S N2 / S12 )
[1 + (PH / P1 )] ⋅ DPF (1.16)
1 + THD12 + THDU2 + (THDI ⋅ THDU )
2

Due to the distorting residue of the active power is more lower than the
PH
fundamental active power PH << P1 , so << 1 .
P1
For THD U < 5% and THD I > 40%, the relation between the total power factor and
the fundamental power factor is :
1 I1
λ ≡ PF = ⋅ DPF = ⋅ cos ϕ1 (1.17)
1 + THD I2 I
Where: I 1 - is the effective value of fundamental component of current;
I- is the effective value of nonsinusoidal current;
ϕ1 - is the phase between the fundamental component of the current and the
voltage waves.
The distribution operator can request some filters in the common coupling node for
reduce the electrical perturbation in standard limits, where the customer has nonlinear
loads which can produce an important current distortion THD I > 20%.
- the arithmetical power factor and geometrical power factor nonechilibrated
systems :
S a represents the arithmetical apparent power [VA]
Sa = ∑S
x ⊂ A , B ,C
x = S A + S B + SC = (1.18)

SA = PA2 + Qa2 ; S B = PB2 + QB2 ; S C = PC2 + QC2

 THE MODERN ESTIMATION OF POWER FACTOR 125

S A, B ,C , P A, B ,C , Q A, B ,C - represent the apparent power, active power and the reactive

power on the three phases.
S g - represents the geometrical power [VA]:
Sg = P2 + Q2 (1.19)
P= ∑P
x ⊂ A , B ,C
x = PA + PB + PC ; Q = ∑Q
x ⊂ A, B , C
x = Q A + QB + QC

Sg = PA + PB + PC +j( Q A + QB + QC ) = P + jQ (1.20)
The arithmetical power factor is defined by:
P
λa ≡ PFa = = ( PA + PB + PC )/( S A + S B + S C ) (1.21)
Sa
The geometrical power factor is defined by:
P
λ g ≡ PFg = = ( PA + PB + PC )/( S A + S B + S C ) (1.22)
Sg
S A = PA +j Q A ; S B = PB +j QB ; S C = PC +j QC

3.THE MODERN PROCEEDINGS FOR POWER FACTOR

MEASUREMENT

For the apparent power measurement there are two ways:

1) using the based measurement devices with induction counter, where the apparent
power is calculated based on the active power measurement and of the reactive power:
S PQ = P 2 + Q 2 ; P = PA + PB + PC ; Q = Q A + QB + QC ; (1.23)
There also was developing digital counter which determ the apparent power in
conforming by relation (1.23).
2.) using digital miscellaneous which are measuring the apparent power based on
the sectional voltage and current:
S = U A I A +U B I B +U C I C (1.24)
Where I A , I B , I C and U A , U B , U C are the RMS values of the line currents and the
phase voltages. Due to are using two methods for apparent power measurement, the
power factor is calculated in two way:
P P P P
PFPQ = = (1.25); PFUI = = (1.26)
S PQ P2 + Q2 SUI U A I A + U B I B + U C I C
When the current wave is unbalanced, the value S PQ will be lower than SUI . This
difference is produced that the actual counter give us incorrect information in the
distorting regime. The causes which determ a reduced power factor are:
126 STOCHIŢOIU M.D., GRUBER A.C.

P
- the asynchronous motors function having a loading factor β <1 ( β = )
Pn
[
Q = Qn ⋅ α + (1 − α )β 2 ] (1.27)
Q0
α= Represents the ratio between the reactive power when β =0 and the reactive
Qn
power when β =1.The power factor is decreasing when β <0,5.
P β Qn
λ ≡ PF ≡ cos ϕ = = ; tgϕ n = (1.28)
β 2 + [α + (1 − α )β 2 ] tgϕ n
2
P +Q
2 2 Pn
- the transformer operating with an average apparent power lower than nominal
S
apparent power, β = - represents the loading factor of the transformer;
S0

Q = n ⋅ (I 0 + k f ⋅ β 2 ⋅ u sc )
S
(1.29)
100
- the existing of transformers on the supply lines;
- the reactive power consumption on the delivery electrical webs.
QL= ω⋅L⋅I2 ; Q C = ω ⋅ C ⋅U 2 (1.30)

3. CONCLUSIONS

The apparent power factor can be estimated like the maximum transferable of the
active power when the voltages and the line losses are constant. The ratio P/S is an
indicator of using the active power. The estimation of the electrical energy cost based
on the total power factor doesn’t supply information above their electrical behavior and
doesn’t allow taking in account the losses on electrical webs, for the customers with
the emphasing nonlinear characteristics. The PF includes the harmonics influences
above the apparent power and give us information about the active power using
efficiency PF ≤ DPF. The optimization of the system (mounting the battery of
condensators or the active filters) requires a completed examination of the alternatives
because the problem of improvement of power factor is in dependence with the
necessity of elimination the unsinus regime.

REFERENCES

[1]. Ionescu Golovanov C. Masurarea marimilor electrice in sistemul electroenergetic,

Editura Academiei Romane, Bucuresti 2009.
[2]. Dumitriu L., s.a. Teoria circuitelor electrice, Editura Matrixrom, Bucuresti 2007.
[3]. Orban M.D. s.a. Electrotehnica si masini electrice, Editura Academica Brancusi, Tg
Jiu, 2002.
[4]. Orban M.D., Marcu M.D., Popescu F.G. About of electrical energy quality and the
deforming state due to electronic devices. SNET( Simpozionul Naţional de Electrotehnică
Teoretică), 14-16 octombrie 2007, Bucureşti, UPB.
 Annals of the University of Petroşani, Electrical Engineering, 14 (2012)

CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING THE TESTS IN

EXPLOSIVE MIXTURES MADE UPON THE ELECTRICAL
APPARATUS WITH THE TYPE OF PROTECTION
FLAMEPROOF ENCLOSURE “d”

LUCIAN MOLDOVAN1, MARTIN FRIEDMANN2, MIHAI MAGYARI3,

DRAGOŞ FOTĂU4

Abstract: The type of protection flameproof enclosure applies generally to electrical

apparatus which in normal operation produces electrical arcs and sparks, and consists in placing
the parts that could ignite an explosive atmosphere inside of an enclosure that can withstand the
pressure developed during an internal explosion of an explosive mixture and which prevents the
explosion transmission to the explosive atmosphere surrounding the enclosure. The paper
presents the most important aspects that must be taken into account when running tests in
explosive mixtures (determination of explosion pressure, overpressure test, test for non-
transmission of an internal ignition) for verification of flameproof character of the enclosure for
explosion-proof electrical equipments with the type of protection flameproof enclosure.

Keywords: flameproof enclosure, reference pressure, overpressure, non-transmission.

1. GENERALITIES

Explosion proof electrical apparatus, with the type of protection flameproof

enclosure „d”, is included in one (or possible both) of the following two groups [6]:
- Group I: electrical apparatus for mines susceptible to firedamp;
- Group II: electrical apparatus for places with an explosive gas atmosphere other
than mines susceptible to firedamp.
For the type of protection flameproof enclosure, group II electrical apparatus is
divided in 3 subgroups: IIA, IIB and IIC.

1
PhD.eng. IIIrd degree scientific researcher, INCD INSEMEX Petroşani,
2
PhD.eng. Ist degree scientific researcher, INCD INSEMEX Petroşani,
3
PhD.eng. IInd degree scientific researcher, INCD INSEMEX Petroşani,
4
Eng. scientific research assistant, INCD INSEMEX Petroşani,
128 MOLDOVAN L., FRIEDMANN M., MAGYARI M., FOTĂU D.

This dividing of group II in 3 subgroups (for the type of protection flameproof

enclosure) was made in the basis of the maximum experimental security gap (MESG),
which is decreasing in value from group IIA to Group IIC, as follows:
- in IIA subgroup are included gases with MESG > 0,9 mm;
- in IIB subgroup are included gases with 0,5 mm < MESG < 0,9 mm;
- in IIC subgroup are included gases with MESG < 0,5 mm.
The specific elements that ensure the protection to explosion for a flameproof “d”
equipment are represented by flameproof joints. A flameproof joint represents the
place where the corresponding surfaces of two parts of an enclosure, or the conjunction
of enclosures, come together, and which prevents the transmission of an internal
explosion to the explosive atmosphere surrounding the enclosure [4],[5].
There are three types of flameproof joints: non-treaded, threaded and special joints.
The non-treaded joints category includes: flanged, cylindrical, spigot and serrated
joints.
The threaded joints category includes the cylindrical threaded joints and taper
threaded joints.
The special joints category includes the cemented joints, labyrinth joints and
floating gland joints.
Non-treaded flameproof joints are characterized by two parameters: the width and
the gap of the joint.
The width of flameproof joint, L, represents the shortest path through a flameproof
joint from the inside to the outside of an enclosure [1],[5].
The gap of flameproof joint, i, represents the distance between the corresponding
surfaces of a flameproof joint when the electrical apparatus enclosure has been
assembled. For cylindrical surfaces, forming cylindrical joints, the gap is the difference
between the diameters of the bore and the cylindrical component [4], [5].
For certification of electrical apparatus with the type of protection flameproof
enclosure, this is subjected to type and routine tests [1].
In the type tests category are included, beside others, the tests in explosive mixtures
which are in fact the most important tests in order to verify the safety of this type of
protection [1].
In the routine tests category is included the overpressure routine test, which have
the purpose of verifying enclosure resistance to pressure and that the enclosure does
not contain holes or cracks connecting to the exterior [1].
The tests in explosive atmospheres are divided in 3 categories:

2. DETERMINATION OF EXPLOSION PRESSURE [5]

The reference pressure is the highest value of the maximum smoothed pressure,
relative to atmospheric pressure, observed during these tests.
Each test consists of igniting an explosive mixture inside the enclosure and
measuring the pressure developed by the explosion.
The number of tests to be made and the explosive mixture to be used, in volumetric
ratio with air and at atmospheric pressure, are as follows:
– electrical apparatus of Group I: three tests with (9,8 ± 0,5) % methane;
 CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING THE TESTS IN EXPLOSIVE MIXTURES 129
MADE UPON THE ELECTRICAL APPARATUS WITH THE TYPE OF PROTECTION
FLAMEPROOF ENCLOSURE “d”

– electrical apparatus of Group IIA: three tests with (4,6 ± 0,3) % propane;
– electrical apparatus of Group IIB: three tests with (8 ± 0,5) % ethylene;
– electrical apparatus of Group IIC: three tests with (14 ± 1) % acetylene and three
tests with (31 ± 1) % hydrogen.

3. OVERPRESSURE TEST [5]

This test shall be made using either of the following methods, which are considered
as equivalent.
a) Overpressure test – First method (static)
The relative pressure applied shall be
- 1,5 times the reference pressure, with a minimum of 3,5 bar, or
- 4 times the reference pressure for enclosures not subject to routine overpressure
testing, or
- at the following pressures, when reference pressure determination has been
impracticable.
Volume Pressure
Group
cm3 bar
≤10 I, IIA, IIB, IIC 10
>10 I 10
>10 IIA, IIB 15
>10 lIC 20

The period of application of the pressure shall be at least 10 s and the test is made
once.
b) Overpressure test – Second method (dynamic)
The dynamic tests shall be carried out in such a way that the maximum pressure to
which the enclosure is subjected is 1,5 times the reference pressure, but with a
minimum of 3,5 bar.
When the test is carried out with mixtures specified for the determination of the
reference pressure, these may be precompressed to produce an explosion pressure of
1,5 times the reference pressure.
The test shall be made once only except for electrical apparatus of Group IIC for
which each test shall be made three times with each gas.

4.TEST FOR NON-TRANSMISSION OF AN INTERNAL IGNITION [5]

Gaskets shall be removed and the enclosure is placed in a test chamber. The same
explosive mixture is introduced into the enclosure and the test chamber, at atmospheric
pressure.
The flamepath lengths (engagement) of threaded joints of the test specimen(s) shall
be reduced according to Table 1.
130 MOLDOVAN L., FRIEDMANN M., MAGYARI M., FOTĂU D.

Flanged gaps of spigot joints, where the width of the joint L consists only of a
cylindrical part shall be enlarged to values of 1 mm for Groups I and IIA, 0,5 mm for
Group IIB and 0,3 mm for Group IIC.
Table 1. Reduction in length of a threaded joint for non-transmission test

Reduction in length by
Type of threaded joint Groups I, IIA and IIB Group IIC
3.1 a) 3.1 b) 3.2 a) 3.2 b)
Cylindrical, complying with No No No No
ISO 965, fit medium or better reduction reduction reduction reduction
Cylindrical, with larger tolerances 1/3 1/2 1/2 1/3
than permitted above
Taper thread (NPT) No No No No
reduction reduction reduction reduction

4.1 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS OF GROUPS I, IIA AND IIB [5]

a) The gaps iE of the enclosure shall be at least equal to 90 % of the maximum

constructional gaps iC as specified in the manufacturer's drawings (0,9 iC ≤ iE ≤ iC).
The explosive mixtures to be used, in volumetric ratio with air and at atmospheric
pressure, are as follows:
– electrical apparatus of Group I: (12,5 ± 0,5) % methane-hydrogen [(58 ± 1) %
methane and (42 ± 1) % hydrogen] (MESG = 0,8 mm);
– electrical apparatus of Group IIA: (55 ± 0,5) % hydrogen (MESG = 0,65 mm);
– electrical apparatus of Group IIB: (37 ± 0,5) % hydrogen (MESG = 0,35 mm).
If the gaps of a test specimen do not fulfill the above condition, one of the
following methods may be used for the type test for non-transmission of an internal
ignition:
– a gas/air mixture with a smaller MESG value:
Group iE / iC Mixture
Group I ≥0,75 55 % H2 ± 0,5
≥0,6 50 % H2 ± 0,5
Group IIA ≥0,75 50 % H2 ± 0,5
≥0,6 45 % H2 ± 0,5
Group IIB ≥0,75 28 % H2 ± 1
≥0,6 28 % H2 ± 1
at 1,4 bar

– precompression of the normal test mixtures according to the following formula:

iC
Pk = × 0,9 (1)
iE

where Pk is the precompression factor.

 CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING THE TESTS IN EXPLOSIVE MIXTURES 131
MADE UPON THE ELECTRICAL APPARATUS WITH THE TYPE OF PROTECTION
FLAMEPROOF ENCLOSURE “d”

b) If enclosures of Groups IIA and IIB could be destroyed or damaged by the test
for non-transmission of an internal ignition, it is permitted that the test be made by
increasing the gaps above the maximum values specified by the manufacturer. The
enlargement factor of the gap is 1,42 for Group IIA electrical apparatus and 1,85 for
Group IIB electrical apparatus. The explosive mixtures to be used in the enclosure and
in the test chamber, in volumetric ratio with air and at atmospheric pressure, are as
follows:
- electrical apparatus of Group IIA:
(4,2 ± 0,1) % propane;
- electrical apparatus of Group IIB:
(6,5 ± 0,5) % ethylene.
The test for non-transmission of an internal ignition shall be made five times. The
test result is considered satisfactory if the ignition is not transmitted to the test
chamber.

4.2 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS OF GROUP LIC [5]

The following methods can be used for this test:

a) First method
All gaps of joints other than threaded joints shall be increased to the value
iE = 1,5 × iC with a minimum of 0,1 mm for flanged joints;
where iE is the test gap;
iC is the maximum constructional gap, as specified on the manufacturer's
drawings.
The following explosive mixtures, in volumetric ratio with air and at atmospheric
pressure, are to be used in the enclosure and in the test chamber:
– (27,5 ± 1,5) % hydrogen, and
– (7,5 ± 1) % acetylene.
Five tests shall be made with each mixture. If the apparatus is intended for use
solely with hydrogen or solely with acetylene, the tests shall be made only with the
corresponding gas mixture.

b) Second method
The enclosure shall be tested with a test gap iE according to the following formula:
0,9 iC ≤ iE ≤ iC
The enclosure and the test chamber are filled with one of the gas mixtures specified
for the first method at a pressure equal to 1,5 times atmospheric pressure.
The test shall be carried out five times with each explosive mixture.
Alternatively, if the gaps of a test specimen do not fulfil the above condition, by
agreement between the testing station and the manufacturer, the following method may
be used.
132 MOLDOVAN L., FRIEDMANN M., MAGYARI M., FOTĂU D.

Precompression of the normal test mixtures according to the following formula:

i
Pk = C × 1,35 (2)
iE

where Pk is the precompression factor.

With help of (1) and (2) formulas, the pressure of the explosive mixture could be
calculated for different values of iE/iC ratio, issue presented in figure 1 [1].

Fig.1. Influence of iE/iC ratio over the testing mixture pressure

From the diagram it observes that for small values of the testing gap relative to the
constructive gap, high values of the testing mixture pressure are obtained; and for the
testing gap values smaller than those of the constructive gap, smaller values of the
explosive mixture pressure are obtained, possible smaller even than the atmospheric
pressure. Because of this reason, in case of testing gap value higher than the
constructive gap value, the non-transmission of an internal ignition test for a IIC group
equipment will be done at the overpressure of 1,5 atmospheric pressure [1].
For apparatus with flamepaths, other than threaded joints, and intended for use at an
ambient temperature above 60 °C, the non-transmission tests shall be conducted under
one of the following conditions [5]:
– at a temperature not less than the specified maximum ambient temperature;
– at normal ambient temperature using the defined test mixture at increased
pressure according to the factors in Table 2;
– at normal atmospheric pressure and temperature, but with the test gap iE
increased by the factors noted in Table 2.
 CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING THE TESTS IN EXPLOSIVE MIXTURES 133
MADE UPON THE ELECTRICAL APPARATUS WITH THE TYPE OF PROTECTION
FLAMEPROOF ENCLOSURE “d”

Table 2 – Test factors to increase pressure or test gap (iE)

Temperature Group IIC

Group I Group IIA Group IIB
up to 27,5 % H2
12,5 % CH4/H2 55 % H2 37 % H2
°C 7,5 % C2H2
60 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,50
70 1,06 1,05 1,04 1,67
80 1,07 1,06 1,05 1,70
90 1,08 1,07 1,06 1,73
100 1,09 1,08 1,06 1,74
110 1,10 1,09 1,07 1,77
120 1,11 1,10 1,08 1,80
125 1,12 1,11 1,09 1,83

During the tests in explosive mixtures it was observed that, when the enclosure of
the equipment has the internal free volume in the form of a mono volume regular
geometric shape (cylinder, parallelepiped, cube, sphere), the pressure curve resulted
after the test for determination of explosion (reference) pressure has a pattern like the
one presented in fig. 2.

Fig. 2. Pattern of a reference pressure curve obtained when testing a IIC group equipment with
internal free volume in the form of a regular geometric shape
134 MOLDOVAN L., FRIEDMANN M., MAGYARI M., FOTĂU D.

Also, in case of equipments with the internal free volume in the form of a regular
geometric shape, when performing the overpressure test, with an air-gas mixture at 1,5
bar, the pattern of the pressure curve remains the same as in case of reference pressure
determination, and the maximum pressure is approximately 1,5 times higher than in
case of reference pressure determination.
When testing equipments with enclosures having the internal free volume divided in
two or more compartments that communicate between them through small orifices (for
example the enclosure of an electric motor) the pattern of the pressure curve resulted
after the test for determination of explosion (reference) pressure is like the one
presented in fig. 3.

Fig. 3. Pattern of a reference pressure curve obtained when testing a IIC group equipment with
multiple compartments communicating between them

In this case the pressure pilling phenomena (which represents the results of an
ignition, in a compartment or subdivision of an enclosure, of a gas mixture
precompressed, for example, due to a primary ignition in another compartment or
subdivision) occurs, resulting in higher values of the pressure than in case of non-
compartmented enclosures.
Also, in case of equipments with the internal free volume which is divided in two or
more compartments that communicate between them through small orifices when
performing the overpressure test with a mixture of air-gas at 1,5 bar, the maximum
pressure can be higher than 1,5 times the maximum value obtained in case of reference
pressure determination (fig. 4).
 CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING THE TESTS IN EXPLOSIVE MIXTURES 135
MADE UPON THE ELECTRICAL APPARATUS WITH THE TYPE OF PROTECTION
FLAMEPROOF ENCLOSURE “d”

Fig. 4. Pattern of an overpressure curve obtained when testing a IIC group equipment with
multiple compartments communicating between them

4. CONCLUSIONS

This paper revealed the influence of the gap over the precompression factor of the
explosive mixture for the non-transmission of an internal ignition test.
Also, some pressure curves obtained during testing of flameproof enclosure
equipment were analysed in order to underline the pressure pilling phenomena that can
occur in case of equipment enclosures with multiple compartments that communicate
between them. It is not recommended that the pressure pilling to occur when testing the
enclosures in explosive mixture because of the high stresses to which the enclosure is
subjected during the tests, higher than in normal conditions (without the
precompression of the gas).
It is recommended that the manufacturers to find the best solutions for the
enclosures of the flameproof enclosure equipments in order to prevent, as much as
possible, the occurrence of pressure pilling when running the tests in explosive
mixtures.
It is also recommended for the manufacturers of electrical explosionproof apparatus
with the type of protection flameproof enclosure, that all the flameproof joints to have
the values of the gap in the range of 0,9 iC ≤ iE ≤ iC, for the sample that will be tested in
explosive mixtures.
136 MOLDOVAN L., FRIEDMANN M., MAGYARI M., FOTĂU D.

REFERENCES:

[1].Arad, S., Stepanescu, I., Lupu, L., Numerical analysis for heat transfer in normal
regime of a flame-proof transformer, Proceedings Simpozion naţional de Electrotehnică
teoretică SNET07 Ed. Printech, pp 198- 203, 567 pgs., sec. E, ISBN 987-973-718-899-1,
Bucuresti, 2007.
[2].Lupu, L., Paraian, M., Ghicioi, E., Arad, S., Selection of technical equipment
intended for use in underground firedamps mines, Proceedings of MPES2006, pp. 166-172,
ISBN 88-901342-4-0, Edited by M. Cardu, R. Ciccu, E. Lovera, E. Michelotti printed in Italy
by FIORDO srl-Galliate, Torino, Italy, 2006.
[3].Moldovan L., Friedmann M., Magyari M., Aspects regarding the influence of the
flameproof joints gap on the tests in explosive mixtures for electrical apparatus with flameproof
enclosure type of protection, The works of the VIIIth International Symposia „Young people and
Multidisciplinary Research”, Timişoara, 2006, ISBN-10 973-8359-39-2, ISBN-13 978-973-
8359-39-0.
[4].Moldovan L., Friedmann M., Underlining the technical and safety characteristics for
explosionproof electrical apparatus with type of protection flameproof enclosure, International
Symposia Safety and Health at Work - SESAM 2007, ISSN 1843-6226.
[5].*** SR EN 60079-1:2008, Explosive atmospheres - Part 1: Equipment protection by
flameproof enclosures "d", ASRO, 2008.
[6].*** SR EN 60079-0:2010, Explosive atmospheres - Part 0: Equipment – General
requirements, ASRO, 2010.
 INDEX OF AUTHORS
A M
ARAD S., 85 MAGYARI M., 123
MANČIĆ D., 47
B
MARCU M.D., 101
BARBU C., 17, 23, 41, 61, 75
MÂNDRESCU C, 5
BEIU S., 115
MOLDOVAN L. 123
BOGDANFFY L., 55
BUBATU R., 17, 41, 61 P
BUICĂ G., 115 PANTOVIĆ R., 47
BURIAN S., 93, 109 PĂRĂIAN M., 93
PĂTRĂŞCOIU N., 23
C
PĂUN F., 93
CSASZAR T., 109
POANTĂ A., 33
D POP E., 17, 41, 55, 61, 75
DAMNJANOVIĆ Z., 47 POP M., 41
DARIE M., 109 POPESCU F.G., 101
DINOIU A.N., 75
R
E ROŞULESCU C., 23
EGRI A., 67
S
F SÎRB V.C., 67
FOTĂU D., 123 SLUSARIUC R., 101
FRIEDMANN M., 123 SOCHIRCĂ B., 33
G STOCHIŢOIU M.D., 133
GHICIOI E., 93 STOICUŢA O., 5, 67

I T
IONESCU J., 109 TOADER C., 115

J V
JITEA I.C., 75 VAMVU P., 17, 61
JURCA A., 93 VĂTAVU N. 93

L
LAZAREVIĆ D., 47
LUPU L., 93

REVIEWERS
Assoc. Prof. dr. ing. Susana Arad Prof. dr. ing. Aron Poanta
Prof. dr. ing. Ion Fotau Prof. dr. ing. mat. Emil Pop
Assoc. Prof. dr. ing. Corneliu Mandrescu Assoc. Prof. dr. ing. Ilie Utu
Assoc. Prof. dr. ing. Nicolae Patrascoiu