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POLICE
PHOTOG
RAPHY (FOR REFERENCE ONLY)

PART I
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INTRODUCTION TO PHOTOGRAPHY
Overview

Photography of contemporary society is a science

itself and an art, an analysis and documentation
methods, artistic vocation, and different kinds of
applied activity. In modern scientific crime detection,
photography is, indeed, an excellent aid of the
investigator. It was the consequences of the
observation made by chemists, Physicist and
scientists.

However, the basis of modern photography was

introduced in 1839 by Fox Talbot. The photographs of
criminals were used to supplement the Bertillon
system of personal identification. Presently, the
application of photography in Law enforcement is of
vital importance. The outmost used of it is for record
purposes. Photography can preserved all perishable
evidence.

Photography can be used not only in the

identification of person but it can also be used in the
identification of articles and things which may be the
object of investigation. There is a saying, that what
man could see can be recorded thru photography,
while in the contrary, and there are things that can
only be visible thru photography.

Historical Development
Long before the first photographs were made,
Chinese philosopher Mo Di and Greek
mathematicians Aristotle and Euclid described a
pinhole camera in the 5th and 4th centuries BC. In
the 6th century AD, Byzantine mathematician
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Anthemius of Tralles used a type of camera obscura

in his experiments, Bin al-Haytham—Alhazen-965–
1040, studied the camera obscura and pinhole
camera.

Photography as a usable process goes back to

the 1820s with the development of chemical
photography. The first permanent photo-etching was
an image produced in 1822 by the French inventor
Nicéphore Niépce, but it was destroyed by a later
attempt to duplicate it. Niépce was successful again
in 1825. He made the first permanent photograph
from nature with a camera obscura in 1826.

However, because the photographs took so long

to expose—eight hours, he sought to find a new
process. Working in conjunction with Louis Daguerre,
they experimented with silver compounds based on a
Johann Heinrich Schultz discovery in 1816 that a
silver and chalk mixture darkens when exposed to
light.
In 1884, George Eastman developed the
technology of film to replace photographic plates,
leading to the technology used by film cameras
today. In 1908 Gabriel Lippmann won the Nobel
Laureate in Physics for his method of reproducing
colors photographically based on the phenomenon of
interference, also known as the Lippmann plate.
What is Photography?
Photography is defined as the art or process of
producing images of object upon a surface sensitive
to the chemical action of light. Going along the
definition given, the image or objects will not be
produced as seen by the naked eye. The resulting
photographic image will be a shadow and not
permanent. Elements of photography must be
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present to produce a photograph. Light reflected by

the subject or objects must affects the sensitized
materials and all other lights must be excluded.
Placing the sensitized material inside the camera can
exclude all other lights.

PART II
FORENSIC LIGHT SOURCE
Light is the subject matter discussed by
physicists and chemist, wherein agreement as to the
nature of light is still vague? Dutch Physicist,
Hughens had proposed the wave theory, based on
the transmission of motion along the surface of
water. The wave theory was later opposed by the
theory that light exert its effects through the motion
of a very small particles, which has been modified or
replaced by the explanations of Maxwell and Hertz
based on Electromagnetic.
Speed of Light
The speed of light is always constant. The
average speed of light is 186,000 miles per second.
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However, the wave length of the rays of light may

vary considerably. Light must be regarded in broad
sense, as including not only what apparent to the
naked eye, but all energy radiated in the form of
electromagnetic vibration must also be considered
without unnecessary complication of the matters.
Then it may be said that said vibration are usually
defined by their wave length.
Wave Length
On 1666, Isaac Newton proved that the light men
see as white is a mixture of all colors of the
spectrum. When he passed a beam of sunlight
thought a glass prism, it produces the rainbow array
of hues of the visible spectrum. The color from top to
bottom is red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet.
The wave length of the visible le spectrum is from
400 to 700 millimicrons. One millimicron is
equivalent to one millionth part of a millimeter.
Light that cannot be detected by the naked eye is
the invisible spectrum. The left region of the visible
light is called the ultra violet region; the wave of
length of it is from 400 to 200 millimicrons. The right
region of the visible light is called the infra red region
which is too long in wave length to excite the retina
of the eye. Ti is detected by the skin as heat.
Visible Light
The range of the visible light produces different
sensation when they strike the human eye. Colors of
different objects are usually mixture of light of
various wave lengths and not a special color. The
wave length of the visible light is from 400 to 700
millimicrons which will produce white light. When
light falls on any material, these things occur, i.e.,
the light is reflected; the light is absorbed, and the
light is transmitted.

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Ultra Violet Light

The ultra violet light is divided into the near and
far ultraviolet and ranges from about 30 to 400
millimicrons wave length. This ray of light is invisible
like the infrared rays. The position of the ultra violet
region falls between the shortest rays visible to the
human eye and the x ray region of longest wave
length. The reaction of the constituents under
ultraviolet light is the underlying notion in ultraviolet
photography.
Some constituents give up energy in the form of
visible light that produces a fluorescence effect.
Other constituents only changed in color on its
application. These differences in reaction of
substances help to a great extent in distinguishing
one substance from another.
Infrared Light
Infrared lights are lights having a wave length
greater than 700 millimicrons. Its wave length ranges
from 700 to 1000 millimicrons. Infrared is not a color
or any kind of red. It is invisible rays. As already
stated herein, the infrared is detected by the human
skin as heat. It is so called infrared because they
adjoin the red spectrum. Infra-red means below the
red. These rays of light although invisible is
important in law enforcement photography because
it permits results to be obtained which are not
possible with only invisible infrared region of the
spectrum when strikes by blue-green light.
X-Rays
X-rays are electromagnetic energy having a wave
length that ranges between 01 to 30 millimicrons.
Objects which are opaque as seen by the naked eye
can be penetrated by x-rays to produce a shadow
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photograph of one internal structure of solid objects,

x-rays is suitable.
Sources of Light
There are two sources of light, they are known as
the natural and artificial. Natural lights are lights
which come to existence without the intervention of
man and artificial lights are lights which are man-
made light. In photography, natural light is used for
outdoor photography and artificial light are utilize in
indoor photography to augment the adverse lighting
condition.
Natural Light
The source of all daylight is the sun. The
combination of color and contrast ascertains the
quality of the day light. The lighting contrast depends
upon the sunlight available in the daylight, when the
sun is not covered by clouds. Then the contrast is
high, contrary if the sun is covered by the clouds the
contrast is low. In the process of photographing an
object, the lighting contrast must be considered in
the exposure of the film.
Some of the factors affecting the color of the day
light are; atmospheric vapor, atmospheric dust and
reflected light reached the objects and not directly
coming from the source. Daylight may be classified
according to its intensity, i.e., bright sunlight, hazy
sunlight and dull sunlight. These are modified by the
film manufacturer like as—open space bright
sunlight, under shade bright sunlight, hazy sunlight,
cloudy bright sunlight, and cloudy dull sunlight.
Classification of Lights
To distinguish this classification of daylight
according to its intensity, the appearance of the
shadows must be considered, as follows:
1. Bright Sunlight
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The subject will produced strong shadows,

because the source of light is not covered and the
objects or subjects appear glossy in open space due
to direct sunlight and reflected lights coming from
the sky which act as a reflector.
2. Dull Sunlight
The sun is totally covered by thick clouds. No
shadows are cast, due to the uniform illumination of
lights all around the subjects in open space.
3. Hazy Sunlight
The sun is covered by the light clouds and the
shadow appears bluish because of the decrease of
light falling on the subjects in open space. The
shadow cast is transparent to the eye and more
details are visible under these lighting conditions
than in bright sunlight.
Artificial Light Sources
Almost all artificial light sources can be used in
photographing of objects, nevertheless, artificial light
commonly used in photography are the following:
1. Photoflood Lamp
Also known as reflectorized light or spot light.
This is so, because, this type of lamp need a reflector
to focused the light on the subjects. It can be a bulb
with a built in reflector or bulb which need a reflector.
The life span of this bulb is seven to eight hours
when it is being used intermittently.
2. Flash Bulbs
This is chemical lamps as it generates lights by
the rapid combustion of metal in oxygen. The bulb
can be used only once as the bulb busted when fired
electrically. There are thin filaments inside the bulb
with two electrical contacts, when the current flows
through the filament, it becomes incandescent and
ignites the explosive primer that ignites the

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aluminum foil that burns, giving a flash of intense

light.
3. Electronic Flash
Produces light by an instantaneous electrical
discharge between two electrodes in gas filled glass
bulbs. The electrical energy for the discharge is kept
in capacitor or condenser.
4. Fluorescent Lamps
This is tube lamps wherein the walls are coated
by materials capable of fluorescence. Both end has a
terminal and commonly mounted into a holder that
serves as the reflector. This type of lamps is
commonly used, and not merely in photography.
5. Infrared Lamp
This is a special type of artificial light that is
capable of producing infrared radiation. Flash bulbs
designed to give a high intensity of infrared light was
made and can be used conveniently with a flash gun.
This type of bulb is useful in photographing the
objects or subjects at dark places.
6. Ultraviolet Lamp
Is a gas lamp burning disulphide vapor in oxygen
or in nitric oxide. It was followed by several lamps
designed to produce ultraviolet radiation, light, the
mercury vapor light, the electric discharge lamps and
the commercial lamps. This type of bulb is common
to all people as black light.
7. RUVIS UV Imagers
Reflective Ultra Violet Imaging System is an
integral part of the crime scene investigator’s search
for evidence. By enhancing the observation and
collection of evidence including latent prints on
smooth non-porous surfaces, bites, bruises, blood
detection and shoe impressions.
8. HandScope Xenon FLS HSX-5000

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The Handscope Xenon is a new Forensic Light

Source that combines the versatility of multiple
wavelengths with the convenience of battery power.
It features more intensity than other battery powered
alternate light sources and a larger, more highly
defined, focusable spot size.
9. Mini-Crime Scope MCS-400
A compact, portable and rugged UV-visible
tunable light source with 400W metal halide lamp.
The system includes a 2 meter liquid light guide. The
Mini-CrimeScope provides multiple wave length and
the easiest way to switch them. Multiple wavelengths
are critical in rejecting background fluorescence.
PART III
PHOTO-FILM & PAPERS
Surface sensitive to light is a material which is
easily affected once expose to light at a given time.
The surface which is capable of retaining a latent
image is called as emulsion which contains grains of
silver salts suspended in animal gelatin is very thin
and fragile, and must therefore be coated in glass
plate or celluloid material or paper. There are two
kinds of surface sensitive to light, i.e., film that
produces the negative after the chemical
development and the photographic paper that
produces a photograph or positive print and chemical
development process.
What is Film?
Film contains minute grains of silver halide
suspended in animal gelatin and coated on celluloid
material. It has two parts, the emulsion and the base.
Actually, there are four various layers of film they
are: the thin coat of animal gelatin, the emulsion, the
base, and the anti-halation backing. To protect the
emulsion from abrasion, the thin coat of clear gelatin
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is essential, the anti-halation backing is necessary to

prevent halation and the base as the support of the
emulsion.
Films are classified according to its form and
types. Basically films that are available in the
markets today are in various forms. It can be in rolls,
in cartridges and cut sheets. Light sensitively of the
film can be ascertained thru its various types. The
film can either be a fast sensitive material or slow
sensitive material. It can be sensitive to all colors or
especially prepared for certain use or purpose.
Light sensitivity of the film is also known as the
speed of the film. Such speed of the film is
determined thru its ASA or DIN numbers given by the
film manufacturers. The literal meaning of ASA is
American Standard and Association and the DIN is
German Industrial Standard. The former express the
speed in numbers thru arithmetic system and the
later thru logarithmic system.
Types of Films
Enumerated and discussed hereunder are the
different types of films:
1. Fast Speed Film
It contains numerous numbers of large grains of
silver halide that usually develop in group. When the
available light is dim, this type of film is the best
choice because of the low reflecting power of the
subject against a reflecting background low in
contrast but high in brightness. However, the use of
fast speed film is not advisable due to its graininess
result in the photographs.

2. Panchromatic Film
It is sensitive to all colors, especially to blue and
violet. It is suitable for general use in the preparation
of black and white photographs. There are three
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classes of panchromatic film, they are: process

panchromatic film, fine grain panchromatic film, and
high speed panchromatic film. The process
panchromatic film is low in speed and high in
contrast.
Fine grain panchromatic film permits short
exposures under average lighting condition and has
the advantage of fine grain structure. High speed
panchromatic film was designed originally intended
for photographing an object or subjects under
adverse lighting condition. Contrast of the
panchromatic film usually varies with of the light,
and proper contrast in photograph can be attained
with the use of filters.
3. Infrared Film
It is a special type of film which is sensitive to
infrared radiation. It is also sensitive to violet and
blue-green. Although the infrared film is sensitive to
blue, such blue color can exclude by a red filter that
transmit red and infrared radiation.
4. Color Film
It is a mixture of the three basic color of the
visible spectrum. The hue dyes are coated to the
emulsion of the film and each hue is separated by
the secondary colors that will absorb the unwanted
primary colors. In between the blue and green hues
yellow gelatin is placed so that the blue rays of light
would not affect the green hue and in between the
green and the red dye, magenta gelatin is placed so
that the green rays of light would not affect the red
hue dye of the emulsions.
5. Orthochromatic Film
This Film which is sensitive to all colors except
red, and this type of film is popular in the market as
the Kodalith film.
6. X- Ray Film
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It is a material which is sensitive to x-ray region

of the electromagnetic spectrum.
7. Blue Sensitive Film
It is a film specially treated that makes it more
sensitive to blue rays of light.
Sensitized Papers
The result of photography in its final form is a
photograph. The materials necessary to produce a
positive print is a sensitized paper. Its emulsion is
coated to opaque materials like paper. In the
preparation of photographic paper, there are three
important factors to be considered, i.e., the type of
emulsion, the contrast rays, and the physical
characteristics. Each type of emulsion has its own
substances and uses in the preparation of
photographs.
The types of emulsion are as follows, i.e., silver
chloride emulsion, silver bromide emulsions, and
silver chlorobromide emulsion. The emulsion that
contains silver bromide is known as the silver
bromide papers. Light sensitivity of this type of
emulsion is faster than the silver chloride papers.
These photographic papers are use for projection
printing or enlarging process, wherein the image of
the negatives is projected or enlarged. If properly
developed the silver bromide paper will give a black
tones.
That papers that contain silver chloride in their
emulsion is called silver chloride paper. It’s sensitivity
to light be low and commonly use in contact printing.
Generally the size of the positive print is the same as
the size of the negative used and usually, it will give
blue black tones if properly developed. The
combination of the two types of emulsion is called
silver chlorobromide papers. Its sensitivity to light is
either slow or fast.
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The slow emulsion is use for projection printing.

The contrast range of photographic paper is
classified by the manufacturers of the film according
to their own ideas. They produce different
photographic papers intended for the specific
contrast of the negative to be printed. These contrast
ranges are classified into four, i.e., low contrast,
normal and medium contrast, hard contrast, and very
hard or extra hard contrast
The low contrast paper is usually suitable to very
contrasts negative to produce a normal print or
photograph on the other hand, the high or hard
contrast paper is suitable to a very low contrast
negative to compensate for lack of brilliance and
produce a normal print or photographs. Photographic
papers are made with different characteristics. They
are the combination of thickness, textures and finish.
The texture may be smooth, rough or linen.
Its finish may be glossy in a very smooth surface
texture. Other types of textures may produce a matt
or semi-glossy finish in rough or linen texture. The
paper base of the photographic paper may be either
white or tinted. Its weigh or thickness may be either
light-weight or single-weight or double weight. The
choice of photographic papers for printing will
depend upon the purpose of the photographs to be
made. Black and white objects are usually printed in
a white base photographic paper.
Reproduction of photographs would give
satisfactorily results if printed on glossy white base
photographic papers. For portraits photograph, a
cream paper base of photographic paper is
recommended and for law enforcement photography,
the smooth photographic paper is necessary so that
the details of the image will appear and appreciated
by the viewers.
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Exposure of Sensitized Materials

Exposures means the range of illumination or the
light is allowed to affect the sensitized materials at a
given time. The amount of light that affects the
sensitized materials can be controlled by the lens
aperture or lens opening and duration of illumination
can be controlled by the shutter speed of the
camera. The rays of light reach the emulsion of the
sensitized materials, a number of silver halides
sensitive to light are affected and produce latent
image. This image can only be visible after
development.
Exposures Factors
These factors are considered in the exposure of
the sensitized materials so as to produce a good
photograph. Any alterations in the illumination
caused by external conditions, like the use of filter,
artificial light, color of the subjects and others,
introduces factors that will affect the exposure of the
sensitized materials.

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PART IV
CAMERA & ACCESORIES
Fundamentally, all cameras are the same. From
the cheapest type to the most expensive type of
camera throughout the world, their function is to
form and record the rays of light reflected by the
objects on the film inside the light tight box of the
camera. The difference lies only on the qualities of
the photographs that it will produce after
development.
Definition of Camera
Camera may be define as a light tight box, with a
means of forming the image—lens, with a means of
holding sensitized material—film holder, and with a
means of controlling the amount of light that will
reach the film. It is a device use in the photographing
of objects
Essential Parts of Camera
Enumerated and briefly discussed hereunder are
the essential parts of a camera:
1. Light Tight Box
This part of the camera is very essential because
of its capability to exclude all unwanted light that
might expose the sensitized material or film. It is an
enclosure that devoid light.
2. Lens
The lens is the one responsible in focusing the
rays of light coming from the subject. It is the most
essential part of any cameras. Without this lens, the
sharpness of the image formed on the film would be
impossible. The diaphragm, the bigger amount of
light will pass thru the lens.
3. Film Holder

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The film holder holds the film firmly inside the

camera. It is always located at the opposite side of
the lens of any camera.
4. Shutter
The shutter served as the barrier of the rays of
light that will enter and affect the film inside the
camera. It is usually placed at the path of the light
passing thru the lens.
Other Parts of Camera
Aside from those essentials of the camera, there
are other parts of any camera which are necessary in
photographing an object. They are as follows:

1. Viewing System
The viewer of any cameras will show the entire
scene coverage that can be recorded in the film
inside the camera. It is usually attached on top or
side of the camera or the viewer is the taking lens
itself when the camera is a single lens reflex type.
2. Film Advancer
The film advancer of the camera is necessary so
that exposed film can be wind or transferred to the
take up spool and the unexposed film will be on the
opposite side of the lens for another exposure.
3. Shutter Speed
The shutter speed will control the duration
between the opening and the closing of the shutter.
It will regulate the quantity of light that will reach
and affect the film inside the camera
4. Lens Aperture
The ratio between the diameter and the focal
length of the lens is called lens aperture. It is the
light gathering power of the lens. The rays of light
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passing thru the lens aperture can be controlled by

its opening
5. Focusing Mechanism
The sharpness or clearness of the objects being
photograph will depend upon the focusing system of
the camera. This mechanism will estimate the object
distance from the camera and formed a sharp or
clear images in the photographs.
Major Types of Camera
There are so many models of cameras available
in the commercial market today, but the types of
cameras can be classified according to the viewing
system, namely:
1. View Finder Type
It is the smallest and simplest type of camera is
the view finder camera. Its view finder framed the
objects that will be recorded on the film. Usually it is
made of a simple lens located at the peephole of the
camera. Very often the focusing system of this type
of camera is in the view finder itself. Otherwise, the
camera is fixed focus one.
2. Single Lens Reflex Type
The best way to determine the entire coverage of
the camera is to look directly behind the lens of the
camera. In this manner, the objects can be framed
properly and recorded on the film. Out of this
solution a single lens reflex type of camera comes to
existence. With a mirror behind the taking lens, the
image of the objects is reflected to the viewer and it
enables the photographer to compose and focus the
objects being photograph.
This type of camera will eliminate the parallax
error and it will work well with all lenses.
Nevertheless, the single lens reflex type is more
complex and liable to break down due to the mirror
which gives way every time an exposure is made. It
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is difficult to focus especially under dim light

conditions.
3. Twin lens Reflex Type
Basically, the twin lens reflex camera has two
lenses, one for the viewing and focusing of the
objects, and other is the taking lens. In this type of
camera the image being photograph can be seen in
flat surface as reflected by the mirror behind the
viewing lens.
The viewing screen will help the photographer in
the accurate composition of the object to be
photograph as he looks into the camera at his waist
level. Again the principal problem on this type of
camera is parallax error especially when a close –up
lens is used.
4. View or Press Camera Type
The biggest and the most sophisticated among
the different type of cameras is the view or press
camera. This type of camera is practically useless for
candid or action photography. However this type of
camera is very useful in forensic law enforcement
and police photography especially in the
reproduction of document and in photomicrography.
Minute objects can be enlarged and composed
accurately in the large viewing screen of this type of
camera. Since this camera is bulky, a tripod is
necessary. It will require a black cloth before the
photographer can focus the image directly on the
viewing screen.
Camera Accessories
There are several camera accessories which are
being utilized in the photographing of an object. The
selection of the camera accessories will depend on
several factors, like the nature of the objects, kinds
of sensitized materials, the light sources, and others.

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Enumerated and discussed hereunder enumerated as

the camera accessories, as follows:
1. Tripod
It is a triple leg device which is adjustable to any
reasonable extension. This can be used in holding
the camera when the camera is bulky or when using
a shutter speed lower than one twenty five of a
second to prevent the movement that will produce a
blur images in the photographs.
2. Cable Release
This is attached to the shutter release of the
camera and use in releasing the shutter to prevent
accidental movement of the camera during the
exposure period especially when longer exposure is
made. Generally attached to a camera atop a tripod,
a cable release consists of a wire, extending from the
camera that has a button trigger at the end of it.
3. Flash Units
The flash bulbs or electronic flash will be
synchronized with the opening and closing of the
shutter. This is very effective to augment the adverse
lighting condition of the objects being photograph.
Also, with the use of these accessories the motion of
the subject can be arrested.
4. Light Meter
It is a device use in determining the intensity of
light that strike the subjects and affect the film.
Typically a light meter will include a computer,
either digital or analog, which allows to determine
which shutter speed and f-number should be selected
for an optimum exposure, given a certain lighting
situation and film speed. The light meter can be
classified as follows:
a. Extinction Meter
The reflected light from the shadow as seen
by the naked eye is estimated or calculated by direct
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observation of the photographer. This is also called

design of exposure meter which measures a test
source reducing its brightness using a calibrated
mechanism until it matches a standard light or patch
in the instrument.
b. Photoelectric Meter
It is the most dependable device that will
measure the brightness of light. It is pointed toward
the subjects to be photograph and converted the
light collected into electric energy that makes the
needle of the meter to move across its scale. The
reading is taken and the conversion table gives the
proper exposure.
5. Extension Tube
A device use in photographing a minute objects.
It is attached to the lens board of the camera and the
lens is attached to it when close-up photographing is
necessary.
6. Filter
It is a transparent medium which transmit and
absorbs different wave length of lights. They are
usually made of glass or gelatin material placed in
front or behind of the camera lens. The filter will
correct and control the rays of light that will produce
a good color or black and white photographs.
7. Camera Grip
It is a device used to hold firmly the camera so as
to prevent the vibration or movement of the camera
during the exposure period. It is usually attached to
the body of the camera and sometimes the flash unit
is attached to it.
8. Lens Hood
It is a device used to eliminate some refection of
light which might destroys the image cast by the
objects, especially, when the light is coming from the

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top or side portions of the camera. It is usually

mounted in front of the lens barrel.
Types of Filters
There are several filters made or manufactured
for this purpose, however, they are classified into
five, namely: contrast, correction, haze, sky, and
polarizing filters. Very common, the neutral density
filter is used in excessively bright light and it would
also protect the camera lens from accidental
scratches or abrasions.
Control on Camera
Three important controls in a camera to be
manipulated and adjusted to its proper setting are as
follows:
1. Focusing Control
It is the most important control on a camera is
the focusing control. Focus is the means by which the
object distance is estimated or calculated to form
sharp or clear images. There are three types of
focusing devises of the camera, as follows, namely;
the range finder type, the ground glass type, and the
scale bed type.
In the scale bed type of focusing control, the
focusing mechanism of the camera can be adjusted
by means of estimation or calculation of the objects
distance and the camera. Here, photograph and
then, he will set the focusing control of the camera
based on his estimation.
If the one taking the photographed has estimated
the distance of the object and the camera as 10 feet,
then the setting of the focusing control will be 10
feet. In this particular system of control, the camera
manufacturers gave an allowable error of plus and
minus five feet of the estimated distance.
2. Shutter Speed Control

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The length of time that the rays of light will reach

and affect the sensitized material—film can be
controlled by the shutter speed control of the
camera. There are several factors to be considered in
using this control. Some of these factors are; the
light sensitivity of the film which are determine thru
its ASA numbers, the motion of the subjects on
different angles, the purpose of the photographs to
be taken and others.
Based on this factor, the photographer must set
the shutter speed control the camera before
photographing an object, and usually the film
manufacturer gave the exposure guide for every
particular film. Said guide must be followed by the
photographers in their photographing, otherwise the
result of the negative after development is either
overexposed or underexposed or doubled image
object will appear.
There are two types of shutter on any adjustable
cameras, the leaf shutter and the focal plane shutter.
The former is made of small overlapping metal
blades powered by a spring and generally placed
either in between the lens known as central plane
shutter or after the lens of the camera. The latter is
made of a black cloth or small sheet of metal which
is also powered by spring and generally found in the
film plane of the camera.
It is also known as before the film shutter. When
the shutter release is pushed or pressed, these
shutters open and closed again in a preset of time
made in the shutter speed of the camera. The
direction of the leaf shutter when it opens is from the
center to the circumference of the lens and return
afterwards to its former position. On the other hand,
the movement of the focal plane shutter is from the
side of the focal plane it moves to the other side.
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Usually, the permissible shutter speed of a lens is

up to one over five hundred of a second while the
focal plane shutter is up to one over one thousand of
a second. In some models of camera, they are even
faster. There are several disadvantages of the focal
plane shutter. It is slightly noisier than a leaf shutter,
objects moving across the film plane maybe distorted
and it cannot be used in electronic flash when speed
is higher than 1/125 per second.
3. Diaphragm Control
The diaphragm control, work like a pupil of the
eye. It may be enlarged or contracted. If it is
enlarged it allows more lights to enter, on the
contrary, when it is contracted or small, it allows
lesser light to enter. The adjustment is done by
moving the ring of the diaphragm towards the
desired size of opening. It is generally represented by
numbers known as the f-stop.
In every movement, the f number will stop to
indicate that the diaphragms set to that numbers.
Very common, these numbers are found on the ring
outside the lens barrel. The common f-number or f-
stop observable today is from f# 1.2 which is the
widest up to f # 22 which is the smallest. As the
diaphragm opening is change from f# 1.2 up to f#
22, the opening of the lens will change from widest
to smallest.
Such changes are so apparent and noticeable
when observe properly. The diaphragm of any
camera lens can control depth of field that affect the
focus or sharpness of the objects being photograph.
As the lens opening decreases in size more
sharpness of the object being photographed will
appear. However, when the lens opening increases in
size, the zone of sharpness of the objects decreases

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and other details of the object being photograph will

not appear as seen by the naked eye.
In most cameras, especially the ground glass
types of camera, depth of field is noticeable on the
viewing screen, the objects will appear sharp as the
lens opening changes from its widest to the smallest.
Other camera lenses incorporate a depth of field
scale around lens barrel. This scale appear as pair of
numbers and when the lens is focused at a given
distance, it will indicate the area covered by its depth
of field that will produced the zone of sharp focusing.
The used of the depth of field is very necessary
especially, when there is no sufficient time of
focusing the objects to be photographed.
4. Shutter Speed and F-Numbers Together
Basically, the shutter and f-numbers are both
controlling system of the rays of light that enters,
reached and affects the film inside the camera.
However, their effects in making photographs are
different. In the photographing of objects, the
photographer can select any combination of shutter
speed and f-numbers that will give the right amount
of light needed to normally exposed the film.
As the shutter speed increases, the f-numbers
decreases, for instance, the same amount of light will
be admitted by f# 16 at one second and f# 11 at one
half of a second. Using the proper combination of the
f-stop and shutter speed number will be dependent
on the light sensitivity of the film, the purpose of the
photographs, motions of the objects being
photographed and the lighting conditions prevailing
during the photographing.
In some sophisticated cameras, control over
exposure has been totally automated. A computer
set the f-stop and the shutter speed after the ASA
rating of the film has been properly set in the
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camera. The built in meter of the camera will provide

the proper illumination of lighted that will affect the
film. This type of automation is either the shutter
priority automation or the diaphragm priority
automation.

PART V
OPTICAL-LENS & FILTERS
Among the essential parts of the camera, the lens
is the most important. Using a good lens and the
right lens will produce a faithful reproduction of the
original objects as seen by the naked eye. The
sharpness and the accuracy of the image projected
by the lens can be the basis of knowing whether the
lens is good or not. It is usually a combination of two
or more elements of the optical system and is called
as the lens component. Lens is a medium or system
which converges or diverge rays of light passing
through it to form an images.
Pinhole Lens
Rays of light reflecting from an object cannot
produce an image on a flat surface without a barrier
with a small hole. Not all but a few rays of light are
allowed by the barrier to get through, traveling
straight from the object that will make the images.
The few rays of light that passes through the small
hole of the barrier will produce an inverted image of
the objects on the opposite side of the barrier.
Actually such phenomenon can be observed only
in a darkroom. The image making ability of the
pinhole had been used in the camera obscura. It is a
darkened room whose only light source is a small
hole or pinhole in one wall and on the opposite wall
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appears an image of the object outside, formed by

the light rays coming from the hole.
It is then the very apparent, that to produce
sharp or clear image in the photographs, and the
circle of confusion must be very small as possible.
However, if the hole is so tiny, if will requires a longer
exposure and to make the exposure short, a different
method or system of light control is needed, which
can only be provided by the lens.
Camera Lens
Daniel Barbaro is the one who introduces the
used of the lens in the camera. He made a large
opening on his camera obscura and fitted into it a
convex lens taken from the spectacles of a far
sighted old man. The projected image on the camera
obscura is so superior than previous image projected
by each pinhole. The color on the objects, its
backgrounds and almost everything appeared clearly
on the opposite side of the lens. This discovery of
Barbaro, proved the significant of the lens in
formation of an image or an object.
As it admits enough light that reached and affect
the film inside the camera. The present modern
lenses are based on the convex lens which can
collect a large number of light rays from a single
point of an object and refract or bend them toward
each other so that it converge at a single point. The
point of convergence is called the focal point and the
vertical surface where it falls is called the focal plane.
The film inside the camera will record a series of
tiny image formed by an infinite number of converge
or focus rays of light. Such image formed is a latent
image and still temporary until the development
process is over, that will make this image permanent
which is called the negative. Lenses are classified
according to the type of image they produce. It can
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be a positive lens or converging lens and a negative

lens or diverging lens.
Types of Lens
Enumerated and briefly discussed hereunder the
different types of lens, as follows:
1. Positive Lens
It is a convex lens, which is characterized by the
fact that it is thicker on the middle than the edge and
formed a real image on the opposite side of the lens.
It has a positive focal length and bends the light rays
together which make it as a converging lens. In using
this type of lens, it will require a proper distance
between the object and the lens, otherwise, the
image that will produced will blurred or fuzzy.
Focusing on this type of lens can be done by moving
the lens nearer or farther from the objects until the
zone of best definition is attained.
2. Negative Lens
It is a concave lens, which is characterized by the
fact that it is thinner on the middle of the edge, then
formed a virtual image on the same side of the lens.
It does not require focusing at all as everything will
be sharp, upright and clear, no matter how close or
far away the object is. It is also known as a diverging
lens because of its power to diverge rays of light that
passes through it. Practically, this type of lens is
exactly what is needed in the viewing mechanism of
a view finder type of camera. It produces a clear
image for the eye, if not for the film.
Therefore, a camera uses a positive lens that will
served as the camera lens and a negative lens that
will served as the camera viewfinder. The truth of the
matter on this regards can be verified by putting the
camera lens to your eye and you have an instant
sharp view of the scene in front of the person making
taking the photograph.
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Classifications of Lens Aberration

Basically, there is no lens which is perfect in
every respect. Manufacturer tries to find the best
component of lenses that will produce sharp and
good images. There are aberrations in the
performance of lens that cause defects in
photographs, as follows:
1. Astigmatism
It is the failure of a lens to produce a point image
of an object point. Where the lens surface is not
balance in shape or position with respect to the
principal axis of the lens, this aberration occurs. For
instance if the surface is spherical and the rays of
light from the object point passes through the lens
very obliquely. Decreasing the size of the lens
opening will minimize the astigmatism defects of the
lens.
2. Chromatic Aberrations
It is the failure of the lens to focus all the visible
rays. The lens refracts rays of short wave length
more strongly than those of longer wave length and
therefore, brings blue rays to a shorter focus than
red. The resulting image of a point white light is not a
white point, but a blur circle bordered with colors.
When color corrected lenses are constructed in the
camera lens the dispersive effects are cancelled.
3. Coma
It is the unequal magnifying power of different
concentric zones of the lens causes this lens defect.
It refers to aberration inherent to certain optical
designs or due to imperfection in the lens or other
components which results in off-axis point
sources such as stars appearing distorted, appearing
to have a tail—coma, like a comet.
4. Curvatures of Field

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It is in this aberration, the relation of the images

of the different points is incorrect with respect to one
another. The image on flat subject does not appear
flat because of the sharpness of the center and the
edge is out of focus. Therefore, direct focusing of lens
canter will make the edge blurred. In curvature, the
image distance is different for different points of the
same objects, because of their different distance
from the axis of the lens. Fuzziness increases toward
the edge of the film.
5. Distortion
This lens defects exist when there are different
magnification for rays of light at different angles. A
straight line extending across the lens is curved, the
curvature maybe inward or outward depending upon
the kinds of lenses used. When the curving in inward
it is called a pincushion distortion and when the
curving is outward, it is called a barrel distortion.
6. Spherical Aberration
It is usually found in all lenses bounded by
spherical surfaces. It is the failure of the lens to bring
all rays of light in focus at the same time. The
marginal portion of the lens will bring the rays of
light to a shorter focus than the central region. The
image point produced will not be a point but a blur
circle.
Main Groups of Camera Lens
Lens maker produces several lenses for different
cameras available in the market today. These lenses
may be any of the following main group as
enumerated and discussed hereunder:

1. Simple Meniscus Lens

This lens is usually found in a simple or box
camera. It is uncorrected lens and therefore suffering
from inherent defects of lenses.
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2. Rapid Rectilinear Lens

It is a combination of two achromatic lenses with
almost the same focal length. This is corrected from
some kinds of lens defects but not on astigmatism
defect.
3. Anastigmatic Lens
This is a lens which is free from astigmatism and
other types of lens defects. It has the ability to focus
a vertical and horizontal line at the same time.
4. Achromatic lens
This is a lens which is partly corrected for
chromatic aberration.
5. Process Lens
A super corrected lens for astigmatism. It has a
better color correction and has the ability to produce
the best definition of image in the photographs.
6. Fixed Focus Lens
A lens used in all fixed focus camera. Basically, it
has a short focal length and greater depth of field.
What is Focal Length
It is the distance measured from the axis of the
lens through the film plane when the lens is focus at
a distant object. Actually it determines the size of
image that will be formed in the negatives.
Classifications of Focal Length
Hereunder the different classifications of focal
length, as follows:
1. Wide Angle Lenses
These are lens with a focal length less than the
diagonal of the negative materials. It has a shorter
focal length with large area coverage. This lens is
useful in the photographing of objects in a narrow or
restricted or small area. In this type of lens the object
will appear far to the lens and the resulting image of
the objects in the negative will be small.
2. Normal Lens
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Are lens with a focal length approximately equal

but not more than twice the length of the diagonal of
the negative material. The angle of the view of this
lens is 75 degrees but not less than 45 degrees. This
lens has the best area of coverage and the resulting
image of the objects reproduced will be the same as
seen by the naked eye.
3. Telephoto Lens
Are lens with focal length lore than twice the
diagonal of the negative material. It has a longer
focal length with small area of coverage. This lens is
useful in photographing of objects at far distance. In
this type of lens, the object will appear in the closer
to the lens and the resulting image of the objects in
the negative will be large.
4. Zoom Lens
This lens has a variable focal length which can be
adjusted continuously by the movement of one or
more elements in the lens system, known as the
variable focus lens. Actually, this lens carries with it
the different classifications of lenses according to its
focal length.
What is Filter
In photography and videography, a filter is a
camera accessory consisting of an optical filter that
can be inserted in the optical path. The filter can be a
square or oblong shape mounted in a holder
accessory, or, more commonly, a glass or plastic disk
with a metal or plastic ring frame, which can be
screwed in front of the lens or clipped onto the lens.
Filters allow the photographer to have more control
of the images being produced.

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PART VI
PHOTOGRAPHIC DEVELOPMENT
Basically, all the images recorded on the
sensitized materials by the action of lights are
invisible. This latent image are still temporary and
can be ruined when accidentally expose to light. To
make the latent image visible and permanent,
chemical processing is necessary. This processing is
known as the development process of the film that
makes the latent image visible and permanent. The
developed image is the reversed of the original
objects photographed and called as the negative.
On the succeeding process, the image developed
on the negative will be transferred to the
photographic paper and another development
process will take place known as development
process of the photographic paper that will produce
the positive print or photograph. There are several
factors to be considered in the development process
of the sensitized materials. These factors will affect
the density and contrast of the image formed after
the development of the sensitized materials.
Definition of Density
It is the degree of darkness of the image
developed, it can either be to dark or too light,
depending upon the amount of the metallic silver
formed. On the other hand, contrast is the difference
between one tone and another which is so apparent
when density of image is viewed. During the
development process of the sensitized materials, the
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silver halide where the latent image is recorded will

be developed and turn to metallic silver that formed
the image on the negative. The details of the image
developed will determine whether the sensitized
materials were accurately processed or not.
Factors Affecting Chemical Development
Discussed hereunder are the factors that affect the
chemical development of the sensitized materials,
are as follows:
1. Concentration of the Chemicals
There are various chemicals or solutions which
are needed in the development process of the
sensitized materials. These chemicals are mixed in
accordance with the specification given by its
manufacturers. Such requirement must be properly
observed. Otherwise the solutions after the mixture
will not conform to the specified strength as
necessary in the development process of the
sensitized materials.
The developer itself must be accurately mixed,
because it developed the image on the sensitized
materials. It contains a developing agent, a
preservative, accelerator and a restrainer. These
constituents of the developer had its own function in
the active development of the latent image on the
constituents of the developing solutions are the
following:
a. Developing Agents
It is very common the developing agents of
the developing solutions are the amidol,
hydroquinone, and metol. They differ in their action
capability of maximum contrast and fitness.
b. Preservative
To protect the developing agents against
aerial oxidations, a preservative chemical is
necessary. Usually the preservative chemical is
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sodium sulfite that will prevent the formation of

staining developer products, acts as a silver solvent
and increases the rate of development and density.
Without this preservative, the developing solutions
become weak and stain the gelatin during the
developing process.
c. Accelerator
To accelerate the process of reduction of the
silver salts to metallic silver, alkaline solutions like
sodium carbonate and borax powder are mixed to
the developing solution. These alkaline solutions will
increase the state of the development process of the
sensitized materials.
d. Restrainer
In the ionization of the development process,
the restraining effect is greater on fog than on the
latent image. To prevent this effect, potassium
bromide is added to the developing solution.
The developing solutions of the sensitized
materials must always fresh and concentrated to
have a maximum strength that will actively develop
the latent image. After the development process, the
image will appear, although visible under a required
safe light is still temporary and to make it permanent
will need an additional chemical process, more
particularly known as the stop bath.
Usually the stop bath solution is made of 28%
glacial acetic acid. When traces of the developing
solutions were removed, the sensitized material will
be soaked to the fixing bath that will make the
metallic silver permanent. The chemical process of
removing unexposed silver halide on the emulsion of
the sensitized materials after the development
process is called the fixing stage.
The constituents of the fixing solutions are a
solvent silver halide, anti-staining agent, a
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preservative and a hardening agent. Usually, the

solvent silver halide is sodium thiosulfite popularly as
hypo solution. The function of the hypo solution is to
remove the unexposed silver halide. The anti-
staining agent of the fixing solution is the acetic acid
which neutralizes the alkaline in the developer
carried over that will prevent the weakening of the
fixing solution and the staining of the image
produced.
The sodium sulfite will acts as the preservative of
the fixing solution that will prevent precipitation of
sulfur and also prevent the oxidation of the
developing solution carried over in the fixing bath.
The hardening agent of the fixing solution is
potassium alum that hardens the gelatin of
sensitized materials which was often in the
developing solution.
The developed sensitized materials whether the
film that produces the negative or the photographic
papers that produces the positive prints must be
washed thoroughly to remove all the excess
chemicals involved in the developing process.
2. Temperature of the Solutions
Although the chemicals involve in the developing
process are fresh and concentrated, its temperature,
especially the developing solution will affects the
metallic silver developed on the sensitized materials.
Very common, the reactions of the various chemicals
involve in the development process of the sensitized
materials is slow when the temperature of the
solutions is high.
Consequently, if the maker of the sensitized
materials recommended the required temperatures
of the working solutions in the development process
of their products, the processor of the sensitized
materials must adhere to such recommendation and
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the best results of the image developed can be

obtained.
The specified temperature of the working
solutions must remains constant through-out the
development process. However, the deviations of its
temperature must be compensated by increase or
decrease in the time of development process to
avoid or over developed images.
3. Time of Development
Among the factors that affect the development
process of the film, the time of development is the
most critical factor. Usually, too long or too short in
the duration of the development of the sensitized
material produces too dark or too light in the image
developed. Manufacturer of the sensitized materials
gave an instruction on how to control the time of
development that produces a good density of the
image.
4. Agitation
Even development of the image on the sensitized
materials can be obtained through the regular
agitation of it during the development process. In
agitating the film or paper in the developing solution,
the fresh developer is brought into contact with the
emulsion of these materials and the used up
solutions is carried away. Constant or regular
agitation of the sensitized materials during the
development period is necessary to make the
solution move and immersed entirely the surfaces of
the emulsion which contains the image.
Intermittent agitation of the sensitized materials
may increase or decrease the developing time.
Usually the sensitized materials being process are
agitated for a few seconds for every minute of
developing time. Insufficient agitation may produce
uneven actions of the working solutions. Fast
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developing solutions must never be allowed to stand

still on the sensitized materials. Same is true in the
fixing solutions. If the sensitized materials with the
image developed stand still in the fixing solutions, it
will unevenly fixed the surfaces of the emulsion on
the sensitized materials and it will produce several
stain on the developed image.
Film Processing
The most crucial part in the preparation of
photographs is the film processing. Once the film is
destroyed during the developing process, everything
is ruined and no positive print can be produced.
Considering that the work is critical, outmost care
must be observed in the developing of negative.
After the film had been exposed and removed from
the camera, it is ready for film processing. The
sequence of procedures in developing a roll or sheet
film is:
1. Preparation of solutions needed in the
development process;
2. Check the temperature of the solutions and
make it constant by using the temperature control
pan;
3. Switch off lights and check the room whether
it is totally dark;
4. Open the film cassette or film holder as the
case may be and remove them;
5. Place the film in the developing reel or film
hanger;
6. Soak or immerse the developing reel or film
hanger into the developing tank;
7. Tap the bottom of the developing tank to
dislodged air bubbles and keeps the developing
solutions moving all over the emulsion of the film
8. Place a light tight cover on the developing
tank;
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9. Set the timer on the specified time of

development;
10. Slowly agitate the developing tank for five
seconds or every minute of the required developing
time;
11. At the end of the development time, remove
and rinse the film for ten seconds;
12. Soak or immerse the developing reel or film
hanger into the stop bath tank, tap the developing
reel or film hanger at the bottom of the tank for
thirty seconds;

13. Remove and rinse the film for ten seconds;

14. Soak or immerse the developing reel or film
hanger into the fixing bath tank, tap the developing
reel or film hanger at the bottom of the tank for
thirty seconds and let the film stand still in the fixing
bath for the required fixing time of the solution; and
15. After the fixing period, switch on the light,
was the film developed or negatives in running water
for thirty minutes and dry the negatives.

Normally, the above procedures of developing a

film is for black and white film, however, in the
developing of a color film, the enumerated
procedures with the additional chemicals or solutions
needed in color processing can also be adapted.
To avoid any problems in the development of film,
the recommendation or requirements of its
manufacturers must be strictly followed. If for some
reasons or another, these development problems
exist, like underexposed or overexposed in the
photographing, underdeveloped or overdeveloped
negative and others.
Remedies for Curing and Saving Image
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There are some suggestible remedies that can

cure and save the image on the negatives. Some of
these remedies are enumerated and discussed
hereunder, as follows:
1. Intensification of the Negatives
When the appearance after the negative has
been completely processed is to light or has too little
density and there are no details from the shadow
area. They are indication of under developed image
on the film. The causes of undeveloped film may be
due to weaker solutions, low temperature, less
agitations and shorter period of the development of
time. Whatever causes the underdevelopment of the
image on the film; it can still be cured or saved
through the intensification of the film.
In this system, the underdeveloped image can be
build up with another chemicals called intensifier.
The addition of minute particles of another metal
which is usually chromium or mercury on the top of
metallic silver formed strengthens contrast during
the intensification period. The darker portions are
intensified most so that the good density and
contrast of the image will appear on the negative.
Although the intensified negative is not good as that
of a normal negative, it can perfectly give a
satisfactory photograph.
2. Reduction of the Negative
When the negative appears too dark or has too
much density and the detail of the shadow areas has
been lost, they are indications of overdeveloped
negative. Overdeveloped of the negative may be due
to stronger developing solution, high temperature,
irregular of continues agitations and longer period in
the development time.
This overdevelopment of the image on the
negative can be cured and save through the
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reduction of the dark metallic silver that forms the

image on the negative. A chemical known as reducer
will dissolve some of the dark metallic silver formed
until achievement of the normal density of the
negative.
3. Increasing or Decreasing the Development Time
When the film is suspected to be wrongly
exposed during the photographing of objects, the
optimum remedy is to develop the film by inspection.
On this method, a quick glance at the film during the
developing period is made for the necessary
corrective action that will make the negative suitable
for printing. Developing any inspection is not an easy
task to do. It requires utmost diligence and fast
movement during the inspection period.
At a glance the film is viewed under a dark green
safelight, so that the necessary increase or decrease
on the development time can be made. The dark-
green safelight used in the developing by inspection
will not produce any harmful effects on the film if
carefully and quickly utilized, especially, when it is
two feet far from the film during the inspection
period. The appearance of the darkest portions in
relation to milky emulsion will determine whether to
stop or continue the development period.
4. Use of Developer Increasing or Subduing Contrast
When the film is normally exposed under high or
low contrast condition or delighting is unpleasantly
rough to the eye during the photographing period or
too mild, the choice between the developers that
increase contrast and the developer that subdue
contrast is the best remedy to produce a good or
pleasant negatives. The objects during the
photographing may appear contrast due to excessive
contrast being reflected by the scene or the objects
itself.
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When the film is processed with a regular

developer, the resulting image on the negative will
also appear or contrast or excessive contrast of the
image in the negative is so obvious, however, if the
film is process in a developer that can be diluted for
low contrast or softened the excessive contrast of the
objects photographed, the resulting image on the
negative will have less harsh contrast and noticeable
details.
On the contrary situation, when the light during
the photographing is mild or dull, the objects or
scene will appear flat or bland if the film is processed
with a regular developer. However, if the film is
processed in a high contrast developer that builds up
the highlights and increases the overall contrast, the
resulting negative will show the details of the scene
or objects photographed.

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PART VII
TECHNIQUES IN PHOTOGRAPHY
In modern photography, recording of objects that
produces a photograph is no longer a problem. The
creation of several models of cameras which include
the automated camera solved the difficulties on how
photographing is made.
Photographing Process
Photographing of objects or scene is not only
looking on the eyepiece of the camera and pressing
its shutter release button. Every factor that will affect
the naturalness or accurateness of the things to be
photograph must be considered. These factors may
be petty but if neglected will produce had or
undesirable photograph. To avoid these factors, the
following technique can be helpful in the
photographing process.
1. Be Familiar with the Camera
Every camera has its own characteristics.
Although the function of it is the same with others
cameras, the operation of it may be different from
other types of camera. Comfort ability of using the
camera depends on the familiarity of its parts and
location. Know the places of the focusing system,
shutter speed and adjustment, f-stop settings and
shutter released button of the camera.
2. Selection of Good and Right Lens
In photographing, proper lens must be used. The
quality of the camera lens will affect the
accurateness of the objects to be photograph. The
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size of the image is also affected by the camera lens.

Choosing the corrected camera lens and knowing the
right focal length of the camera will eliminate the
factors that may affect the naturalness and
accurateness of the photograph to be made.
3. Dirty Lenses
Even if a good and right camera lens is used, it
may still produce a bad photograph if the lens is dirty
during the photographing and printmaking process.
This dirt may be present on the front surface of the
lens as well as on the back. The usual dirt that are
observable along the surface of the lens are dust,
moist and sometimes prints of the finger due to
incidental touching of the lens. The camera lens of
the camera must be free from any dirt before using
so that the naturalness of the objects being
photograph will not be affected.

4. Camera Hold
During the photographing, the camera must not
move especially during the pressing of the shutter
released button. There are two techniques in holding
a camera, the horizontal holding position and the
vertical holding position. Very common the vertical
position of holding the camera is used in the
photographing of a single object. This position will
eliminate other objects along the side of the object
being photograph. Before pressing the shutter
released button of the camera, the photographer
must firmly hold the camera, otherwise the camera
movement will affect the record image of the objects
photographed. If a longer exposure is necessary on
the photographing process, the used of camera
support or tripod is mandatory.
5. Load the Camera
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The important things to do in the preparation of

photograph are the placing of the film inside the
camera. Basically, nothing will be recorded if the
camera has no film during the photographing
process. Fidelity must be observed in placing the roll
of film inside the camera.
6. Setting the Camera for Daylight Photographing
Cameras are classified into three main types,
which is enumerated and discussed hereunder, to
wit:
a. Simple Cameras
Usually it has no adjustment. It has a fixed
focus lens, fixed lens aperture and fixed shutter
speed. However, this type of cameras must not be
used in photographing of objects below the required
range; otherwise, the photograph produced will be
blurred. Certainly, the easiest camera to operate is
the simple camera. It can be used in out-door
photography or indoor photography without any
difficulties. The only requirement in using this type of
cameras is to hold it firmly and press the shutter
released button slowly to avoid camera movement
during the photographing.
b. Automatic Cameras
This type of camera makes the photographing
more interesting. It has automatic exposure control
system. In photographing, the exposure control
system determines the amount of light reflected from
the objects being photographs and automatically set
the necessary exposure. The things to be observed
while using this type of camera are to see the speed
of the film being used. The film speed or ASA rating
is commonly listed on the film box or instruction
sheet.
Previously, some automatic camera has a
fixed focus lens. It is set by the maker of the camera
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for normal photographing at a certain distance,

usually from 3 feet to infinity. Other automatic
cameras have focusing mechanism which requires
proper adjustment of the range of objects to the
camera. The latest automatic cameras have
automatic focusing control. Its focusing control set
automatically the distance of the objects to the
camera during the photographing process. With this
type of camera everything in photographing is
almost automatic. However, in using this type of
camera, incidental movement of the camera during
the photographing must be avoided; otherwise, the
recorded image will appear blurred.
c. Adjustable Camera
All adjustable cameras have only three basic
setting or control. They are as follows: focus, shutter,
and lens opening. These controls must set properly
before photographing an object. Incorrect adjustment
of these controls will basically affect the result of the
photographs. Usually, the shutter speed and lens
opening works together. The common system of
determining the correct exposure the photographing
is the use of a light meter. Using the light meter as
the basis of exposure, both lens opening and shutter
speed cam easily be adjusted before photographing
an object.
Setting the Flash
There are conditions that warrant the use of flash
unit during the photographing. There are three basic
types of flash unit, as follows:
1. Flash Bulbs
Make the photographing of object with flash
easier than ever. It is plug onto a camera that has a
flash cubes socket and the camera is ready for flash
photographing without touching a flash bulbs. Each
cube contains four blue flash bulbs. All cameras with
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a flash cubes sockets or flash cube adapter can use

this type of flash unit. Every time the film is winded,
the flash cube rotate and ready to give light.
a. Electronic Flash
This type of flash unit is fairly expensive
compared with other types of flash, but has a certain
advantages. Its electronic flash tube can give
thousands of flashes that augment the necessary
lighting of the objects being photographs. The light
coming from the flashtube is much shorter than that
of a flash bulb. This short duration allows the use of
any shutter speed with leaf-type shutter. The
electronic flash can stop the fast action of the
subjects to be photograph.
b. Flash Bulb
It can be clear or blue in colors. Usually blue
bulb is suitable for black and white or color
photography. Every flashes of this type of flash unit,
the bulb are busted. Usually, in flash bulb a flash
holder or flash gun is needed and attached to
camera. In some cameras, flash bulb fit into built-in
flash unit. Proper exposure with simple and
automatic cameras during the photographing with
flash unit can be attained by keeping a certain flash
distance between the objects and the camera. For
adjustable cameras, the correct exposure in
photographing with a flash unit is determined by its
guide number.
This guide number is divided from distance of
the flash to the subject and the quotient is the lens
opening to be used for that particular distance.
Usually, the guide number is printed on the
instruction sheet of every film or box of flash bulb or
electronic flash unit. Basically, the flash
synchronization must jibe with the shutter speed of
the camera during the photographing process.
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Otherwise it will produce underexposed photograph

or no photograph at all. The common shutter speed
in flash photographing is 1/25 or 1/30 of a second.
The flash unit must be inserted to its proper socket.
For electronic flash, the socket is generally mark
with X and for flash bulb, it is marked with M.
incorrect used of this sign of the camera during the
photographing will produce no photograph at all
because the shutter speed did not synchronized with
the flashes of light. In photographing with flash, light
reflection must be avoided. Glass or shiny surfaces
can bounce back the light coming from the flash unit.
If the flash holder or the flash gun is at 45 degree
angle during the photographing, the reflection of
lights coming from the flash can be minimizing if not
totally avoided.

PART VIII
CONTACT PRINTING
Print making is the final stage in making
photograph. Basically, printmaking repeat the first
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two stage of photography, that is, the action of light

on the film which records the image of the object
photographed which produces a negative. In
printmaking, the image on the negative is transferred
to the photographic paper by the action of light with
the aid of a printer known as enlarger. If no such
device is utilized the image of the negative is
transferred to the photographic paper directly
through contact process known as the contact
printing.
Selection of Negative
There are several factors to be considered in the
selection of negative for printmaking. The most
important among this factor is the sharpness of the
image recorded in the negative. With the aid of a
negative viewer and magnifying lens, all parts of the
negative must be examined to check whether the
image on the negative is sharp or blurred. Basically,
if during the photographing, the camera is not
focused to the objects or there is movement on the
camera or subjects, the blurring of the image
recorded on the negative is possible.
Another factor to be considered in the selection
of the negative for printmaking is the density and
contrast. In giving consideration to these factors, the
types of photographic paper suitable for its density
and contrast can be ascertained. Density can be
controlled by the length of exposure and contrast can
be controlled by using the appropriate grade of
photographic paper. After the selection of the
negative, it is clean with a soft tissue and loaded to
the negative carrier of the enlarger for projection and
printing.
Enlarger and Projector
Generally, the machine used in making an
enlargement is the enlarger and in some instances,
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the projector is also utilized. Almost all of the

enlarger available today has the following common
parts and functions:
1. Enlarger Head
The main working parts of the enlarger. It
contains the light source, the condenser lens, the
negative holder and the lens.
2. Lamp
This supplies the light that passes through the
negative that exposed the photographic paper.
3. Negative Carrier
This holds the negative flat and level, fitted
between the light housing assembly and the lens of
the enlarger.
4. Lens Aperture
It is the opening of the lens that controls the rays
of light passing through it.
5. Focusing Mechanism
It moves the lens up and down to focus the
projected images.
6. Condenser Lens
This lens spread the light coming from the lamp
of the enlarger. It is usually made of two convex
lenses, and in some instances it is made of a flat
piece of diffusing glass.
7. Lens
It is the one responsible in forming the image
coming from the negative. Basically, it bends the
rays of light that passes through it and formed the
enlarged image.
8. Enlarger Column
It is the holder of the enlarger head and
commonly serves as rail in controlling the height of
the enlarger head.
9. Elevating Control Knob

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This part control the image size projected on the

base. By raising or lowering the enlarger head, the
image becomes bigger or smaller.
10. Base Board
Practically, it supports the entire unit of the
enlarger. Usually it holds the easels that carry the
photographic paper.
Contact Printing
In making a contact print, the negative and the
photographic paper are placed together in such a
manner that the emulsion of the negative is facing
the emulsion of the photographic paper. It must be
properly pressed by a transparent medium before
exposure is made. Otherwise, the print will produce a
blurred image after development. Contact print is a
photographic image produced from film; sometimes
from a film negative, and sometimes from a film
positive. The defining characteristic of a contact print
is that the photographic result is made by exposing
through the film negative or positive, onto a light
sensitive material that is pressed tightly to the film.

PART IX
CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY
Photographs intended for law enforcement,
especially for investigation of cases must show
flawless quality. It must not allows blurred image,
incorrect exposure and imperfect print making that
affects the naturalness and accurateness of the
objects photographed.
Considerations in Crime Scene
Generally, the crime scene is of vital importance
in the establishment of proofs. A permanent record of
it can be considered indispensable to a successful
investigation and presentation of case in court. The
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crime scene must be preserved so that the evidence

left by the culprit will not be altered through
carelessness of the law enforcers investigating the
case or through intruders or spectators which are
common in every crime scene because of curiosity.
To secure and permanently preserved the crime
scene, the first things to do in the investigation of
any crime is to photograph completely and
accurately all aspects of the crime scene before the
removal or alteration of any evidence found in scene
of the crime. The photographs taken must serve its
purpose of recording the crime scene. Useful
information may be established in a series of
photographs, it will enable the viewer of the
photograph to understand where and how the crime
is committed.
Photographs of the general view of the scene
must be supplemented by close-up photographs that
produce important details. All objects or traces of
evidence must be photographs in such a manner that
the location of it can be clearly seen in the over-all
photograph. This will enable the viewer of the
photograph in gaining clear ideas of its position with
regards to other objects at the Crime scene.
Photographing the Crime Scene
The procedure in taking photographs of crime
scene is straightforward. Photographs must be taken
in all angles to show the entire area of the scene of
the crime. The photograph must cover some
reference point that will establish the exact location
of the crime scene. In photographing a crime scene,
the order of photographing must be strictly followed.
It must start from the perimeter toward the center as
the investigator examined and observed the
condition of the scene of the crime. However, if there
are things which are perishable after a length of
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time, such things must be photograph first.

Generally, the orders of photographing the scene of
the crime are as follows:

1. Out-Door Photographing
This is the entire surroundings of the crime scene
must be photographed. As much as possible the
photographs taken must include the following, i.e.,
geographical location of the area that surrounds the
crime scene; external conditions of the victims house
in relation to the neighboring houses; and articles or
evidence left on the scene of the crime, like
footprints, tire marks and other traces of things that
can be useful in the early solution of the crime; and
2. In-Door Photographing
These are photographs of four corners of the
room where the crime was committed must be taken.
It must include some of the following, i.e., possible
point of entrance and exit of the culprits; adjacent
rooms where the crime was committed; and general
appearance of the room where the crime took place;
position of articles or evidence left behind of the
scene of the crime; and traces of evidence like
fingerprints, footprints, blood stains and other things
that can preserved as clues for the early
apprehension of the suspects.
The investigator must always have necessary
equipment ready and carefully checked for
immediate photographing of the scene of the crime.
Some of these equipments are as follows: camera,
film, flash unit, tripod, filters, cable release, and
measuring devices.
Rogues Gallery Files
A rogue’s gallery is a police collection of pictures
or photographs of criminals and suspects kept for
identification purposes. The term is also used
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figuratively by extension for any group of shady

characters or the line-up of “mug-shot” photographs
that might be displayed in the halls of a dormitory or
workplace.
Mug Shot Files
A mug shot, or booking photograph, is a
photographic portrait taken after one is arrested. The
purpose of the mug shot is to allow law enforcement
to have a photographic record of the arrested
individual to allow for identification by victims and
investigators. Most mug shots are two-part, with one
side-view photo, and one front-view. They may be
compiled into a mug book in order to determine the
identity of a criminal. In high-profile cases mug shots
may also be published by the media.
What is Photofit?-----Photofit is a technique used
by the police for building up an accurate image of
someone to fit a witness' description. Photographs,
rather than drawings, of individual features are used
to construct an image of a suspect.

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