CHAP II: FOUNDATIONS

The foundation can be defined as the lower-most part of building buried in the ground (substructure)
that receives and transmits the loads of the entire superstructure (dead loads, live loads and exploitation
loads) to the surrounding ground.
It is therefore clear that the foundation plays a vital role to the stability of the building and its
dimensioning has to be done with a lot of care.
There are several types of foundations and the choice of a foundation type will depend on the
following factors.
1. The type of soil on which the foundation is to be built
2. The type of structure to be realized
3. The type of equipment to be accommodated in the building
4. The environmental risk factors presented by the site such as earthquakes, the presence of under-
ground water, landslides, and tornados, erosions etc
In a nut shell the choice of foundation made should be that which would guarantee the stability of
the structure and also be economical.
Foundations can be classified under two groups: Shallow foundations and deep foundations As we
proceed it will be worth emphasizing for each foundation type: the shape, place of use and mode of
realization.
A. SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
This type is mostly used where the soil is of good resistance and the weight of the building is not
important example: bungalow, buildings of less than four stories. The deep of the foundation has to be taken
to the firm soil at most 60cm after site clearance. Under shallow foundations we have the following
foundation types:
Strip foundations
Wide-strip foundations
Pad foundation and
Raft foundations

1.) STRIP FOUNDATION

This consists of a strip of concrete or other suitable masonry material which is built to longitudinally
under the continuous walls and openings. these are suitable for most subsoils and light structural loadings
such as those encountered in low to medium rise domestic dwellings where mass concrete can be used.
Reinforced concrete is usually required for all other situations Like all other foundations the depth to which
its footing is laid depends on the bearing capacity of the soil. The dimensions for strip foundations fall in
the following range

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 2.) WIDE STRIP FOUNDATIONS
This type foundation is used where the bearing capacity of the soil is too poor and necessitates a
large width for the strip. Such a strip is subject to traverse bending and so reinforcement is necessary.

3.) PAD FOUNDATIONS OR ISOLATED FOOTINGS

suitable for most subsoils except loose sands, loose gravels and filled areas. Pad foundations are usually
constructed of reinforced concrete. These consist of square, rectangular, circular or trapezoidal reinforced
concrete footings cast under pillars to spread the loads from the pillars to the surrounding ground.

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 4.) RAFT FOUNDATIONS
these are used to spread the load of the superstructure over a large base to reduce the load per unit area
being imposed on the ground and this is particularly useful where low bearing capacity soils are
encountered and where individual column loads are heavy.

5.) CANTILEVER FOUNDATIONS

These can be used where it is necessary to avoid imposing any pressure on an adjacent foundation or
underground service.

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 B. DEEP FOUNDATIONS
1. Piled Foundations:
These can be defined as a series of columns constructed or inserted into the ground to transmit the
load(s) of a structure to a lower level of subsoil. Piled foundations can be used when suitable foundation
conditions are not present at or near ground level making the use of deep traditional foundations
uneconomic. The lack of suitable foundation conditions may be caused by :-
i. Natural low bearing capacity of subsoil.
ii. High water table … giving rise to high permanent dewatering costs.
iii. Presence of layers of highly compressible subsoils such as peat and recently placed filling
materials which have not sufficiently consolidated.
iv. Subsoils which may be subject to moisture movement or plastic failure.
Classification of Piles:
Piles may be classified by their basic design function or by their method of construction

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 Pile foundations can either be prefabricated (displacement piles) or cast in-place (replacement
piles). The method of realization depends on several factors such as:
1.) The possibility of maneuvering the heavy driving machinery due to space constraints 2.)
2.) The zone in which the work is to be done if it allows for deafening noise or any sound
pollution caused by the drop-down hammer.
3.) 3.) The stability of the soil to support the carrying crane and drop-down hammer
a) Replacement Piles
These are often called bored piles since the removal of the spoil to form the hole for the pile is
always carried out by a boring technique. They are used primarily in cohesive subsoils for the formation of
friction piles and when forming pile foundations close to existing buildings where the allowable amount of
noise and/or vibration is limited. The various types of replacement piles are:
Percussion bored piles
Rotary bored piles
i. PERCUSSION BORED PILES
Suitable for small and medium size contracts of up to 300 piles. The process consists of lining the
sides of the pile with a steel tube called the liner and then using percussion implements to excavate the
interior of the lining. When the appropriate depth is reached, a reinforcement cage is placed within the liner
and concrete introduced. The liner is removed by a hydraulic jack and tamping goes on simultaneously.
Tamping is done by an internal drop hammer but usually compressed air is the method employed. An air
lock is attached the hopper (discharging funnel) such that the concrete cast comes out like a blast. This is
done when waterlogged soil is encountered and is known as a pressure pile.

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 ii. ROTARY BORED PILES
As the name implies they are formed by rotating devices called augers of huge machines that send
out the spoil as they rotate. They range from short bored piles used in domestic buildings to large and deep
piles used for concentrated loads in multi storey buildings and bridge construction. They are good for
cohesive soils. They are formed by use of an auger in conjunction with a steel tube liner.
Large diameters of bored piles are usually considered ranging from 75cm to 2.6m with lengths
ranging from 24 to 60m to carry loads from 2500 to 8000 KN. They are suitable for use in stiff clays for
structures have high concentrated loadings and can be lined or partially lined with steel tubes as required.
The base of the pile too can be enlarged or undreamed to three times the shaft diameter to increase the
bearing capacity.
ADVANTAGES OF REPLACEMENT PILES
1. They permit a close examination of the penetrated strata
2. The problem of transportation of the preformed unit is avoided
3. The horror of having the finished product being damaged due to driving is strictly kept to a minimum
4. It can be used in proximity to existing buildings
DISADVANTAGES OF REPLACEMENT PILES
1. They pose a serious problem when waterlogged soil is encountered
2. Testing of the finished sample of concrete unit is impracticable
3. Ground water can wash away some of the concrete thus reducing its effective diameter and concrete
cover
b) Displacement Piles

This is a general term applied to piles which are driven thus displacing the soil. They can be
prefabricated or partially prefabricated (driven- in-situ piles).they can be prefabricated of wood,
concrete, steel or composite.

ADVANTAGES OF DISPLACEMENT PILES

i. They overcome the problem of necking in waterlogged soils

ii. They minimize the transportation of spoil
iii. They enhance the bearing capacity of the soil as some of the displaced earth is compressed
beneath the pile.
DISADVANTAGES OF DISPLACEMENT PILES
i. Transportation of the complete length of pile through narrow and congested streets is difficult
and risky
ii. The percussion driving process can set up high unacceptable noise
iii. Vibrations can distort existing adjacent buildings
iv. It is difficult to maneuver long piles in small tight urban sites
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