Self-Esteem and Perceived Stress During the Examination and

Pre-Examination Period: A Correlational Study

Horia A. Holobâcă, David A. Ionac, Sergiu D. Cîmpean

Babes-Bolyai University, 37 Republicii Street, Cluj-Napoca, Romania.

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between self-esteem and

perceived stress in Romanian university students during the examination and pre-examination

periods. A sample of 91 students was surveyed using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and

the Perceived Stress Scale. Results indicated a significant, negative correlation between self-

esteem and perceived stress, suggesting that as self-esteem decreases, perceived stress

increases (r = -0.41, p<0.1, two tails). These findings have implications for the development

of interventions to support students during high-stress periods and to promote healthy coping

strategies. Further research is needed to determine the causal direction of the relationship and

to explore the role of other variables in this relationship. The results of this study can inform

efforts to support student well-being in the face of academic stress.

Keywords: self-esteem, perceived stress, correlational study

Introduction

People today suffer from stress in a wide range of situations. Stress is present in

people’s lives and is believed to be the cause of psychopathologies, diseases and inability to

adapt to any given environment or work (Feldman et al., 2008). Stress is considered a

complex defensive-balancing mechanism of the body that occurs in two stages: in the first

stage, individuals assess the stressor and the demands it brings, and in the second stage, they

evaluate whether they have enough resources to meet these demands. The second stage

highlights the individual's subjective assessment of the stressor, which can affect their

reaction to it.

Different individuals may react differently to the same stressor. The stress response

refers to body reactions, which can be physiological, emotional, or behavioural reactions to

stimuli that cause stress. Self-esteem is a psychological trait that relates to a person's

perception of their own value and self-confidence in all aspects of human activity

(Rosenberg, 1965). Studies from around the world have shown a link between self-esteem

and human health and psychological well-being. This can be explained through the concept

of increased resources and active coping against life's problems. In addition, there appears to

be a strong anti-stress impact on self-esteem, regardless of the circumstances (Pruessner,

Hellhammer, & Kirschbaum, 1999).

High self-esteem is considered a fundamental aspect of personal well-being,

happiness, and adjustment (Brown, 1993). Individuals with higher self-esteem are more

satisfied with their lives, have fewer interpersonal problems, achieve at a higher and more

consistent level, and are less susceptible to psychological problems (e.g., anxiety and

depression) and physical illness (Brown, 1993) than those with lower self-esteem. Self-

esteem refers to the positive or negative way people feel about themselves, which is also

often called global self-esteem or global self-worth (Brown, Dutton, & Cook, 2001).
 Many studies show the relationship between stress and self-esteem at multiple levels.

Self-esteem is included in psychological resources that help people manage stressful events

and their responses to them (Taylor et al., 2010). Self-esteem affects people's reaction to

stressful events and the way individuals cope with stress. At the same time, stressful events

negatively affect self-esteem, which is a psychological resource against psychological

disorders.

The limitations of previous domain-related studies are that people have evolved over

the years and their stressors have evolved as well (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). This may

affect the validity and generalizability of previous findings. Additionally, most of the studies

on the topic have analysed previous generations of students, and our study may yield

different results due to demographic and cultural differences.

Another limitation of previous studies is that most of the studies on self-esteem and

perceived stress have been conducted in American universities, and their results may not

apply to the Romanian population. Cultural differences may play a role in the expression and

experience of stress, as well as in the development and maintenance of self-esteem (Markus

& Kitayama, 1991). Therefore, caution should be taken when interpreting and generalizing

our findings to other populations.

Our hypothesis states that there is a significant relationship between self-esteem and

stress levels in students during exams. Specifically, it suggests that students who have higher

levels of self-esteem are less likely to experience high levels of stress during the exam period

compared to those with lower levels of self-esteem.

Methods

The study recruited a total of 91 participants, all students in the first week of the

examination period. Out of them, 48 (≈ 53%) were students at the Iuliu Hațieganu University
of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, 24 (≈26%) were students at the Faculty of

Psychology and Educational Sciences, Babeș-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, 5 (≈5%) were

students at various faculties within the Technical University, Cluj-Napoca, 11 (≈ 12%) were

students at different faculties and universities in Romania (UBB Cluj-Napoca: Faculty of

Economics and Business Administration, Chemistry, Law; Faculty of Medicine, Oradea;

Faculty of Law, Târgu-Mureș; Bucharest University of Economic Studies, Politehnica

University of Bucharest) and 3 (≈3%) were students at foreign universities (Maastricht

University, Faculty of Law; IED, Milan; Eindhoven University of Technology). Regarding

the year of study, 79 participants (≈ 87%) were students in year one and 12 (≈ 13%) were

older students (4 students in year two, 5 in year 3, 2 in year 4, 2 in year 5 and one students in

the first year of master). The participants were recruited using convenience sampling, which

is a non-probabilistic method that involves selecting participants based on their availability

and willingness to participate. Data collection took place over 2 days during the first week of

the examination period (23-24 February 2023).

The study employed a correlational/cross-sectional design, which is a research

method that examines the association between two or more variables. The Rosenberg Self-

Esteem Scale (RSES) and the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) were used to assess self-esteem

and stress levels in the participants. The RSES is a 10-item self-report measure that assesses

an individual's overall sense of self-worth and self-respect. Examples of items include "I feel

that I am a person of worth" and "At times, I think I am no good at all." The PSS is a 10-item

self-report measure that assesses an individual's perception of the level of stress they

experience in their daily life. Examples of items include "In the last month, how often have

you felt that you were unable to control the important things in your life?" and "In the last

month, how often have you felt nervous and 'stressed'?" The internal consistency of the RSES

and PSS was measured using Cronbach's alpha, which yielded values of 0.89 and 0.88,
respectively. These values indicate a high level of internal consistency for both scales. Data

was gathered using Microsoft Forms.

Outliers were identified using a lower bound of 5% (scores under 17.5 for the RSES

and 11.5 for the PSS) and an upper bound of 95% (scores over 38 for the RSES and 32 for

the PSS). Out of the 91 participants, 69 remained after outliers were removed. The data

analysis was conducted using R-Studio, a widely used statistical software package.

Descriptive statistics, as shown in table 1, and inferential statistics were computed. Pearson's

correlation coefficient (r) was computed in order to determine the correlation between self-

esteem and perceived stress levels.

Table 1. Descriptive statistics.

n Median Min Max Range Skew Kurtosis SE
Self-Esteem 69 29 18 37 19 -0.56 -0.47 0.56
Stress 69 23 12 31 19 -0.25 -0.81 0.58
Note. n – sample sizes; SE – standard error.

Results

As it can be seen in Table 2, a correlation for the data revealed a significant

relationship between self-esteem and stress, r = -0.41, n = 69, p < 0.01, two tails. The results

suggest that there is a negative correlation between the two variables analysed in this study.

Taking into consideration that the degree of freedom of the sample is 67, the confidence

intervals (both negatives) and that the sample data is located in the critical region, we

conclude that the sample is not consistent with H0 and our decision is to reject the null

hypothesis.

The correlation between self esteem and stress were analyzed using Pearson's

correlation and linear regression, results showed that students with higher self-esteem are less
 likely to experience high levels of stress during the exam period compared to those with

lower levels of self-esteem (p < 0.0004, r= -0.41).

Table 2. Means, standard deviations and correlations with confidence intervals.

Variable M SD 1

Self-Esteem 28.65 4.62

Stress 22.38 4.81 -.41**

[-.59, -.20]

Note. M and SD are used to represent mean and standard deviation, respectively. Values in square
brackets indicate the 95% confidence interval for the correlation. The confidence interval is a plausible
range of population correlations that could have caused the sample correlation (Cumming, 2014). *
indicates p < .05. ** indicates p < .01.

Table 3. Betta coefficients, standard error and significance with confidence intervals.
Term β SE t p 95% CI
(Intercept) 34.71 3.36 10.33 1.7e-15*** [28.01, 41.42]
Self-Esteem -0.43 0.12 -3.72 0.0004*** [-0.66, -0.20]

Note. β – betta coefficients; SE – standard error; CI – confidence interval of the regression coefficient.
The confidence interval is a plausible range of population correlations that could have caused the sample
correlation (Cumming, 2014). * indicates p < .05. ** indicates p < .01. *** indicates p < .001.

Figure 1. Residual standard error: 4.416; Multiple R2: 0.171; Adjusted R2: 0.1586; F-statistic: 13.82;
Degrees of freedom: 67.
Discussion

The current study aimed to examine the relationship between self-esteem and

perceived stress in Romanian university students during the examination and pre-examination

periods. Our study found a significant negative correlation between self-esteem and perceived

stress levels, r = -0.41, n = 69, p<0.1, two tails. This result is consistent with previous

research in this area, which has found that higher levels of self-esteem are associated with

lower levels of perceived stress (Arshad et al., 2015). The study's findings highlight the

significance of exploring this relationship further, as previous research has shown that higher

self-esteem is also associated with better academic performance (Arshad et al., 2015). Given

his findings, Arshad argues that if a causal relationship is found between self-esteem and

stress in future research, specific interventions should be designed to improve self-confidence

in students. This is because higher self-esteem has been linked to better academic

performance, and interventions aimed at improving self-esteem could have a positive impact

on academic outcomes.

It is important to note that this study has a correlational/cross-sectional design, and

therefore, the results should not be interpreted as indicating causality. Correlation does not

imply causality, and further research is needed to determine the causal relationships between

self-esteem and perceived stress.

In the context of this study, the sample of participants represents a significant

strength. The sample included students from various faculties, universities, and cities within

Romania, as well as a few Romanian students studying abroad. This diversity in the sample is

important because it increases the generalizability of the results. In other words, the findings

from this study can be applied to a larger population of students, rather than just a narrow,

specific group of students.

 Furthermore, the high number of responses received in a short period of time

demonstrates the feasibility of conducting a study of this nature. This is particularly important

given the fast pace of academic life and the need to minimize disruption to students'

schedules. The relatively high number of responses also increases the statistical power of the

study, making it more likely that meaningful relationships will be detected. The high values

for Cronbach's alpha, a measure of the internal consistency of the self-esteem and perceived

stress measures, further support the replicability of the study. High values for Cronbach's

alpha suggest that the measures used in the study are reliable and consistent, which is crucial

in ensuring that the results are meaningful and can be replicated by other researchers.

However, there are also some limitations to consider. Firstly, the sample of this study

was limited to Romanian students, and the results may not generalize to other populations.

Secondly, convenience sampling was used in this study, which may limit the

representativeness of the sample. Additionally, response biases may have been introduced in

an online form, and the inexperience of the persons who analysed the data may have

introduced measurement errors. Furthermore, the short period of time for response collection

may not accurately reflect long-term stress levels.

One direction for future research could be to conduct a longitudinal study in which

both self-esteem and levels of perceived stress are measured during the exam period and

before/after it. This would allow for a better understanding of the temporal relationships

between self-esteem and perceived stress. Additionally, this study could be replicated over a

number of different samples from different populations, to further increase the

generalizability of the findings. If future research confirms a causal relationship between self-

esteem and stress, this could have important implications for improving academic outcomes.

Based on the established link between self-esteem and academic performance, it would be
beneficial to design interventions aimed at improving self-esteem in students. Such

interventions could potentially have a positive impact on students' academic outcomes.

Moreover, it is crucial to determine if the relationship between self-esteem and stress

observed in this study is applicable to the entire population. If the relationship is found to be

universal, it would suggest that self-esteem could be a predictor of perceived stress levels in

challenging situations for the entire population. This highlights the need for further research

in order to determine the generalizability of these findings.

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