Proceedings of OMAE2008

27th International Conference on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering

15-20 June 2008, Estoril, Portugal

OMAE2008-57425

STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY MONITORING – REVIEW AND APPRAISAL

OF CURRENT TECHNOLGIES FOR OFFSHORE APPLICATIONS

P. May D. Sanderson
Atkins MMI Engineering Ltd.
London, UK Warrington, UK

J. V. Sharp A. Stacey
Cranfield University Health & Safety Executive
Cranfield, UK London, UK

ABSTRACT recent introduction to DNV classification rules OSS-101

[1].
The use of structural integrity monitoring techniques on
offshore installations provides the potential to reduce the
risk of structural failure. The Health and Safety INTRODUCTION
Executive’s (HSE's) Offshore Division has funded a
review of relevant technologies in structural integrity Many of the structures in the UK sector of the North Sea
monitoring with potential application to offshore are now reaching or exceeding their original design life
installations as well as practical offshore experience with and this presents new challenges for structural integrity
structural integrity monitoring. management of these structures. For the ageing North
Sea fleet of platforms and semi-submersibles, the
The purpose of the study was to identify current importance of maintaining structural integrity offshore is
capabilities of structural integrity monitoring techniques increasingly recognised and structural inspection plays a
for structural integrity management of offshore significant role in demonstrating ongoing integrity and the
installations (i.e. offshore jackets and semi-submersible potential for life extension.
structures used for drilling and or production operations
but excluding FPSOs), to identify limitations in current Maintaining structural integrity during the lifetime of an
approaches and identify areas for further development, to installation is a main requirement under the Design and
identify opportunities for technology transfer from other Construction Regulations [2] is normally achieved for
industries and to review and assess key research and installations on the UKCS through a structural integrity
development including current initiatives. management plan, which identifies the arrangements for
achieving maintenance of structural integrity through
The key structural integrity monitoring methods relevant periodic assessments and carrying out any remedial work
to offshore structures were reviewed. It was found that in the event of any damage of deterioration being found.
offshore experience of structural integrity monitoring is This plan includes the inspection tools and methods of
limited to date and that all current systems are for deployment, frequencies of inspection, as well as
bespoke applications. Current codes and standards refer understanding the criticality of structural elements in
in a limited sense to the use of structural integrity terms of platform redundancy etc..
monitoring and this may influence the limited take up to
date of this technology. However, there is a regulatory Structural integrity monitoring can assist in meeting the
requirement for leak detection in ageing semi-subs as a requirement to manage lifetime structural integrity, as well
as providing information to demonstrate the case for life

1 Copyright © 2008 by ASME

extension. The use of on-line monitoring can provide • eddy current instrument for offshore application;
both valuable structural data as well as costs savings if
• integrated eddy-current / probe system for detection
the technique can replace offshore inspection methods.
and sizing of cracks;
On-line instrumentation had been used to benefit the
development of offshore oil and gas structures. Projects • 3D imaging of underwater structural sections with
such as Shell’s Tern and BP’s Magnus have provided a marine growth;
much better understanding of the loading on these • Hall effect probes for crack detection and monitoring
platforms, enabling more efficient designs to be in steel structures;
developed for future structures. Monitoring of damage on
offshore structures, such as that on the Ninian Southern • low-cost acoustic imaging;
platform, give confidence that operations can continue • NDT hydrogen sensor;
whilst repairs are being planned and undertaken.
• plate, leaky Rayleigh and creeping wave NDT for
Although there are currently no regulatory requirements offshore structures.
for structural integrity monitoring in the UK, the HSE In the context of the study, none of the techniques were
provides some guidance on structural integrity monitoring, intended for permanent deployment but to be operated
e.g. Offshore Information Sheet 8/2007 [3]. Also, DNV from an ROV or by a diver.
requires an approved leak detection system to be
installed for the life extension of semi-submersibles [1]. MTD’s publication [7] included a section on monitoring,
both structural vibration and acoustic emission methods.
Structural integrity monitoring can complement existing The report addressed acquisition of data from different
inspection techniques to provide greater confidence in types of sensor as well as transmission of the data, either
structural integrity or to reduce inspection cost. Structural via cabling, through water transmission or using taut-wire
integrity monitoring can, in combination with other transmission. It was noted that both cables and taut wire
methods, be used to demonstrate continued safe transmission are vulnerable to damage, as had been
operation of a structure beyond its original design life. found in practice.
Other typical applications for structural integrity
monitoring include: A sufficient period of time has elapsed since these
reviews were completed and progress has been made. It
• monitoring of a known local defect or high risk part of was considered appropriate, particularly with the current
a structure;
focus on ageing installations, that an up-to-date review be
• justification of a reduction in NDT /inspection activity; performed of available techniques and their capability.
HSE commissioned a study [9] to review and appraise
• cost reduction for new build structures; available information on structural integrity monitoring
• compliance with regulatory requirements. methods for offshore applications and to identify gaps in
the technologies available. The topics covered include
A useful source of information is the Simonet Structural - hazard identification and consequence analysis;
Integrity Monitoring Network and website [4]. Background - identification and assessment of current structural
is provided on the importance of structural integrity and integrity monitoring technologies applicable for use
costs of maintenance. Life extension is an upcoming offshore;
issue in which structural integrity monitoring plays an
important part. The network aims to bring together those - review of relevant codes and standards and other
involved in structural integrity monitoring across a wide background literature;
range of disciplines and applications. Workshops are - a summary of the current status of structural integrity
held regularly with particular themes. The network also monitoring in the offshore oil and gas industry.
provides information on new and developing techniques
for structural integrity monitoring. The cross-industry In order to identify structural integrity monitoring methods
nature of the network has advantages in enabling that qualify for this study, an assessment of hazards,
members to see where new technologies are being consequences and appropriate structural integrity
applied and whether these might be relevant to their own monitoring techniques has been carried out. The main
field. focus of the work is on structural integrity monitoring on
ageing structures. However, most methods can equally
Reviews of structural monitoring methods have been be applied for other applications.
conducted in studies previously commissioned by HSE
and other parties [5-8]. Details of [5] and [6] are In the context of this paper, the definition of a structural
presented later. Reference [8] covered seven projects integrity monitoring method is a method for continuously
that developed potential products for offshore inspection monitoring a parameter that impacts on structural
from a programme supported by the Science Research integrity. The study excludes periodic inspection of a
Council, entitled ‘Structural Integrity Monitoring’. The particular component. Although strictly speaking a
techniques included; periodic measurement, air gap monitoring has been

2 Copyright © 2008 by ASME

included in the study as the interval between inspections API RP SIM (Draft) [11]
is small compared to timescales involved with significant Section 5.8.9 on ‘Non-destructive examination’ includes a
changes in air gap. statement that the monitoring of fatigue sensitive joints
and / or reported crack-like indications may be an
Structural integrity monitoring methods that are reviewed acceptable alternative to analytical verification.
and discussed below are:
NORSOK N-005 [12]
• acoustic emission monitoring; Annex A of this document includes in-service inspection
• leak detection; methods. In the section on selection of methods it is
stated that
• air gap monitoring;
‘For certain purposes, Instrumentation Based
• global positioning system monitoring; Condition Monitoring, IBCM, can be used as a cost
effective alternative to conventional inspection
• fatigue gauge; methods, particularly for monitoring areas with
• mooring chain monitoring; limited accessibility, as a supplementary means to
e.g. verify novel design solutions. Typical
• continuous flooded member detection monitoring; applications of IBCM can be strain monitoring of
jacket structures, foundation behaviour during
• natural frequency response monitoring; extreme storms etc.’
• acoustic fingerprinting; Strain and deflection monitoring are also included in the
• strain monitoring. list of techniques.

Methods using ACFM and guided waves are also ISO 16587:2004 [13]
considered. This ISO standard deals more generally with means of
assessing structural condition, with reference to structural
Generally, bespoke equipment is required and cost is monitoring methods. It describes the performance
dependent on the specific application, installation and parameters for assessing the condition of structures,
operating requirements which can vary significantly. including types of measurement, factors for setting
acceptable performance limits, data acquisition
parameters for constructing uniform databases, and
REVIEW OF RELEVANT CODES, STANDARDS AND internationally accepted measurement guidance (e.g.
PUBLISHED DOCUMENTS terminology, transducer calibration, transducer mounting
and approved transfer function techniques).
This section presents a brief overview of relevant codes
and standards and other published documents with
respect to structural integrity monitoring ASSESSMENT OF HAZARDS, CONSEQUENCES AND
APPROPRIATE MONITORING TECHNIQUES
Relevant Codes and Standards
The relevance of structural monitoring to typical offshore
A number of offshore codes and standards make structural hazards was reviewed and the results are
reference to structural integrity monitoring. These include: summarised in Table 1.

ISO 19902, Section 24 [10] Hazard and Consequence Identification and Relevant
The ISO standard for fixed offshore structures, ISO 19902 Structural Integrity Monitoring Techniques
[10], includes a section on ‘in-service inspection and
structural integrity management’. In the commentary to Table 1 indicates that there are a number of damage
the main section there is a table (Table A.24.4-3) listing a parameters which cannot be monitored by current
range of inspection methods. An extract from this structural integrity monitoring techniques.
document comments on measuring the air gap viz:
Capability of Structural Integrity Monitoring
‘Where air gap measurement devices are correctly set Techniques
up, calibrated and maintained, continuous records of
wave heights and tide can provide very useful The previous section identified relevant structural integrity
information on environmental conditions. Where this monitoring techniques with respect to offshore structural
can be combined with directionality data and ideally hazards and consequences. Table 2 below summarises
some method of estimating actions (e.g. strain the applicability of each structural integrity monitoring
gauges), the data can be used in analyses and technique in terms of its capability to monitor a parameter
assessment of defects and of remaining life, possibly that impacts on structural integrity.
reducing conservatisms. Satellite surveying
techniques can often be used to determine levels.’

3 Copyright © 2008 by ASME

 Hazard Safety Critical Structural Prevention, mitigation, Consequences Relevant
Systems control measures techniques
Extreme Weather Jacket, Foundation, Adequate air gap, design Loss of stability AGM
Risers/Appurtenances and using adequate design Loss of air gap GPS
their supports wave height, redundancy in (Member buckling SM
design
Pile failure
Deck impact
Member severance)
Geotechnical Foundation Sea-bed surveys, Loss of air gap GPS
Hazards adequate foundation Platform tilt AGM
design, scour allowance, Pile failure
scour inspection,
measurement of Pile pull out
settlement/subsidence
Fatigue Jacket, Design for adequate Crack initiation AE
Risers/Appurtenances and fatigue life and Through thickness cracks CFMD
their supports, topsides inspectability, IMR, remote Member severance LD
monitoring
Widespread fatigue damage NFRM
(Breach of water tight integrity FG
Loss of stability) SM
Corrosion / Jacket, Topside Corrosion protection, Loss of wall thickness AE
materials structures, corrosion allowance, CP Cracking NFRM
degradation Risers/Appurtenances and monitoring, IMR Embrittlement FG
their supports
Wear
Erosion
Member buckling
Connection to SCE lost
(Breach of watertight integrity
Loss of stability)
Dropped Object Jacket, Design of key members for Member denting / buckling / Not generally
Risers/Appurtenances and bow and dent damage, severance monitored with
their supports, topsides management of crane Crack initiation SIM methods
operations (Breach of water tight integrity
Loss of stability)
Ship Collision Jacket Design for adequate Member denting / buckling / Not generally
energy absorption, control severance monitored with
on vessel operation, Crack initiation structural
warning systems Breach of water tight integrity integrity
monitoring
Loss of stability methods
Fire & Blast MSF, Accommodation Fire/blast walls, PFP, Loss of structural stiffness Not generally
module, TR, EER detection and warning Structural overload monitored with
structures, Fire/Blast systems, deluge system, Blast damage to steelwork structural
walls, caissons, exposed reduce leaks sources integrity
jacket legs, risers monitoring
methods
Loss of Station Moorings, dynamic Load measurement GPS
Keeping positioning system ACM
Change of Use Jacket, Foundation and Weight management, Pile failure AGM
Topside structures strengthening/modification Loss of air gap
Structural overload

AE - Acoustic emission GPS - Global positioning system

CFMD - Continuous flooded member detection LD - Leak detection
AGM - Air gap monitoring NFRM - Natural frequency response monitoring
FG - Fatigue gauge SM - Strain monitoring

Table 1: Structural integrity monitoring techniques used to monitor damage parameters

4 Copyright © 2008 by ASME

 The MTD publication [7] reviews acoustic emission
SIM technique Monitoring capability methods, noting that commercially available systems
Air Gap Monitoring Loss of air gap have been used offshore. It is of interest that [7] points
Global Positioning Loss of station keeping out that acoustic emission methods should not be
System Loss of air gap considered for crack detection since they are unsuitable
Acoustic Emission Fatigue crack initiation to locate unknown, non-propagating cracks.
Fatigue crack growth
Corrosion The report assesses the emission characteristics of steels
Continuous Member leak detection
used offshore, noting that emission from steels under
Flooded Member Through-thickness cracking
Detection Through-thickness corrosion cyclic loading is much greater than under steady loading
Leak Detection Breach of water tight integrity and depends mainly on the fracture toughness of the
Through-thickness cracking steel rather than its strength. It is also pointed out that
Through-thickness corrosion the signals from structural cracking need to be separated
Natural Frequency Member severance from extraneous noises.
Response Significant damage to members &
Monitoring joints The report indicates that recent advances in
Fatigue Gauge Fatigue cracking instrumentation and analysis methods have provided
Acoustic Through thickness cracking effective methods of achieving this separation. Two type
Fingerprinting (fully severed members) of filtering are described, spatial filtering, based on the
Strain Monitoring Local stress and loading regime
time of arrival of the AE signal, and parametric filtering,
Table 2: Monitoring Capability of SIM Techniques
which links the AE signal to the tension portion of the
loading cycled. The latter is less successful in the field.
Distribution analysis based on displaying the distribution
Table 2 indicates the range of parameters that can be of received signals has also been used. The report also
monitored with current techniques. More details on each considers the large problem of data handling, given the
of these techniques are provided below. vast amount of data generated by the technique.

Leak Detection
REVIEW OF STRUCUTRAL INTEGRITY MONITORING
TECHNIQUES In its simplest form, this monitoring system uses a sensor
to detect water and then raises an alarm via an
This section summarises the basic information available audible/visual unit. The technology in the system can
on the structural integrity monitoring techniques identified vary significantly from early inundation alarms (fluid level
above. Key characteristics of and considerations for the switches) to more advanced field effect detector cells,
use of these methods are presented in Annex 1. which produces a micro-electrical field that detects
disruptions caused by water.
Acoustic Emission Monitoring
HSE Offshore Information Sheet 5 [3] recommends that
Acoustic Emission (AE) is the transient acoustic stress- owners and operator of monohull FPSO and FSU
wave which results from changes in materials. The installations review their risk assessments for the flooding
principle of AE techniques is to use an arrangement of of machinery spaces below water level, and ensure that
sensors to detect characteristic sound patterns that might effective means are provided for the detection and control
signal the presence of structural anomalies locally in the of flooding. It also suggests that, if these areas are
structure. AE has numerous applications, although the unmanned for any length of time, it is good practice to
most relevant to offshore platforms is structural install CCTV that displays in the continuously manned
monitoring. The system has been used in areas that are control room.
known to be at a high risk of fatigue cracking and where
inspection is difficult, unreliable and/or costly. DNV standard SS-101 [1] requires an approved leak
detection system for semi-subs and jack-ups when the
The system can effectively monitor for crack initiation and fatigue utilisation index exceeds 1.0.
growth, and can be used in conjunction with strain
gauges to correlate AE signals to structural stress levels. Air Gap Monitoring
AE provides real time information on fatigue crack
initiation and crack growth and can be used to detect The air gap is defined as the positive difference between
fatigue cracks at early stages before conventional NDT the lowest point of the underside of the cellar deck and
methods would detect them. Raw data is analysed and the crest height of an extreme wave for a given return
put into a user-friendly format by the supplier. Due to period (often 100 years). The purpose for monitoring the
attenuation of the AE signal, this method is suitable for air gap is to establish whether the platform foundations
local monitoring over several metres in the structure. are suffering from subsidence, and also to establish if a
positive air gap exists. The methodology for calculating
the air gap has changed considerably over the past

5 Copyright © 2008 by ASME

decade. Simple methods such as a tape measure from
the cellar deck have been used, which in time have been
replaced by radar measurement. Measured values are
recorded and averaged over a given time period. A value
for the air gap can then be calculated. These methods
can yield ambiguous results in practice whilst also
suffering from poor repeatability, and this complicates
detection of trends over a long period of time.

Modern methods use GPS to monitor the air gap. The

first time the absolute level height is measured, a
reference point is established that will be used for all
repeat readings. This increases the repeatability and
reduces inaccuracies between surveys. The GPS
measurement from the reference point to the underside of
the cellar deck is also measured using GPS on the first Figure 1: Mid-scale specimen used for experiments
visit. This is to give an exact as-built measurement,
which is important because dimensions can vary
activates a galvanic cell (which remains completely
considerably from detailed drawings.
passive when dry). The power of the current is used to
generate an acoustic signal which is transmitted and
Global Positioning System Monitoring
received at the topsides. Each tubular member will
contain a device that will generate a unique signal and
The position of a floating structure can be monitored
therefore upon reception of a signal, the location of the
using a Global Positioning System (GPS). The basic
damage will be immediately identifiable. This method
GPS technology is not new and is well proven. The US
would be very realisable for new builds employing
DoD’s GPS network, available to all, has real-time
through-water telemetry. Whilst this is not as elegant a
accuracy in the region of 10m horizontally. Such systems
solution as the through-steel telemetry (because it
require hardware in the form of a GPS receiver and a
requires the use of a hydrophone) it is a very practical
user interface. Software is then required that can be
solution.
tailored to meet user requirements. The basic accuracy
of the system can be improved using a number of
A major concern is clearly the reliability of the device
different techniques.
itself. As one is unable to access the device once it is
installed it is difficult to claim that the device’s PFD
Fatigue Gauge
(Probability of Failure on Demand) is very high. To
establish the reliability of the technique, a set of devices
CrackFirst™ [14] is a fatigue damage sensor system
installed inside dry tubular members would be kept under
specifically designed for welded steel structures and was
controlled conditions for a long period of time.
patented in 1990. It was developed within a DTI funded
Periodically, a number of tubulars would be flooded and
collaborative project managed by TWI. It is currently
their performance recorded over time. This would enable
available from Strainstall. The CrackFirst™ sensor itself
the building of an operating history.
consists of a thin steel shim, 0.25mm thick which can be
attached to the target structure, close to a critical joint (up
The device has been tested for high frequencies using
to 10mm from the toe).
the specimen shown in Figure 1. This was designed to
maximise the possible submerged depth and to demand
Under the action of cyclic loading in the structure, a
the signal to pass through two nodes with a change in
fatigue pre-crack at the centre of the shim, introduced
direction at each. The signal attenuations from these
during manufacture, extends by fatigue growth, the
experiments at high frequencies are shown in Table 3:
magnitude of which is proportional to the cumulative
fatigue damage in the target joint. Sensor readings
Lower Upper
therefore provide an estimate of the rate at which the Realistic
Bound Bound
structure's design life is being consumed, allowing the
remaining safe life to be estimated and service inspection Lwet 0.3dB/m 1.3dB/m 3.5dB/m
intervals to be defined on the basis of usage. It is in the Ldry 0.0dB/m 0.5dB/m 0.7dB/m
final stages of development and field trials on earth LJ 4dB per joint 5dB per joint 9dB per joint
moving equipment, ships and offshore structures are
planned.
Table 3: Results of continuous FMD: internal tests
Continuous Flooded Member Detection: Internal
where Lwet is the attenuation per metre in wet conditions,
A device is placed inside a nominally dry tubular member. Ldry the same for dry conditions and LJ is the attenuation
If the member becomes flooded the salinity of the solution on passing through a joint.

6 Copyright © 2008 by ASME

 150
the water line - sway and torsional natural frequencies
140
can be distinguished. Measuring movements at different
130 elevations on the jacket structure makes it possible to
120 distinguish between the first sway natural frequency and
110 higher order sway natural frequencies.
100

The natural frequency and mode shape are controlled by

attenuation

90

80
the distribution of mass and stiffness of the system. If the
, dB

70
foundation stiffness and the system mass are assumed to
60

50
lower bound be constant then the natural frequency will vary only with
realistic changes in the platform stiffness. However, changes in
40 upper bound
30
soil stiffness are reflected by changes to frequencies in
20
both platform directions. Changes in frequency caused by
10 damage to a member tend to occur in the sway direction
0 to which the member contributes stiffness. In this way,
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
water depth global factors like water depth, marine growth etc can be
screened out.
Figure 2: Limits of applying through-steel telemetry using
high frequencies Any major structural damage to the platform is reflected
by a change in the sway stiffness in one or more modes.
This results in a reduction in the platform’s natural sway
Given that a signal loss of 120dB is the maximum loss at frequency which is detected and reported by exception.
which one could realistically detect a signal, Figure 2 Mode shapes also provide a useful measure of
shows the limits of potentially applying through-steel performance, as the ratio of movement of one face of the
telemetry. structure to that on another face should be constant.
However, damage to one face will result in relative
It can be seen that, given the realistic estimate of this movement which can be measured. Relative movements
method being applicable at up to 75m water depth and of different platform elevations can also indicate changes
that it is only suitable for new builds, the market would be of stiffness between elevations and hence a possible
limited. However, using through-water telemetry would indication of damage.
be very realistic and these limitations would not apply.
Typically, finite element analysis is performed alongside
Continuous Flooded Member Detection: External the measurement to assist in identifying which mode
shape corresponds to which frequency. A failure library is
A device is clamped to the outside of a nominally dry created using FEA so that immediately a change in
tubular member. The device periodically transmits a high frequency is reported, it is possible to identify which
frequency acoustic signal through the member and member is the most likely to have failed.
detects for attenuation of the signal. A highly attenuated
signal would indicate the presence of water inside the Report [6] concluded that structural monitoring using
member. Upon detecting a change the device would several sets of accelerometers positioned above the
send an alarm signal through the steel or the water which water line is sensitive enough to detect 1-2% reductions
would be indicated in the control room. in fundamental natural frequencies and which face of the
structure is affected. The MTD publication [7] noted that
Natural Frequency Response Monitoring frequencies can be obtained to accuracies to ~1% and
deformed shapes to about 10% and that trials had been
On-line monitoring (OLM) and FMD are complementary carried out on several North Sea platforms.
techniques. The technique provides continuous
monitoring and is based on the principle that the natural Assessment of damage to individual specific members is
frequencies (and mode shapes) of a jacket structure will not possible using a global monitoring system, with
change as a result of a reduction in the stiffness of the sensors above the water-line. Monitoring for damaged
jacket, resulting from damage. The work reported in [15] members would require a network of transducers,
reviewed the principles of monitoring, identifying the possibly one on each member. It is recommended that
mode shapes for the first three natural frequencies of a the effects of different levels of damage to each generic
jacket. These natural frequencies are measured using type of structure needs to be assessed so that the
sensitive accelerometers, mounted on the structure (on sensitivity of a suitable structural monitoring system can
the topsides and subsea) and can detect sway be determined. Methods for calculating safe and unsafe
movements of the platform due to wave loading. By structures need clarification – this is depicted in Figure 3.
measuring movements at different locations in the Improvements to the modelling of complex structures
structure - monitoring of a structure could be carried out using finite element analysis can be made if access to
by obtaining vibration frequency spectra above or below real data is available to allow model updating. Structural
monitoring could be part of the design process to aid

7 Copyright © 2008 by ASME

 1.0 Acceptablereductioninstrength

Reduction
nstrength

OLMApplicable
OLMcannot detect failureof thismember but
it isnot structurallycritical
OLMdefinitelynot applicable

DetectableLimit Changeinfrequency

Figure 3: Applicability of OLM

Figure 4: Results from OLM JIP [15]

optimisation of structural design with respect to future bracing schemes. For jackets with more than 4 legs the
monitoring. detection of damage may become more difficult. That
said, it may be possible to incorporate a larger array of
A relatively recent joint industry project investigating the accelerometers and to link them together in the time
feasibility of on-line monitoring based on natural domain to monitor modal shapes as well as frequencies
frequency response is discussed in [15]. OLM requires a in order to try and identify damage.
degree of structural robustness, which can be determined
for each platform and in the study the changes in Further, as illustrated above, members which cause small
frequency have been correlated with robustness. This changes in frequency tend not to be structurally
showed the need to improve on the measurement of significant members. It is usually the members which
frequency change compared to background and work by cause a large reduction in structural strength that also
Fugro, as part of the joint industry project, using several cause a large change in frequency.
different transformation methods has enabled the
sensitivity of the measured frequency change to be There is no regulatory requirement at present for the
improved significantly (by a factor of between 2 and 3). implementation of this method. However, it should be
noted that there are at least twenty platforms with natural
In the JIP study, 13 different platform types were frequency monitoring systems installed worldwide. It is
investigated, and the change expected for member loss estimated that there are some 7 systems on the UKCS, 3
compared with measurable stiffness changes, with in the rest of Europe and the remainder between Mexico,
account taken of robustness and platform geometry. Canada, the Caspian Sea and West Africa. It is also
Results from the study are shown in Figure 4. The study known that at least eight systems have been ordered
suggested that for many 4-legged platforms OLM is a recently.
viable technique, with most member failures detectable.
For these FMD is often considered as a marginal Figures 5 to 9 were taken from the OLM JIP [15]
technique because of limited redundancy. demonstrating the applicability of natural frequency
monitoring is possible for four-legged jackets of different
The method is only sensitive enough to detect changes in bracing configurations. These graphs show that almost all
frequency of approximately 0.5%. This means that the member severances which reduce strength by more than
method cannot detect minor damage such as small 10% are detectable with confidence by using an online
defects. In fact, even in low redundancy jackets with monitoring system. If a 0.5% limit was considered than
single diagonal bracing systems, the detectable defect all of the cases considered could be detected. In these
size using this method is an 80% circumferential through- cases the green area shows the combined limit of a
wall defect. reduction in strength of no greater than 10% with 1%
change in frequency (since a 1% change in frequency
The limit in sensitivity also means that the method is less can be detected with confidence).
easy to employ for heavier jackets with high redundancy

8 Copyright © 2008 by ASME

 Figure 5: Frequency response for single diagonal configuration

Figure 6: Frequency response for K-braced configuration

Figure 7: Frequency response for inverted K-braced configuration

9 Copyright © 2008 by ASME

 Figure 8: Frequency response for diamond-braced configuration

Figure 9: Frequency response for X-braced configuration

Acoustic Fingerprinting Researchers have also done work to diagnose failure by

using time of flight computation on the received signals
Acoustic fingerprinting involves the transmission of that they claim would be able to identify the member or
acoustic signals into a jacket structure at locations above possibly a structural locale in which the damage is
the maximum water level. The signal is generally located. The research work carried out to develop this
transmitted into one or more legs. Receivers are placed technique is most fully illustrated by reference to HSE
also above the water level and ‘listen’ to the signal that is Research Report 325 [16].
returned, reporting changes and attempting to diagnose
damage from the change in signal. Anchor Chain Monitoring

This technique would enable continuous structural Such systems consist of a sonar array positioned beneath
integrity monitoring to be retrofitted onto any platform. It the platform (see Figure 10), which emits signals in and
relies on the complex behaviour of acoustic signals around the horizontal plane. The system then detects
through the steel, with reflections and refractions and analyses reverberating signals from items that are
occurring at section changes and nodes. Despite the within the monitoring region. This data can then be used
complexity of the acoustic transmission path, the to determine the precise location of these items and to
technique relies upon the fact that if the transmitted signal continuously monitor their position. If there is a problem
is self-same, then so will be the received signal. with the mooring of a platform the system will alert the

10 Copyright © 2008 by ASME

 supply, and transmits data about the condition of the
structure wirelessly using a bluetooth connection. The
array consists of a ring of piezoelectric transducer
elements for excitation and reception of the guided wave.
The properties and coupling of the transducers has been
studied and optimized to achieve a sufficient excitation
amplitude and good measurement sensitivity. The
compact array device has been designed for the
inspection of large areas with minimum power
consumption, necessary for long term operation
independent of external power sources.

The sensitivity of the measurement method to typical

Figure 10: Sonar wave transmission structural defects has been studied experimentally and
theoretically. The reflection and mode conversion of the
employed guided ultrasonic wave at model defects and
structural features is calculated numerically employing a
operator to the issue immediately via an audio/visual three-dimensional finite element code and verified in
alarm. laboratory experiments. Corrosion damage often results
in large area thickness reduction and is modelled as a
Strain Monitoring circular part-through hole. The scattering and mode
conversion of the first antisymmetric Lamb wave mode A0
Strain monitoring is carried out to determine the stress or at such defects is studied. Good agreement with
loading regime in part of a structure. There are a number measurement results in the laboratory is found and the
of strain measurement techniques available including sensitivity of the guided wave measurement to such a
conventional strain gauging, fibre optics and stress kind of defect can be predicted.
probes. Typically, gauges are installed away from stress
concentrations and in such a way that the global
structural loading can be determined (e.g. 4 quadrants INDUSTRY EXPERIENCE OF STRUCTURAL
around a brace). MONITORING

Monitoring with ACFM Acoustic Emission Monitoring of Ninian Southern

ACFM had originally developed to replace ACPD for [18] describes the background to the use of acoustic
underwater crack sizing. ACFM is now able to provide emission (AE) monitoring of North Sea platforms and the
many benefits in crack growth monitoring, Two potential application of the method to the monitoring of sub-sea
future applications for ACFM are monitoring existing welds in the Ninian Southern platform. This monitoring
cracks underwater during the winter and remote was fully automated and initially used a taut-wire system
monitoring of unmanned installations. to relay signals to the platform and to a modem for data
transfer to shore.
Permanent Structural Monitoring using Guided
Waves [17] The decision to use AE monitoring was taken following
the severance of a horizontal brace as a result of a
Fast inspection of large areas of plate-like structures can fatigue crack growing at one end of an access window.
be achieved employing guided ultrasonic waves. Guided Detailed NDE inspection of other access windows had
ultrasonic wave testing utilizes a lower frequency region shown a large number of similar defects of various sizes.
than standard ultrasonic testing (UT), usually in the order Several were repaired using saturation diving. It was
of several hundred kHz. The excited wave has a mode decided to monitor some of the remaining ones by using
shape through the thickness of the structure and can conventional NDE methods, such as ultrasonics. One
propagate over large distances along the structure. Such particular remaining defect had a predicted remaining life
measurements have been successfully performed on of only 5 years and it was decided to monitor this using
pipelines, where propagation distances of up to hundreds AE methods.
of meters were realized. This allows the fast and cost-
efficient monitoring of difficult-to-access structures from a It was found that measured defect sizes from the AE
single sensor location. results were in good agreement with previous data from
other NDE methods. Over the three-year monitoring
For the practical long-term monitoring of structural period, defect growth was found to be minimal and it was
integrity, a permanently attached guided ultrasonic wave concluded that a repair was not necessary at that stage.
array prototype is being designed and built at UCL [17].
The prototype is developed as a remote sensor that runs The paper also describes the development of a
autonomously, i.e., independent of external energy miniaturised AE sensor capable of remote operation,

11 Copyright © 2008 by ASME

which was trialled on the Ninian platform with some general the studies undertaken at that time were
limited success. It was intended to operate the sensor considered disappointing in their ability to detect sufficient
without any wires to the surface, using sub-sea data damage to make the techniques worth developing further.
storage.
Overall, the report concluded that natural frequency
Natural Frequency Monitoring of Forties A, Heather monitoring is a cheap and reliable method of detecting
and Piper Alpha [5] changes in platform response which equate to changes in
stiffness of ~3%. This level of change in stiffness is
The report [5] reviewed three OSO commissioned studies sufficient to detect severance of individual main members
to evaluate the potential of structural monitoring. The on some configurations of jacket type structures.
platforms involved included Forties A, Heather and Piper However for more highly redundant types of structures
Alpha. The studies used accelerometers both subsea the detectable level of change in stiffness would equate to
and at deck level. Results from these and some other severance of several members. The report postulated
related studies led to some significant conclusions: that the level of stiffness change that could be detected
would be less than that before the residual strength
• Stability of natural frequencies: measurements became critical, although this was not demonstrated. A
taken over one years showed that the variability for more recent evaluation of natural frequency monitoring is
a typical 4-leg platform could be up to 1-2%. reported in [15] and reviewed elsewhere in this paper
Indications of change outside this variability could
be considered significant. Natural Frequency Response Monitoring of Ninian
• Sensitivity of natural frequencies to damage: Southern
severance of a single member would affect the
overall natural frequency to an extent dependent on The system was installed on Ninian Southern following a
the level of member redundancy of the jacket and member severance. Following repair the platform’s
also on the contribution that that member makes to frequency was detected as increasing.
the dynamic stiffness of the platform at that
particular frequency. Models were developed in On-Line Monitoring of Thistle
several of the studies and the report reviewed the
findings. In some cases member severance An on-line device for detection of flooded members is
resulted in changes to sway or torsion frequency by being developed by MMI with funding from NESTA, HSE
as little as 1-2% and hence was masked by the and BP [19]. The device consists of a passive detection
variability in the natural frequency. In other cases unit that is inside tubular members of jackets. When it is
member severance resulted in changes of up to activated by becoming wet a signal is emitted which can
10% and hence measurable as significant. The be detected externally. A preliminary feasibility study has
change was very dependent on the type of shown that signals can be transmitted acoustically to a
platform. receiver. Small-scale trails have been undertaken on a
model of the Thistle jacket which demonstrated that
Severance of individual members on the 8-leg acoustic transmission was feasible. MMI will be providing
Ninian Northern platform resulted in frequency the technical guidance with UMIST developing the
changes no more than 1.8% which were not laboratory model and prototypes. In due course field
measurable compared to the background testing of the device would be undertaken and a suitable
variability. Changes due to member severance for site still had to be located.
the 4-leg Ninian Southern platform were larger, up
to 11.5% for severance of a main diagonal, and One of the objectives of the programme is to select the
hence measurable compared to the background. optimum modes and frequency for effective transmission
through the structure, recognising that losses do occur at
It was concluded that severance of a single nodes. The power requirements also have to be
member could be detected on platforms with low- established, together with a suitable power source to
redundant member configurations, whereas for a provide long term energy. The device is primarily for
higher level of redundancy several severances fitting to new structures and individual devices would
would be required to produce a significant change need to be coded in some way so that their position could
which could be detected. be identified if a signal was received.

Active monitoring of a 4-leg platform with low-redundancy FOINAVON Umbilical Monitoring System: VIV
bracing was able to demonstrate the changes due to Considerations [20]
severance of a horizontal member and its subsequent
repair. The measured changes (in the range of 2.5-4.5%) Vortex-induced vibrations (VIV) occur on the Foinavon
compared well with finite element predictions. A flexible risers at up to 600m off the Shetlands. The
subsequent test with a severance of a diagonal member problem was to measure the bending and tensile stress at
resulted in a measured change of 10.3% compared with a the vessel in respect of the following topics:
predicted value of 10.7%; showing close agreement. In

12 Copyright © 2008 by ASME

 • correlation between the expectations and the demonstrably ALARP, it is considered that the
realities; circumstances in which provision of a monitoring system
to demonstrate ALARP will occur more frequently as
• measurements of responses to mooring, wave and
more and more structures are pushed beyond design life.
VIV frequencies were expected to be minutes, 4-20
seconds and up to 10 Hz, respectively;
• measurement of accumulated damage was CONCLUSIONS
required;
• by implication one would expect similarities with the • Many continuous monitoring techniques are
risers themselves; available for the assurance of offshore jacket
structural integrity.
• examine VIV and establish feedback for future
design; • The range of these techniques is very varied in terms
of maturity and applicability.
• measure asset integrity.
• There is little guidance on when and how the use of
A multi-cored curve sensor was incorporated with the continuous monitoring techniques is recommended.
riser which passed through a bend constrictor in the hull
bottom. The curvature was sensed throughout the riser • A number of monitoring systems have already been
and tensions and curves associated with heave, roll and used on offshore installations and it is recommended
pitch were determined. Planar plots were made and the that Structural Integrity Management places
curvature converted to displacements by FE analysis. continuous monitoring techniques alongside periodic
VIV measurements were made for varying currents at inspection techniques as tools for integrity
known depths. assurance.
• The use of continuous monitoring techniques should
It was concluded hat VIV can be reasonable modelled - be strongly considered for platforms that operate
both current and vessel motions reduce VIV. A fibre optic outwith their original intended lifetime.
approach was suggested for the future.

REFERENCES
DISCUSSION
[1] Det Norske Veritas, OSS-101, Rules for
It is clear that the offshore industry has implemented Classification of Offshore Drilling and Support Units,
several techniques during the last few decades in order to Special Provisions for Ageing Mobile Offshore and
monitor (continuously) structural integrity of offshore Self-Elevating Structures, 2007.
structures. In general, these have been applied on a
bespoke, as-required basis, and it is probably fair to say [2] Health & Safety Executive, Offshore Installations and
that structural health monitoring, or continuous structural Wells (Design & Construction etc.) Regulations, HSE
monitoring has not been widely embraced by the industry, Books, London, 1996.
which has favoured periodic inspection schemes instead.
[3] Health & Safety Executive, Ageing Semi-submersible
As structures are increasingly called upon to operate Installations, Offshore Information Sheet 5, 2007.
beyond their original design life there is a divergence of
the gap between the knowledge of, and the actual
[4] Structural Integrity Monitoring Network, SIMONET,
structural integrity. This ‘knowledge gap’ is caused
www.simonet.org.uk.
because the likelihood of individual or combinations of
fatigue failures increases markedly beyond design life
and therefore the possibility of the structure existing in an [5] Fugro, Review of Structural Monitoring, HSE report
unknown dangerously weak condition also increase. OTO 97 040, HSE Books, 1997.

One way of mitigating this risk or closing the knowledge [6] Health & Safety Executive, Progress in Structural
gap is by implementation of a system that continuously Monitoring, Report OTO 98 046, HSE Books.
monitors for structural degradation. There exists a wide
range of available systems, from those concentrating on [7] Marine Technology Directorate, Underwater
detecting global damage to those that concentrate on Inspection of Steel Offshore Installations:
detecting the onset of local crack growth and each have Implementation of a New Approach, Publication
strengths and weaknesses that will make them more 89/104, 1989.
suited to certain circumstances.
[8] Marine Technology Directorate, Structural Integrity
In a regulatory regime that requires an offshore operator Monitoring for the Offshore Industry, Marine
to demonstrate that the risks to its personnel are Research Review 1, 1993.

13 Copyright © 2008 by ASME

[9] Health & Safety Executive, Structural Integrity
Monitoring - Review and Appraisal of Current
Technologies for Offshore Applications, Atkins, 2007,
to be published.

[10] International Standards Organisation, ISO

19902:2007, Petroleum & Natural Gas Industries –
Offshore Structures, Fixed Offshore Structures.

[11] American Petroleum Institute, Recommended

Practice for the Structural Integrity Management of
Fixed Offshore Structures, Draft, 2007.

[12] NORSOK, Condition Monitoring of Load Bearing

Structures, N-005, 1997.

[13] International Standards Organisation, Performance

Parameters for Condition Monitoring of Structures, ISO
16587, 2004.

[14] TWI, CrackFirst TM - A New Sensor System to Assist

in Structural Health Monitoring, Connect, No.135,
March/April 2005.

[15] Sanderson, D.J., Price, A., Nelson, A., & Stacey, A.,
The Applicability of 0n-line Monitoring for the
Assurance of Fixed Jacket Structures, Paper 2002-
28614, Proceedings of the 21st International
Conference on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic
Engineering, Oslo, June 2002, American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, New York.

[16] Health & Safety Executive, Cost Effective Structural

Monitoring, Mecon Ltd, Research report RR326,
HSE Books, 2005.

[17] Fromme, P., Permanent Structural Monitoring using

Guided Waves for Oil Industry Structures, Dept. of
Mechanical Engineering, UCL, 2003, presented at
Simonet seminar: www.simonet.org.uk.

[18] Mitchell, J. S., & Rogers, L. M., Monitoring Structural

Integrity of North Sea Production Platforms by
Acoustic Emission, OTC Conference proceedings,
Paper OTC 6957, OTC Conference, Houston 1992.

[19] Joint Industry Project (MMI, NESTA, BP, HSE),

Development of an On-line Device for Detection of
Flooded Members, 2001, Presented at Simonet
seminar, www.simonet.org.uk.

[20] FOINAVON Umbilical Monitoring System, UCL in

collaboration with MIT, Norwegian Institute of
Science & Technology, and BP, 2001, Presented at
Simonet seminar, www.simonet.org.uk.

14 Copyright © 2008 by ASME

 ANNEX 1 – COMPARISON OF CHARACTERISTICS OF STRUCTURAL MONITORING METHODS

Inspection Maturity in offshore Limitations Ease of installation Interrogation method Reliability / Accuracy Maintenance
Method industry Probability of
detection
Generally regarded as Data can be difficult Requires specialist Raw data needs to be Generally reliable Modern AE Requires
suitable for monitoring of to interpret and installation - can be processed by specialist with a high systems are very periodic
safety critical members. needs to be expensive. All sensors software. Data is presented probability of accurate and can specialist
Has been used for over a analysed by an must be hardwired back to the client in a user-friendly detection. detect crack maintenance
Acoustic decade. & only for engineer. System to a central control unit format. initiation, and
Emission specific high criticality can be prone to which may be some propagation. recalibration.
Monitoring applications, not as a background noise. distance away.
general monitoring
technique due to
intensive interrogation
and high associated
costs.
Untested in major Only tested on Relatively easy to Algorithms which analyse Unproven. Unproven. Claimed to be
structures. Research severed members. install, requiring no the received signal in the standalone but
work isolated to Not thought to be access to restricted frequency domain are would need
laboratory scale tests at sensitive enough to areas. Transmitting and interrogated for changes routine
Acoustic present. defect anything receiving equipment which are reported by calibration to in
Fingerprinting other than fully generally installed exception. The signal may order to meet
severed members. above splash zone. be transmitted as often or any claimed
Cabling may be infrequently as desired. performance
required back to control standards.
room.
Carried out for over a Requires specialist Periodic monitoring The contractor should Standard An accuracy of up Any
decade but the methods contractor to carry methods do not require provide the survey results in equipment is used to 50mm can be maintenance
used have changed out measurements. installation of hardware. a post processed format and for the survey and achieved required would
Air Gap significantly over time. minimal interpretation should reliability is not be carried out by
Monitoring Now a standard be required. considered the specialist
monitoring procedure problematic. contractor.
and is widely used in the
offshore industry.
Widely used Beam scatter - the Relatively easy to Any potential movement High - any Simultaneous Long-term
transducer may not install as there are no outside the given parameters movement outside monitoring of all deployment /
always detect a mechanically moving is detected by an audio / the specified riser and anchor immersion
considerable parts. Also, long-term visual alarm. The relative parameters will chain positions possible.
Anchor Chain amount of the deployment is possible. position data are converted immediately possible, providing Requires
Monitoring reflected beam from analogue to digital generate an alarm. high precision relatively
form, and analysed by measurements of minimal
computer. absolute and maintenance as
relative positions.. there are no
moving parts.

15 Copyright © 2008 by ASME

 Inspection Maturity in Limitations Ease of installation Interrogation Reliability / Accuracy Maintenance
Method offshore industry method Probability of
detection
None. Untried. Battery life - possible to reduce Requires designing and Periodic checks for Unproven Accuracy potentially Requires ROV
Continuous Untested power requirements using installing a clamp for the changes to the as high as for FMD and diver
Flooded periodic signals. However, limit transducer. Problems reflected signal. (approx. 90%). intervention
Member of ten years on battery reliability due to high cost and Any change results Susceptible to signal
Detection: requiring battery replacement by large wave loads. in the transmission drift, loss of clamp
External diver or ROV. into the jacket structure. of an alarm signal robustness,
Splash zone difficult to monitor. to the control room. interpretation errors.
None. Untried. Only suitable for new builds. Can only be installed Continuous Unknown Potential for high Not possible
Untested at full scale Limitations on signal attenuation during the construction monitoring. accuracy after installation:
Continuous (due to losses into the water) phase. Devices placed Received signal inaccessible –
Flooded can be avoided by using lower inside tubular members raises alarm located iwithin
Member frequencies. More power and need to remain in members
Detection: required to generate lower position to guarantee
Internal frequencies. plash zone good acoustic contact
members difficult to monitor. during load-out and
installation (incl. piling).
Limited development Attached by either On-board Limited Claims to bound a Limited
Attachment to the structure and
in the offshore industry threaded studs or by electronics unit information to class F detail. information
sufficiently close to the weld toe
adhesive bonding. A records data in a date However, the available for
for it to respond to damage may
sealed enclosure is fitted memory which can significant inherent offshore
Fatigue Gauge be difficult, particularly
over the whole unit to be downloaded to a scatter in the fatigue applications
underwater; may be vulnerable
protect against laptop PC via a data needs to be
to offshore environmental
mechanical damage and wireless link or to a considered.
conditions; and cannot be
corrosion. datalogger
replaced when damaged.
GPS is widely used in Costs can increase significantly; No installation of Monitors position Mature Basic packages Maintenance
the offshore industry Ongoing subscription may be permanent equipment and log data, using technology with offer accuracies in requirements for
and is generally a required (to supplier for required enhanced GPS no known the order of 1m. GPS systems
mature technology processing service) services. System problems with This is improved to are generally
Global will also raise reliability approximately 10cm minimal
alarms based on horizontally from
Positioning
user-defined premium services.
System parameters.
Monitoring Correction data
delivered to
receiver via
communication
satellites.
Simple alarm systems Some systems rely on a clean System requires Typical system The technology There are a number Modern water
have been used for environment; installation by an would raise an appears to be of different sensor sensors have no
decades to warn of May be affected by condensation electrician alarm when water relatively mature options, some of moving parts
high bilge water in or humidity; is detected and will and no reliability which can detect and so require
ship hulls. Semi- indicate in which issues have water levels of 3mm little or no
Leak submersible offshore Extensive cabling may be zone this occurs been reported (measured from the maintenance.
Detection platforms have also required - wireless systems not with latest floor level)
employed leak well suited to typical semi-sub systems.
detectors, which are environments.
often fairly dated.

16 Copyright © 2008 by ASME

 Inspection Maturity in Limitations Ease of installation Interrogation Reliability / Accuracy Maintenance
Method offshore industry method Probability of
detection
Very mature The method is only sensitive Relatively Daily interrogation Dependent on False positives have Minimal
technique – used enough to detect changes in straightforward. Self of the data. platform not yet been
since 1970s on UKCS frequency of approximately 0.5%. contained units placed Changes reported configuration reported. Any
Cannot detect small defects – JIP on the topsides. Cabled by exception. FEA should be frequency changes
data suggest detectable defect is back to PCs in control used to predict are attributable to a
80% circumferential through-wall room or hard-wired expected change in mass or
defect through to onshore frequency stiffness. If
location. changes due to frequency change
member occurs
Natural severance. predominantly in
Frequency Predictions of one direction, this is
Response frequency shifts an accurate
Monitoring <0.5% may imply indication that this is
undetectable caused by damage
failure. Members in that frame.
with changes
less than 1%
may also require
examination of
more than one
sway mode or a
torsional mode.
Widely used Only measures stress changes, Strain gauge Via a High reliability Generally high. Can Requires
not absolute stress levels; installation generally - computerised be affected by periodic
Equipment can be sensitive to surface preparation system which external causes maintenance to
damage by the environment; required. Cabling provides a time- such as wiring ensure integrity
Strain Requires calibration and can be requirements may strain history. interference, and connection
Monitoring sensitive to drift over time. complicate installation temperature of strain gauges
Sensitive to positioning of gauge in remote locations. variations, bridge
in areas with steep stress Environmental set-up and other
gradients. interactions should be factors.
considered.

17 Copyright © 2008 by ASME