New Ideas in Psychology 69 (2023) 100994

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New Ideas in Psychology

Spirituality of the developing person according to Maslow

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords Traditionally, children have generally been considered as developmentally immature, and unable to experience
Spirituality spirituality. The results of more recent studies, however, show that children have an inborn spiritual nature,
Religion which seems to be a natural and integral aspect of human development and cannot be studied in isolation,
Faith
ignoring the other dimensions of one’s being. This article aims to (1) reflect on how spirituality evolves among
Developing person
Children
children; (2) explore Maslow’s view on the Developing Person’s Spirituality; and (3) Critically review Maslow’s
Adolescents theory of the Spirituality of the Developing Person.
Spiritual experiences
Maslow’ theory on young people’s spirituality
Criticism of Maslow’s theory

1. Aim and scope of the study 2. The meaning of spirituality

This article aims to: (1) study on how spirituality evolves among Sociologists, theologians, philosophers, and psychologists all have
children and adolescents (2) explore how Maslow perceives spirituality spoken about spirituality with different definitions. In the following
is in the developing person and (3) make a critical reflection on Mas­ section, the most famous theories are studied.
low’s theory of Spirituality. Parents, educators and stakeholders should There are various definitions of spirituality: Spirituality is the
take into consideration all aspects of human development including the shaping of values and the direction of individual life in the world (Fulton
‘Spiritual’ one in order to better comprehend and promote the devel­ & Moore, 1995; Goddard, 1995; Paton, 1996). It is the inner connection
opment of a person’s global growth (i.e., development in all aspects of with oneself, others, the universe, nature and transcendent affairs
human growth: not only physically, mentally, emotionally, socially, (Harrison, 1993; Heriot, 1992; Lukoff, Lu, & Turner, 1992; Miller,
ethically, but spiritually as well). 1995).
Just to clarify the meaning of this ‘global’ development the two Spirituality is also a means of activating one to transcend oneself to
following examples are proposed below: the point where one understands the experiences of others (Paton, 1996;
Presti, 1990; Reed, 1992; Ross, 1995).
a) If parents and educators seek to prevent their children/adolescents Spirituality from Durkheim’s sociologist’s viewpoint, whatever is the
from risk behaviors, they might benefit not only from young people’s source of cooperation, which leads people to benevolence for their same
cognitive, emotional or social skills, but they can also engage their species beings, and also persuade them to regulate their behavior on a
spiritual traits, such as connectedness, self-transcendence, love to basis other than maintaining their selfishness, is a spiritual and moral
people and to God. aspect (Durkheim, 1937/1895, 398; Quoted by Delaney, 2009). The
b) If medical doctors and nurses seek to help their patients heal, they famous German sociologist and philosopher George Simmel considers
might not only use medication and emotional support, but also spiritual life to be beyond its time and to deal with future issues (Simmel,
include spiritual support in their services, such as faith to God or 1979). In general, according to sociologists, spirituality is summarized
effort to find meaning in what is happening in one’s life. in social factors, humanitarian and philanthropic relations.

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: eleonorapaplouca@gmail.com, E.Papaleontiou@euc.ac.cy (E. Papaleontiou - Louca), S.Esmailnia@cmu.ac.ir (S. Esmailnia), anoucyp-intercyp@
cytanet.com.cy (N. Thoma).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.newideapsych.2022.100994
Received 18 February 2022; Received in revised form 30 October 2022; Accepted 30 October 2022
Available online 24 December 2022
0732-118X/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
E. Papaleontiou - Louca et al. New Ideas in Psychology 69 (2023) 100994

3. Characteristics of spirituality and/or faith have different meanings but are often used interchangeably
(Papaleontiou - Louca, 2016).
Spirituality is a complex concept that includes dimensions such as Spirituality, usually refers to a subjective inner state of being that can
the meaning and purpose of life, love, respect, peace, compassion, hope be developed either within the context of religion or outside of it
and peace. Spirituality can enhance quality of life and health-seeking (Goldstein, 2010, pp. 205–206; Beck, 1986; Canda, 1997; Carroll, 1998;
behaviors and ameliorate their health (McSherry & Ross, 2010; Rush­ Chandler, Holden, & Kolander, 1992; Cook, Borman, Moore, & Kunkel,
ton, 2014). This might be the reason why addressing spiritual care is 2000; Hinterkopf, 1994; Hodge, Cardenas, & Montoya, 2001;
nowadays emphasized across almost all disciplines, i.e., medicine, Ingersoll, 1994; Pargament & Mahoney, 2002; Shafranske & Malo­
nursing, social work, chaplaincy, psychology and education (Puchalski ney, 1990; Westgate, 1996; all cited in Papaleontiou–Louca, 2016).
& Ferrell, 2010). Especially well-known is Dr. Balboni’s studies out­ Spirituality may be related to religion for a number of people, but not for
lining the role of spirituality in medicine and palliative care, advancing others, such as an atheist or a yoga practitioner (Tanyi, 2002).
clinical care, education and research (Puchalski, 2009). So, an individual can be both spiritual and religious, spiritual but not
Spirituality has been also characterized as a pivotal factor in coping religious, religious but not spiritual, or neither spiritual nor religious
with psychosocial problems and increasing life satisfaction and resil­ (Zinnbauer et al., 1997).
ience in children and adolescents (Cotton, Zebracki, Rosenthal, Tsevat, The second category of Zinnbauer’s et al. (1997) division, i.e. ‘spir­
& Drotar, 2006; Raftopoulos & Bates, 2011). In a meta-analytic study, it itual but not religious’, refers to the subset of people who do not belong
was determined that spirituality positively affects the psychological into a religious belief system, or a higher power, but rather to set of
consequences of adolescents, such as diminishing risk-taking behaviors values as it will be described later in this article.
and depression and increasing well-being and self-concept (Yonker, More specifically, there are experts who would disagree with the
Schnabelrauch, & DeHaan, 2012). above categorization and believe that everyone has spirituality, even if
Spiritual experiences can have powerful effects on the lives of chil­ they do not adhere to a religion.” Smith-Stoner and Young (2007) for
dren and adolescents; They affect their moral development, strengthen example, who studied atheists, Wicca practitioners and other spiritual
their social connections, and regulate their behaviors with themselves groups, supported the case that everyone has spirituality – even if their
(Barnes, Plotnikoff, Fox, & Pendleton, 2000). spiritual beliefs relate to nature.
In spite of its subjective, vague, personal, and difficult to be defined - Moreover, the emphasis and focus in Religion is put usually in God or
nature, spirituality has been described as one’s engagement or rela­ a supernatural being, as well as person’s effort to develop unity with this
tionship with the transcendent, such as with God or the gods (Dossey & being/God, while in Spirituality, the emphasis is on the ‘self’ and the
Guzzetta, 1994; Heriot, 1992; Narayanasamy, 1996) or with some­ subjective way individuals seek and express meaning and purpose and
thing/somebody holy, beyond the material world (Miller & Thoresen, the way they experience their connectedness to the moment, to self, to
2003). others, to nature, and to the significant or sacred" (Brady, 2020). So,
There is, though, also a subset of people who do not adhere to a spirituality can be a solitary experience of the divine, which usually
religious belief system nor a higher power. For these people spirituality occurs in private, without following any rules, but rather aiming at
is usually expressed in other ways such as the feeling of awe, the search people’s best interests; on the other hand, religion usually involves both
for meaning in life, the feeling of connectivity with others, etc. Other a group and a personal connection to the divine which aims to the
scholars give it a more general and universally acceptable content, such connectedness to God.
as, for example, a person’s attempt to give a purpose and some meaning Of course, religion and spirituality are not mutually exclusive. What
to one’s life and to one’s contacts with the world not being limited to they probably have in common, is the concept of ‘sacred’, and the
oneself (Puchalski et al., 2009). It has been also characterized as a ‘transcendence’ which bind religiosity and spirituality together. Actu­
feeling of insight, reflective thought and wondering about existential ally, there is evidence (Arrey, Bilsen, Lacor, & Deschepper, 2016) to
questions (Hart 2006) such as: ‘Who am I?’, ‘Where do I come from?’, suggest that although spirituality and religiousness are defined as
‘Why did I come into this world?’ ‘What is the purpose of life?’, ‘Which is different concepts, they are not so independent in practice. In Arrey’s
the right way to act/behave?’, ‘Why is there so much misery in this et al. (2016) study, almost all participants considered themselves both
world?’ It can also be experienced as a feeling of self-transcendence, at spiritual and religious in their belief in God or a Higher Pepper. Ac­
which someone feels that s/he belongs in something greater than the cording to Legere (1984) although spirituality refers more to experi­
self, e.g., a feeling of the divine (Hart 2006; Goldstein, 2010), an ences and religiosity is related to the mentalization of these experiences,
openness and search for connectedness either to oneself or to others, as both are associated with the concept of ‘sanctuary’ (Zinnbauer & Par­
well as to someone greater than oneself, such as a higher power, the gament, 2005), as well as with issues of great value. They are also both
divine or God. It can also be described as seeking the purpose in life, and dynamic, searching processes, which change and evolve over time in
a disposition towards charity and generosity; having values, ideas and people’s journey in life.
beliefs about what is good or bad; experience of awe and mystery (Hay Indeed, similar to religiosity, spirituality is often described as human
and Nye 2006; Benson, Roehlkepartain, & Rude, 2003); wondering beings’ relationship with a higher power (Armstrong, 1996), as "the
about things in the world, and philosophizing about the meaning of human response to God’s gracious call to a relationship with Himself"
life/death and other spiritual themes; searching for insight and wisdom; (Benner 1989, p. 20), "a subjective experience of the sacred" (Vaughan,
and deep experiences in nature and community (Büssing et al., 2006; 1991, p. 105), dealing with ultimate purposes, with higher entities, with
Hart 2006; Papaleontiou-Louca, 2016; Roehlkepartain, King, Wagener, God (or deities) … " (Tart, 1975; Tart, 1983, p.4), and with higher
& Benson, 2006). In spite of the several definitions of ‘Spirituality’, it existential values (Tart, 1975), as well as the involvement of the inner
seems that this broad concept bears some common features. So, the person with the “Ultimate” (Fahlberg & Fahlberg, 1991), and one’s inner
concept of ‘Spirituality’, in general terms, seems to include a ‘meaning in orientation toward a unifying transcendental force (Piedmont, 1999;
life’, a reference to the blissful transcendence or the sanctuary, a ‘loving’ Lerner et al., 2003; Oman et al., 2006).
connection to others, as well as feelings of altruism and Religiosity/­ Other scholars consider spirituality to be the result of a personal or
Sacredness (Papaleontiou - Louca, in press). collective search (Pargament, 1997, 1999; Zinnbauer & Pargament,
2005) though, also, a subjective experience of the ‘holy’ and ‘sacred’
4. Spirituality vs. religiosity (Vaughan, 1991).
Bender (2007) distinguishes 3 different correlations between ’Reli­
Spirituality, religiosity, faith, morality and ethics are interrelated giousness’ and ’Spirituality’ as described below:
concepts. The terms “spiritual development,” “religious development,”

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A) ’Spirituality’ but not ’Religiosity’: eight stages, referring not only to psychosocial but also to spiritual
and faith development as shown in Table 1.
In this first case spirituality is seen as the preferred state: A ’spiri­
tuality’ which implies a ’pure’ relationship with the divine or sacred, Erikson showed his prior psychoanalytic thought to have been rather
suggesting a rejection of mainstream, organized religions, promoting primitive and rigid. It had led him to understand belief in God, in part, as
alternative spiritual ways. a projection of human need, though he (1981) did not wish to “reduce …
faith to its infantile roots” or to some human made projection (p. 337),
B) B) ’Spirituality’ as a ’part’ of ’Religiosity’ neither he rejected the existence of God. For Erikson (1981) the spiritual
traits in ego identity was “the way” one thinks and lives (Hoare, 2009).
considers spirituality as the individual and personal part of religi­ Though Erikson did not place much emphasis on objective data and
osity, at which a personal spirituality of the individual develops, even he might be considered as less credible, especially in an era that is too
within specific religious traditions as well. much based on them, such findings support many parts of his theory.
Indeed, for some scholars the way he joined belief and psyche, profes­
C) ’Spirituality’ as a ’broader’ concept than ’Religiosity’ sion and person, made him more credible (e.g., Coles, 2004; Fowler,
1991; Hoare, 2005) and his developmental theory on Spirituality may
This third view considers ’spirituality’ as a privileged and superior be, in fact, much more acceptable due to his psychoanalytic background
concept to ’religiosity’, suggesting, that spirituality is a universal (Hoare, 2009).
experience, rooted in every religious tradition.
Of course, religion and spirituality have also certain differences, 2) Fowler in his “Seven Stages of Faith Development” theory (1996)
mainly in two dimensions: function and context. Function refers to the preferers the term
significant goals associated with spirituality and religion. So, in terms of
function, religion can serve a wider set of significant goals (including ‘faith’ as a more encompassing term than religion and more specific
psychological, physical, and social ones), while spirituality particularly than spirituality. In a similar way, a number of scholars view spirituality
focuses on the search of ‘the sacred’. In terms of ‘context’, religion seems
to be embedded within an established, institutional context, while
spirituality can be also expressed in other contexts. Table 1
The common area between the two concepts, could be the notion of Faith and Spiritual Development in Erik Erikson’s Theory.
the sacred, awe or ecstasy, the transcendental element, while an Age Stage of Development Characteristics of Faith and of Spiritual
example of difference could be the connection with the Person of God in Development
’Religiosity’ and the sense of omnipotence and complete self-sufficiency
0–2 yrs Trust vs. Mistrust Development of the virtues of ‘hope’, ‘faith’,
in ’Spirituality. Therefore, Spirituality and Religiosity deem to have a and ‘trust’ … "(1964).
common area, but also areas independent of each other’. If the child is treated well, s/he trusts those
around him/her (horizontal) growth of
spirituality, becomes more confident and
5. Children’s and adolescents’ spiritual/religious and/or faith
believes in God (vertical growth of
development spirituality) (Fosarelli, 2008).
1–3 yrs ‘Autonomy vs. If people around the child speak of God with
Though spirituality is an aspect of the self that is widely valued, yet Shame and Doubt’ respect and love at this time, children will
in the Western world, it has been understudied and under-appreciated in learn to connect positively with God. If those
around do not talk about God, the child will
the field of psychology, with only few, noticeable exceptions of studies not feel any connection with God.
suggesting its critical role (Davis, Kerr, & Robinson-Kurpius, 2003; 3–5 yrs ‘Initiative vs. Guilt’ Children in this age are influenced by parents,
James & Samuels, 1999; Larson & Larson, 2003; Pargament & Mahoney, stories, religious ceremonies and other
2002; Richards & Bergin, 1997). religious activities. Children imitate religious
ceremonies and spiritual insight is
Nevertheless, spiritual involvement is a core dimension in children
transformed into a level of imagination, which
and adolescent’s development. Understanding the developmental spir­ grows as a child begins to go to school.
itual needs, thoughts, and beliefs of adolescents boosts their overall 6–11 ‘Industry vs. At this stage, children realize that God is
health. yrs Inferiority’ indeed the infinite power that both the parents
Especially early childhood is the first opportunity to provide the and society have told them about; and if they
feel in a different way, they consider it wrong
conditions that affect the child’s spiritual development, because the and reject it (Hitchcock, Schubert, Thomas, &
child’s future personality is formed mainly during this period. Adoles­ 2nd ed., 1999). At this age, children are very
cence, as the second critical and sensitive period of life, is the second eager to know which God to know, what God
opportunity for the growth of spirituality, so that by creating the is doing and how he does that (Fosarelli,
2008).
necessary preparation, by promoting spirituality and spiritual health, it
12–18 ‘Identity vs. Adolescents start having a real understanding
prepares the person to encounter the problems of life. yrs Confusion’ of the spiritual world.
Spirituality and Faith, as any other aspect of human development Adolescents “reflect on issues and concepts
could be viewed in a stage-like perspective, though these stages should that are embedded in existential and
not be considered as ‘fixed’ and ‘rigid’ age-periods, but rather as smooth transcendental realms” (Markstrom, 1999, p.
205) and test their own limitations.
phases indicating the progress and development of spirituality through They may put aside their parents’ religious
life. Though Faith is not synonymous with Spirituality, is, nevertheless beliefs and values, while others find the
one of the common expressions of Spirituality, which have been found in spiritually organized ritual in which they
literature being described in an age-range, as we ‘ll see in one of the engage in group activities with their peers
very attractive. Friends are very important at
theories below.
this stage and affect their spiritual growth.
Three of the most outstanding theories of children’s and adolescents’ It is a period of intense ideological hunger (
spiritual/religious/faith development are outlined below: Erikson (1968),
Young people seek desperately a meaning and
1) Erik Erikson’s theory gave great emphasis to the potential role of purpose in life, and try a lot to develop
relationships and connectedness.
spirituality in human development. He divided human growth into

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as a more inclusive term than religion (e.g., Frame, 2003; Griffith & Similarly, Scott Peck’s theory, though describing in a clear way the
Griffith, 2002). stages of Faith.
Development, it has been criticized (Pepper, n.d.) for its ‘false reli­
3) M. Scott’s Peck (1985) Four stages of Faith Development gious concepts’ that may be misleading to a person who is at the first
steps of spiritual life, as well as his implication that little or nothing can
Table 2. (Jo, 2018) below shows in a concise way the path of Faith or should be done to help a person overcome the ‘crisis period’ of faith (i.
Development in the two latter theories. e., the period of questioning and skepticism) to move on into the mature
Of course, these theories -as all theories-have their own limitations: stage of ‘Mystical-Communal’ stage.
For example, Fowler’s theory has been criticized, for example, for its The section below tries to give more specific examples of Children
stage-like nature, its dependence on cognition, and for its suggestion and Adolescences’ spiritual life, by describing various types of spiritual
that children are not capable for higher, more mature and developed experiences either related to the notion of the divine or not.
forms of faith (e.g., Balswick & Reimer, 2005). The fact that the par­
ticipants in Fowler’s study showed significant individual variation at 6. Types of spiritual experiences in children and adolescents
almost every age (Boyatzis, 2005, 2013), led to the conclusion that this
theory failed to explain the diversity of faith development and pro­ Spiritual experiences can be defined as those phenomenological
gression (Hood et al., 2009). states of awareness, which transcend the limits of normal, everyday,

Table 2
Scott Peck’s Four stages of Faith Development.

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waking, ego - consciousness (Benson, Scales, Syvertsen, & Roehlke­ development and cannot be studied separately from other aspects of
partain, 2012, p. 455; Hood, Spilka, Hunsberger, & Gorsuch, 2003; King, life-span development (Papaleontiou - Louca,).
2003, 2008; Lerner, Alberts, Anderson, & Dowling, 2006; Roeser, So, more recent studies (e.g., Woolley, 2000) seem to reject the claim
2005/2008 a). that children are cognitively and spiritually immature and that their
Though children are often likely to model adult behaviours and share minds are either magical or rational. It rather seems that children’s
similar beliefs, (i.e., familial/parental spirituality) and religious prac­ spirituality/religiosity might not be so immature, as it was initially
tices, this does not imply that children/adolescents cannot develop some thought, as children seem to experience a kind of inner spiritual life,
of such experiences themselves, as it happens in all aspects of human though often dismissed by adults who have no basis for understanding it
development, through which parents/family influence their children’s (Hart, 2010). Indeed, various studies have started revealing many spir­
development, but not necessarily determine it. itual experiences and thoughts in children (Dowling, Gestsdottir,
Similarly, Benson et al. (2003, pp. 205–206) describe “Spiritual Anderson, von Eye, & Lerner, 2003; Hart, 2010; Hay & Nye, 1998; King,
development as the process of growing the intrinsic human capacity for Benson & Wagener 2006) and adolescents (Bridges & Moore, 2002;
self-transcendence, in which the self is embedded in something greater Dowling et al., 2003; King, Wagener, & Benson, 2006) about spirituality
than itself, including the sacred. It is the developmental “engine” that (Papaleontiou - Louca, in press).
propels the search for connectedness, meaning, purpose, and contribu­ To be more specific, some examples of such spiritual experiences in
tion. It is shaped both within and outside of religious traditions, beliefs, children and adolescents are described below starting with experiences
and practices”. that children often experience and continuing with those being experi­
While the experience of self-transcendence has mainly been studied enced mostly by adolescents:
in intimate relationships between partners (Boorstein, 1979; Levine &
Levine, 1995; Welwood, 1990, 1996), it has not been limited to this type 6.1. Spiritual experiences of children (up to 12yrs-old)
of relationship; in other studies [e.g., Goldstein’s (2010) study, at which
this trait was measured through the Human Spirituality Scale (HSS) by Spiritual Experiences which are referred to be experienced by chil­
Wheat, 1991)] adolescents stated that they often had similar experiences dren include having inner strength to make it through a difficult time,
with their parents and friends. One of the predominant ways people feeling a profound inner peace, feeling joy and ecstasy, an over­
experience spirituality is through transcendence (Gotterer, 2001; Hel­ whelming sense of love, experiencing God’s presence, or voice, experi­
miniak, 1996a, 1996b; Kelly, 1995; Mauritzen, 1988; Schneiders, 1989; encing a feeling of emotional closeness or connection to other people,
Slater, Hall, & Edwards, 2001). The adolescent interviewees in this study meeting or listening to a spiritual teacher or master, seeing a miraculous
cited connection with another most often. This can be classified as a (or not normally occurring) event, experiencing a healing of one’s body
self-transcendent experience, that is, the experience of feeling connect­ (or witnessing it) and/or experiencing angels or other guiding spirits
edness with someone, somewhere, or something beyond the self and can (Roehlkepartain, Benson, Scales, Kimball, and King (2008, p. 15).
include such processes as searching for meaning, purpose, and connec­ In addition to the above, adolescents and young people seem to go
tion. These are experienced as qualitatively and subjectively different deeper to experience states such as meaning making, that is finding what
vehicles for spiritual connection. In this study it seems that adolescents makes you happy in life; existential questions, reflection on life and the
experience spirituality most often through a self-transcendent connec­ values they had so far, a feeling of connectedness with something bigger
tion with another person. This experience of capacity in self -transcen­ than oneself, as can described below:
dence is expected to motivate children and young people to aim to the Spiritual Experiences of Adolescents: These might include a feeling of
well-being of other people, beyond themselves (King & Roeser, 2009). inner peace, a meaning making, experiencing connectedness to others,
Such states are often accompanied by positive emotions. Leake, to self, and/or to a higher power, as well as a process of searching for
DeNeve, and Greteman (2007) for example, found that young people meaning and purpose in life, and an openness to- and search for-self-
who reported spiritual experiences (Emmons, 1999) were more likely to transcendence, in which a person feels embedded in something greater
have emotions, such as vitality, zest, awe, wonder, elevation, and love than itself, including the devine (Goldstein, 2010; Hart 2005). Other
which signal experiences beyond the limits of self (Haidt, 2003) as well spiritual experiences in adolescents include feelings of profound peace
as a greater psychological health. and belonging, hope, trust, compassion and belief in a higher being
Traditionally, however, children have unfortunately been considered (Chaar et al., 2018; Shek & Zhu, 2018), mystical experiences, as well as
as developmentally immature, unable to experience spirituality states of awareness that transcend the ego-consciousness (King &
(Papaleontiou - Louca, in press), and without the intellectual ability to Roeser, 2009). Moreover, according to adolescents are able to explore
understand and/or experience spiritual rituals or a relationship with spiritual and religious ideals and philosophies, experience a spiritual or
God. Similarly, developmental theories have largely dismissed the belief religious conversion or commitment, and make spiritual or religious
that children have authentic spiritual experiences and needs (e.g., Davis, commitments that endure over time (Good & Willoughby, 2008).
et al., 2003; Kohlberg, 1984; Piaget, 1929) and religiosity has rarely Benson et al. (2012) suggest a set of spiritual development indicators
been included in children/adolescents’ research (Lalayants, Oyo, & in their latent class analysis (LCA) model: Their measures of young
Prince, 2020). Boyatzis (2005) notes that though spiritual experiences people’s spiritual-religious traditions included religious and spiritual
are common in children and adolescents, there is still lack of studies in practices, religious identity, and spiritual identity. Youths’ experiences
the development of beliefs and faith. This might be especially true in included: (a) prosocial connection with others, (b) discovering meaning,
adolescents, whom developmental changes in brain, mind, and social (c) mindfulness, and (d) alignment of values with action.
worlds may lead even more to such abstract religious and spiritual ex­ Similarly, according to Myers, Sweeney, and Witmer (2000) spiritual
periences (Good & Willoughby, 2008). experiences also include (a) belief in a power beyond oneself and
Cognitive developmentalists refer to religious cognition, as emerging experience being a part of it (see Schwartz et al., 2006), (b) behavior in
through qualitatively distinct stages of thinking, from immature to relation to the infinite such as prayer, (c) meaning and purpose of life,
mature and abstract thought. (d) hope and optimism, (e) love and compassion, (f) moral and ethical
Similarly, Elkind (1961) studies on children’s religiosity propose a guidelines (g) transcendental experience.
stage-like theory starting from concrete and egocentric thought and Moreover, Myers et al. (2000) identify some other types of spiritu­
leading to abstract and sociocentric thought. Current research, however, ality, including “personal and private beliefs that transcend the material
shows that children have an innate spiritual nature to learn more about aspects of life and give a deep sense of wholeness, connectedness, and
God or other spiritual/existential issues, as part of their natural devel­ openness to the infinite” (p. 265) that help young people overcome their
opment. Spiritual Development seems, rather, an integral part of human daily concerns and become interested in connecting with something

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beyond themselves, such as a God or a supernatural being, develop inner peace, service attendance, etc.; and other studies report experi­
behavior in relation to the infinite, feel the need of prayer, meaning and ences such as having inner strength to overcome difficulty (i.e., religious
purpose of life, experience hope and optimism, love and compassion, coping), fighting against a bad state, feeling a deep joy and ecstasy,
moral and ethical feelings and self-transcendence states. peace, feeling an overwhelming sense of love and connectedness,
Beck (1992) described spiritual experiences as a set of human qual­ searching for a sense of meaning and purpose in life, forgiveness,
ities that can be developed with or without religious phenomena. empathy and compassion, wondering and philosophizing/search for
Among these are insight and understanding; an awareness of the inter­ insight and wisdom, experiences in nature and in community (Büssing,
connection among and between persons and other life forms; an expe­ Ostermann, & Matthiesen, 2006; Hart 2006; Reimer & Furrow, 2001;
rience of mystery and awe; and a posture of generosity and gratitude. Roehlkepartain et al., 2008). Literature even mentions such cases, as
Roof (1993) puts the focus of spiritual development on elucidating ‘the youth spiritual experiences of specific occurrences in their lives, such as
power that comes from within, with knowing our deepest selves’ (p. 64). actually experiencing the presence of God or a supernatural power in the
An interesting finding for the development of spiritual experiences universe or feeling that they have ‘spiritual moments’ in everyday life.
and the shaping of a meaning of life in adolescents, is the relationships (Benson et al., 2012). It should be noted, here, that though spiritual
within the family context, i.e., the parent-child relationship (and development is not identical to religious development, the two concepts
parenting attributes, such as parental support and involvement) as well are often integrally linked in the lived experiences of some people,
as the marital quality of the parents (based on systemic family attributes, traditions, and cultures (Benson et al., 2012). Spiritual experiences in
such as family functioning and communication patterns) (Shek, 2012a). adolescents give meaning to their world, and help them “set goals, plan
Similarly, Fry (1998) emphasizes the role of significant others and the activities, and order their behavior” (Silberman, 2005, p. 644). Some
role of intimate relations in the development of adolescents’ spirituality might even have a “sudden conversion experience” (King & Roeser,
and purpose in life. He explicitly states, “it is through supportive and 2009) or attribute life stressors as “God given” but view them in a pos­
sharing relationships within a trusting and accepting atmosphere that itive way such, e.g., that they are ‘spiritual tests or learning experiences
the adolescent gains the courage to explore what experiences make associated with suffering’ (King & Roeser, 2009). Based on their
sense or providing meaning even in the face of doubts” (p. 98). Shek cognitive developmental level, children, and young people, tend to
(2012b) cites several cross-sectional studies showing that the quality of attribute agency into God or other supernatural beings that are believed
parenting is positively related to adolescent meaning of life, as well as to to control their lives.
existential well-being, both cross-sectional and over time. Studies by Evans (2000, 2001) suggest that 7 - to 9 - year - old
Often spiritual experiences (which start in adolescence and continue children typically hold creationist views, (regardless of the family
in adulthood) are expressed as a feeling of sacred; the search for belief-system) and tend to explain the origin of things in a teleological
meaning in life; a posture of contribution, generosity and gratitude; and creationist way (King & Roeser, 2009).
interested in values and ideas about good and evil or what matters; Spiritual experiences in a broader sense of the ‘term’ might, also,
experience of mystery, wonder and awe (Hay & Nye 2006; Margaret include aspirations, moral sensibility, creativity, love and friendship,
Crompton, Beck,1992; Benson, 2003). So, spiritual experiences might response to natural and human beauty, scientific and artistic endeavor,
also refer to one’s engagement with what s/he considers holy, divine, or appreciation and wonder at the natural world, intellectual achievement,
beyond the material world (Miller & Thoresen, 2003) and include sights physical activity, surmounting suffering and persecution, selfless love,
of the transcendental and the metaphysical. It is a kind of wondering of the quest for meaning and values by which to live. They might be, even,
where we came from and where we are and where we’re going to (Hart expressed in trying to find meaning in life and a positive outcome, even
2005). from a negative experience (e.g., learning patience or empathy towards
Beck (1992) describes spiritual experiences as a set of qualities that other suffering people, from their own experience of illness).
can be developed with or without religious faith, such as including What is worth noting is that all these spiritual experiences in ado­
insight and understanding, an awareness of the interconnection among lescents, seem to be positively related to their mental health. So, in a
and between persons and other life forms, an experience of mystery and review of research on adolescent religiosity and mental health, Wong,
awe, and a posture of generosity and gratitude; and Roof (1993) adds the Rew, and Slaikeu (2006) reveal a positive relationship between the two.
phenomenon of elucidating ‘the power that comes from within, with Cotton et al. (2006) also find a positive relationship between religiosi­
knowing our deepest selves’ (p. 64). ty/spirituality and physical/mental health and a negative relationship
Active reflection is a common spiritual experience, especially in between religiosity/spirituality in one hand, and adolescent health risk
young people, which is expressed with existential questions, such as in the other. Similarly, these spiritual/religious experiences were found
insight, reflective thought and curiosity about the world, expressed in to be related with less psychological distress, more positive emotions,
questions such as: Who am I? Why am I here? Where do we come from? esteem, and life satisfaction.
Why do we exist? Where are we going? What is the meaning of and This aforementioned relationship is important to be noted, since as
purpose of life/death? Why should I act rightly? Why is there so much we will see later in Maslow’s view on spirituality, this very notion is
wrong in the world? “Is there any life after death? often related to maturity and self-actualization of children and adoles­
What should we do when we are still conscious?” These important cents, who, anyway, are born with good inner nature.
spiritual questions demand conscious reflection that emerges especially Roehlkepartain et al. (2008, p.13) give us in Table 3, a comprehen­
during the adolescent years, as young people begin to conceptualize the sive summary of various spiritual experiences expressed to different
world in abstract ways and encounter increasingly adult - like life ex­ degrees in young people:
periences (King & Roeser, 2009). Especially, adolescence is the age of When asked to identify what it means to be spiritual, youth (ages 12
wondering about things in the world and philosophizing about the to 25) were most likely to say it means “believing there is a purpose to
meaning of life/death and other spiritual themes; searching for insight life,” “believing in God,” or “being true to one’s inner self.” Here are the
and wisdom; and deep experiences in nature and community (Büssing three most common responses in each country shown in the table below
et al., 2006; Hart 2006; Papaleontiou-Louca, 2016; Roehlkepartain (out of nine choices), plus the percentages of youth who said they don’t
et al., 2006). think or don’t know if there is a spiritual dimension to life. (Youth could
So, for example, having personal reflections, joining religious select one or two choices) and Roehlkepartain et al. (2008, p. 15)
groups, church activities, and spiritually related gatherings are common summarizing how meaningful these experiences are to young people,
ways of expressing spirituality. So, some other types of ‘Spiritual expe­ they focus on the following important ones:
riences’ in children and adolescents, in a more ‘religious’ aspect, include
understanding, trusting or experiencing God; prayer, feeling a profound a. The feeling of self-transcendence

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Table 3
WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO BE SPIRITUAL?

b. The experience of holiness/divine Spirituality in the developing person. This will be the focus of interest in
c. The feeling of awe the following section.
d. The experience of absolute
e. The search for meaning in life 7. Spirituality in the developing person according to maslow
f. The feeling of connectivity with others
g. The connecting to a super-human being/person Abraham Maslow views children’s, adolescents’ and young people’s
h. The feeling of inner peace spirituality from a different standpoint. He makes a breakthrough in
presenting human needs, and, importantly, he presents the highest, hi­
It seems, therefore, that spirituality not only exists in children and erarchically, needs as ideals. He also presents characteristics, spirituality
young people, but it also, appears to be a special expression of spiritu­ and needs of children and youth from his observations.
ality which might be identified in every child. It also seems that the Maslow is widely known for the hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1943,
‘Spirituality of the Developing Person’ often constitutes an indication of 1954) a theory at which he analyzes human growth from the standpoint
individual differences such as, social – cognitive – affective self - sche­ of needs, starting with basic, biological needs until the need for
mas or representations that are elaborated across development (e.g., self-actualization, where a person becomes what the person is fitted for,
Epstein, 1990; Harter, 2006). has health, full humanness.
Nevertheless, despite the above findings, Sawatzky, Gadermann, and Maslow also promotes a very optimistic and trusting stance towards
Pesut (2009) note that there are still few studies on spirituality and the children’s and adolescence’ spirituality. In his books he puts forward a
quality of life in adolescents (e.g., their underlying mechanisms remain picture of children with good inner nature, which can be thwarted by
relatively unknown), though “empirical literature suggests that religion deficiencies in basic needs. Damage in children’s development can be
and spirituality are important to adolescents” (p. 6). caused by lack of love, belongingness, acceptance, safety (non-satisfac­
Having seen some main definitions of ‘spirituality’ and some exam­ tion of basic needs). For Maslow lower needs have to be satisfied before a
ples f children’s and adolescents’ spirituality, we now move on to discuss person moves on to another, higher, need.
which is Abraham Maslow’s view on the topic and how he perceives While Maslow’s emphasis is on the growing person generally, from

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lower, basic, needs towards maturity and self-actualization, he often role in order to bring about a real change for personal growth, devel­
makes references to children and adolescents’ growing towards maturity opment and change by exploring out the hidden potential for improving
and spirituality. life by helping the individual to acknowledge one’s yearning for life,
It seems that in Maslow’s descriptions and explanations there is a one’s needs and one’s wish to contribute which lies deep down in every
continuum of growth, a development from childhood to maturity, the human existence”.
well-known hierarchy of needs between childhood, adolescence and Indeed, recent research supports Maslow’s theory revealing that
youth. Children, adolescents and young persons grow, so do older peo­ university students (who are at the verge of becoming adults from the
ple who continue to grow (ideally) until self-actualization and beyond, adolescent stage), are helped to cope during their studies, where there is
into self-transcendence. Self-actualizers have maturity, have been ful­ normally a lot of stress, in order to maintain mental stability and prevent
filled according to their potentialities, are autonomous, they have anxiety and depression, if they have emotional intelligence and spiri­
spontaneity, humility and self-respect, creativity, good interpersonal tuality. These were shown by the questionnaires they answered (Fra­
relationships, they have acceptance of self and others, have a value delos et al., 2019).
system for their decisions, among such characteristics (Maslow,1987, However, Maslow will not end his theory with the notion of ‘self-
p.149ff). Transcendents transcend their ego, become unselfish, self- actualization’; he will revise his initial theory and will lead us to a higher
forgetting, impersonal, detached among such characteristics (Maslow, level of development, that of ‘self-transcendence’ (in Psychology of
1968, p.72). In this way Maslow underlines spirituality reached by Being): There is another, higher Psychology, for transpersonal, going
persons who have already reached the level of self-actualization. beyond humanness, identity, self-actualization … we need something
Maslow stresses the choices that children and adolescents have to “bigger than we are” … to commit ourselves to … (Maslow, 1968,
make between taking shelter in the safety (general protection of parents) Preface). This notion of ‘self-transcendence’ is the highest possible
and growth: the conflict is between the child/adolescent to stay young achievement of humans as spiritual beings, in Maslow’s (1968, 1971)
and childish and also to grow up. Growing biologically older children revised ‘Hierarchy of Needs’; and this type of ‘spirituality’ can be also
find that society demands behavior as the culture dictates. There are applied to individuals who belong in the subset of people who do not
forces for growing and forces for staying in protection. The child wants believe to God or to a higher power. Though usually ‘self-transcendence’
to be strong and fearless like the elders (Maslow writes more in the has a divine nature, for some people may be achieved through a devo­
masculine, where a boy admires in elders the strength, being sure of tion to a system of ideas or values (Ackerman, 2020).
themselves, showing of love, fascination, surrendering to solve a prob­ All these are not accomplished without effort and pains but having
lem) (Maslow, 2002, p.25). accomplished them the emotions one has are positive. The children, if
Children have spontaneity, uncritical, innocent look at the world, left to make their free choices, will make the correct choice, choosing
characteristics that Maslow see creative artists to have, a good charac­ what is good for their growth. This gives pleasure and delight (Maslow,
teristic for artists, good for their creativity. (Maslow, 1954 /1970/1987, 1968, p.164). A teacher or a culture does not create the child: we allow
p. 155). Artists are grown-up, not naïve, like children, but they have a the child to develop. Children know what is good for them (Maslow,
“second naivite”, helping in creativity. So are self-actualizers. It is un­ 1968, p. 136). That does not mean overprotection: A permissive regime
derstood that children have these characteristics as a manifestation of will teach them to differentiate wishes from facts, to adapt as necessary,
lack of experience and comprehension of the world. But Maslow stresses to learn their strengths and limits and extend them to overcome diffi­
these together with “awe and wonder” with which we must keep looking culties. This does not mean an unrestricted regime: Frustration and
at the world later, as an aspect of spirituality. Awe and wonder are frustration tolerance is needed, effort to become strong, to perceive re­
included in the “meaning of spirituality” above. “Wonder” is discussed alities which are indifferent to people’s wishes. Overprotection will
by Glaveneau in his 2020 paper: Wondering is neither a mental state of show a lack of trust in them and make them feel worthless (Maslow,
mind nor a property of external experience, but something that bridges 1968, p. 165).
the two. Greek “thavmazein” is a search which never ends, shown in Maslow emphasizes the need to have values and a value system for
philosophizing. This is something Maslow approves in his books and our education (within and outside schools). The choices a child, an
recommends that we -environment and teachers-should encourage, not adolescent, or a young person, in general, has to make, are of the kind
try to restrict growing persons’ characteristics of this kind. made within the concept of spirituality presented above: What is good
Children and adolescents do not reach the high need level described for me? What is my purpose in life? What will make me feel virtuous and
by Maslow as “self-actualization”, where a person has achieved identity what guilty? The confused child or adolescent who grows without values
and autonomy, strives for excellence, has a healthy personality, has full is in danger: The absence of a framework of values, of a philosophy of
humanness. According to his study of self-actualizers, basically a college life or religion, is pathogenic for Maslow (Maslow, 1968, p. 169). An
student has not reached self-actualization (with rare exceptions), but adolescent who is cynical, without morality, is hopeless etc., suffers from
many young people have “good growth”, moving towards self- valuelessness or uncertainty of the adults about their values.
actualization, a meaningful, researchable concept. At college level, he Of course, good human beings need a good society in which to grow:
found, it is possible to differentiate “healthy” from “unhealthy”. Healthy “That society is good, which fosters the fullest development of human
young men and women tend to be still growing, likeable, even lovable, potentials, of the fullest degree of humanness” (1970, p. 7).
free of malice, secretly kind and altruistic (Preface, Maslow,1987). “Growth” for Maslow means mainly growth into maturity, the step­
Young people are unsure of themselves, Maslow asserts, not yet ping away from the security of the adults into the unknown (often
formed, uneasy of their minority position, their opinions and tastes are fearful) world of independence, identity, selfhood, full humanness
squarer, straight, more virtuous than average. They are uneasy about (Maslow, 1954 /1970/1987, p.24). Neurosis is a failure of this personal
cruelty, meanness and mob spirit. It will be good to teach them to give growth. Ever since birth there is an active will towards health, an im­
up their unreal perfectionism, their demands for perfect human beings, pulse towards growth or the actualization of human potentialities, but
perfect teachers, friends etc. (Maslow, 1954 /1970/1987; Preface). sadly few people make it (Maslow, 1954 /1970/1987, p.24). Education,
In his books Maslow emphasizes the higher growth needs, the need psychotherapy, family training should have this goal, end, telos (Aris­
“to become what man can be”, to be a self-actualizer, in personality, totelian final cause): To lead the child towards self-actualization, to­
morality, socialization. He stresses the need of the children to grow, wards being (Maslow, 1954 /1970/1987, p.122). Values that Maslow
become independent of the security of the parents, to construct their gives as characteristics of full humanness, hence as values to govern the
own character, accomplishments, position in society, their identity, their growing person’s life as such are: Goodness, truth, beauty, transcen­
full humanness. According to Tripathi and Moakumla (2018, p.499) the dence of self, aliveness, perfection, justice, order, playfulness,
notion of self-actualization proposed by Maslow "can play an important self-sufficiency, characteristics, many of which refer to the notion of

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spirituality as presented in the section of the meaning of spirituality adolescent males may need to be violent and come into conflict with
above. someone else, more than females.
From the development of children and their needs according to Describing adolescents Maslow gives positive characteristics about
Maslow, we see that children have some basic needs, which if not their work and selfless attitude: adolescents have self-consciousness. If
satisfied, there is some pathogenesis. After the physiological, biological we encourage them, they can become totally absorbed in something and
needs, comes safety, belongingness, love, very important for the child’s forget about poses, defenses and shyness. If they want to be tough and
development. cynical and sophisticated, then we can see guilelessness of childhood
Children have love hunger, independence hunger, safety hunger. come back to their faces, if they experience something selflessly
Healthy adults have behind them childhood gratification of love needs, devoting themselves to the moment (Maslow, 1993, p.43).
including allowance for independence from the loved one, ability to love Maslow points out the ceremonies (rituals) that used to be staged and
without giving up autonomy. If not satisfied a need so important will are still staged in isolated and preliterate communities for the “passage”
show problems in the child’s development (Maslow, 1954 /1970/1987, into another phase of one’s life, like the beginning of puberty as a girl’s
p.65). On the other hand, over-gratification of lower needs, which may first menstrual cycle or the birth of a baby. He states that they are useful
happen in contemporary societies, may result in an absence of values in to reinforce the sense of wonder or awe and mystery connected with
the young, an absence of meaningfulness and of fulfillment in life. There these human changes or developments. He refers to M. Eliade who
is a “strong suspicion”, there is “widespread clinical impression” and pointed out that these rituals are important for us as they help keep
“hardening opinion of child psychologists” that over-indulgence and human sense of the sacred about the basic things of life. If we lose our
permissiveness will not help, child needs firmness, teaching respect for sense of “mystery, of numinous, our sense of awe, humility, of good
parents, discipline, limits (Maslow, 1954 /1970/1987, p.71). fortune, then we are diminished losing a very real basic human capacity”
For Maslow human inner nature is good. “It does not seem to be (Maslow, 1954 /1970/1987, p.113).
intrinsically evil, but rather either neutral or positively good.” What we Continuing on the picture of young people and our duty to help them
call evil behavior appears most often to be a secondary reaction to find their way to a healthy aim Maslow talks of youngsters who “desa­
frustration of this intrinsic nature” (Maslow, 1968, p.14). Then he an­ cralize” persons and values, explaining that this is a defense mechanism,
swers the question “Is destructiveness instinctoid?” Maslow doubts it. At a tendency to mistrusting values and virtues. “These youngsters have
some moments, children are aggressive-destructive, while at other mo­ been swindled or thwarted in their lives, they don’t obey elders, they
ments they are generous, cooperative and unselfish. “The children who despise them”. They devalue elders, sex … They need to be helped to
are deprived in their needs for safety, love, belongingness, self-esteem, resacralize (Maslow, 1993, p. 47).
are the children who will show selfishness, hatred, aggression, Maslow talks a lot about education, he stresses that it should have the
destructiveness”. The loved and respected children show less destruc­ right goals to make the best of the children. Our aim should not be for
tiveness. This shows defensive destructiveness, not instictoid (Maslow, the students to get a lot of information in their minds, but to help them
1954 /1970/1987, p.121). grow into self-actualizing persons, peace-loving citizens. As they grow,
Maslow often mentions that the child looks at the world uncritically, they should learn to transcend the conditioning imposed by culture and
innocently, as he will recommend to us to look at the world, or the artists school and become world
or scientists, elsewhere, to look at the world, in a creative way: A child citizens (Maslow, 1993, p.176). A school should encourage its stu­
looks upon the world with wide, uncritical, undemanding, innocent dents to look within themselves to find the personal vocation. In schools
eyes, without surprise, shock, indignation, as a self-actualizing person we should treasure fascination, enthusiasm, absorption.
does (Maslow, 1954 /1970/1987, p.155). And, Children create in a These are cultivated in art education. We also need to teach children
naïve way, a potentiality we are given at birth. They also treat an to be aware of beauty and wander in life (Maslow, 1993, p. 183). rding
experience without agreement or disagreement, no approving or dis­ to the scholar, “children have peak experiences, but schools destroy this
approving, they just let it come. Such is the creativity of self-actualizing tendency, which is part of human spirituality” (Maslow, 1993, p.180).
people (Maslow, 1954 /1970/1987, p. 170, 197). These peak experiences can be beneficial for all people, since they can
Defending the rightness of revolting against the acculturation and prevent varieties of self-destruction, such as suicide, alcoholism,
cooperation with groups who have wrong beliefs he asserts: Parents violence (Maslow, 1964, p.80). In ‘The Farther Reaches of Human Na­
want their children to be adjusted and be part of the group. The question ture’ (1993) Maslow wrote more on peak experiences, which are
is: adjusted to which group? It is not good for one to shape oneself to any “transient moments of self-actualization. The moments of ecstasy, which
culture! Especially if it is a sick culture. It is not bad to revolt to cannot be bought, cannot be guaranteed, cannot even be sought. One
exploitation, injustice and unfairness (Maslow, 1954 /1970/1987, must be as C.S. Lewis wrote “surprised by joy”. But one can set up the
p.267). Our education should now be to encourage such characteristics conditions so that peak experiences are more likely, or one can perse­
as spontaneity, naturalness, self-acceptance, impulse-awareness … to be verely set up the conditions so that they are less likely (Maslow 1971,
strong, self-respecting, righteously indignant, resistant to exploitation, p.41) for “the happiest moments of life, for experiences of ecstasy,
blind enculturation, learning of the heart (Maslow, 1954 /1970/1987, p. rapture, bliss or the greatest joy” (p.100).
281). Children do have peak experiences, but according to Maslow our
Children according to Freudians are conservative, hanging on to present school system is “extremely effective for crushing peak experi­
achieved adjustments, not wishing to grow or develop their own style ences or forbidding this possibility (p.100), while plateau experiences
(Maslow1987, p. 288), their superego is introjected fear of punishment, are ‘more serene and contemplative cognition than peak experiences”
loss of love, abandonment etc. Children according to Maslow, with (p.2.
emphasis on children who are loved, safe and respected, have con­
science more built on love identification, desire to please and make 8. Criticism of Maslow’s theory on spirituality in the developing
others happy, and on truth, logic, justice, consistency, right and duty person
(Maslow, 1954 /1970/1987, p. 292). In children there is already a
temperament, there is “listening to impulse voices”, which is mommy’s There is no denying that Maslow has opened new roads in the study
or daddy’s introjected voice, of the establishment, the elders, authority of Psychology. The study of the child’s, the adolescent’s and the young
or tradition (Maslow, 1993, p. 44). The relations of parents with children people’s spirituality is included in this opening. The whole approach
are often studied as problems, but are more often joy, pleasure, a delight. seems to us a healthy and ambitious approach of centering on desired
This is also true of adolescents, who are treated as a plague! (Mas­ ideal people, giving an aim really worth having in front of young and
low1987, p. 128). As an exception Maslow gives evidence that older people. Maslow’s work seems to have had a great impact on the

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psychological world. needs of the growing child: Deficiencies in love, safety, belongingness,
One might object that the concept of needs is not a concept of spir­ self-esteem, are described as very serious deficiencies (Maslow, 1954
ituality, which is true. But it is contested here that if one has a natural /1970/1987, p.121). These can lead to destructive and aggressive
need to be a self-actualizer or even a self-transcendent, to have self­ behavior, hatred, selfishness. Another example of bad behavior is when
lessness, love of peace, care for other people, this is a glance at spiri­ this is a revolt to exploitation, injustice, unhappiness or unfairness, in
tuality. As Koltko-Rivera (2006) has argued, Maslow shifts the highest which case the revolt is a correct choice (Maslow, 1954 /1970/1987, p.
point of needs (or needed state of mind) to self-transcendence, which is 121). This connection indicates for him that destructiveness, aggression
not included in the official pyramid (or, rather ascending steps of needs). etc. are a defensive reaction, not instictoid. Experimental and observa­
This is finally the proposed ascending escalator of needs, which culmi­ tional data, Maslow reports, show that there are such behaviors, but at
nates into a spiritual set of steps that a normally and luckily a developing other times children are generous, cooperative, unselfish (Maslow, 1954
person reaches or achieves. /1970/1987, p.121). But he does mention some exceptions: for instance,
Besides, Maslow’s research methodology (i.e., selecting a number of young males do show some aggressiveness, or need to behave aggres­
people and university students as self-actualizers, in order to study sively. His question is whether we should find ways to let children and
them) has been criticized because he selected a number of people with young males to express their aggression without harming others (Mas­
some characteristics, but he also included some historical and public low, 1993, p. 209). So, even in Maslow’s own words it is possible that
figures or people he admired and so he studied all of those. Concerning there are instances when violence comes from within, which can throw
the studies of self-actualizers, he later admitted (Maslow, 1964, preface) some doubt on the ‘good” human nature. The dictum of Socrates, re­
that the criteria on which he based the profile of ‘self-actualizers’ and ported by Plato «ουδείς εκών κακός», means nobody is bad by intention,
the selection of his participants were on “pilot test, bits of evidence, or nobody knowing what is bad, will act badly. So, the concept is old.
personal observations, theoretical deductions and on sheer hunch”! We can explain human evil actions on the basis of the psychological
(Maslow, 1968, Preface). Such criteria would not be sufficient for a state of people, on deficiencies of love and other unsatisfied needs, or
scientific inquiry, but Maslow suggested that some research could be (based on analysis from Maslow’s reference to values), on the basis of
carried out for his whole theory in the future. Such research has been one not having the necessary frame of values in mind. Maslow puts
carried out, for example Wahba and Bridwell (1976) through an forward the ideal, the model at which parents, teachers and cultural
in-depth interview, partially supported the progression through the agents should aim, while raising children and youth.
needs hierarchy proposed by Maslow. The absolute order, however, of Children for Maslow, especially the loved ones, have conscience built
the needs in Maslow’s hierarchy was questioned (Wahba & Bridwell, on love identification, desire to please and make others happy, on truth,
1976). Indeed, one often observes that many people serve higher values, logic, justice, consistency, right and duty (Maslow, 1954 /1970/1987,
while being deprived of basic needs. An interesting discussion on this is p.292). Again, Maslow puts forward healthy, loved and respected chil­
made by Acevedo (2018) who supports this idea. dren: it is good to have good models in front of the growing people who
In his study of self-actualizers Maslow did not find any self- are not on the right path in their development.
actualizers proper among the university students included in his sam­ Contrary to Freudian notions, the healthy model is given emphasis,
ple, only very few students were promising or having “good growth” and it is preferable to give to children and youth what to follow than
towards self-actualization. But he continues to be optimistic that these what to avoid. However, it was not fair of Maslow to talk of all children
students will grow towards self-actualization, even if maturity and self- having these desired characteristics, since he had not carried out
actualization, will come to (some) people later in life. research with a representative sample of children before giving these
Children, adolescents and young people in general are good people characteristics (even in the society he lived!).
for Maslow. While they often seem to be really evil, they are, in fact, A value system will help the growth of children, adolescents and
rather either neutral or positively good (Maslow, 1968, p.14). The young people, since it shows the direction in crucial social decisions and
close-up choices of the child or the young person show forces pushing or the shaping of personalities. The question is “which values”. Maslow
pulling towards maturity or against it. Fear, threat and frustration are gives a number of values, goodness, truth, beauty, transcendence of self,
involved in each stage of growing. However, the organism generally aliveness, perfection, justice, order, playfulness, self-sufficiency. One
chooses health, growth, biological success, more than we used to think, notices that they do not all carry the same weight. But it also depends on
so we should allow children to choose. This is the anti-authoritarian, the ideology (beliefs of the group) of each society and social group.
anti-controlling upbringing, as he describes recommending it (Maslow, The values in a philosophical way of teaching are put forward by
1993, p.33). Generally, he insists on the child and adolescent growing researchers, such as Ding and Yue (2022), who propose philosophical
towards independence, agreeing with the western ideal of the adolescent practice as spiritual exercise toward truth, wisdom and virtue, exercises
becoming soon independent and away from the parents, for which he of reason and logos, especially didactic in the post-covid-19 era, for the
has been criticized as putting at the top the European, North American, enhancement of the spiritual developing youth, in the framework of the
self-focused, inner directed, autonomous, individual, as Crompton, ancient philosophers, like Socrates and the Stoics.
among others, suggests (Crompton, 2018). Indeed, one can doubt if Peak experiences are valued by Maslow as part of human spirituality
some Eastern societies could endorse such ideals as Maslow’s and beneficial for social and emotional life. This position is supported by
self-actualizing men (he usually refers to men and boys). Gabriel & more recent research: Büssing et al. (2006) described happy emotions in
Cianci, 2003 contrast Maslow’s views on the cultural ideals to the peak experiences, positive other- people- oriented emotions and
collectivist ideals, e.g. in Chinese culture. Maslow presents the devel­ connection with other people, while (Barnes) 2000 supported Maslow’s
opment of needs and spirituality of people as natural (hence irrespective position that spiritual experiences can have powerful effects on social
of culture?) connectiveness and the regulation of behavior of young people.
At another point, he recommends a degree of firmness, toughness, Moreover, Maslow’s assumption that people who have a strong
discipline, limits of behavior. “Unbridled indulgence, total permissive­ desire to reach their full potential, succeed their self-actualization and
ness” he asserts, “overprotection, toadyism, are not healthy” (Maslow, find meaning in life, has been criticized, since, despite its attractive
1954 /1970/1987, p.87). There seems to be some contradiction, but nature, this theory emphasizes greatly the notion of “self”, being
surely wise use of both approaches could protect parents and teachers in somehow individualistic in one sense. Of course, Maslow’s later (un­
difficult and sensitive phases in their upbringing of young people. It published) addition of the “transcendence” level seems more compatible
would be also wise not to overstress any of the two extremes. with the concept of “spirituality” as people in this level, seem to be able
Destructiveness and aggression are not intrinsic to human nature for to overcome “self” and commit themselves to a higher goal (Papal­
Maslow. When they do occur, they are connected with frustration in the eontiou - Louca, Esmailnia, & Thoma, 2021).

10
E. Papaleontiou - Louca et al. New Ideas in Psychology 69 (2023) 100994

In general, we could say, Maslow’s theory, especially in the part that Data availability
refers to the education of children and young people, includes several
positive elements, which are consistent with modern theories of psy­ No data was used for the research described in the article.
chology and pedagogy. Regarding, however, spiritual, existential,
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