1

INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

A Training report submitted to State Board Of technical Education & Training (TS)
Hyderabad,
In Partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of

DIPLOMA IN ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Submitted By
B.RISHI – 20552-EC -017
Under the Guidance

Of
Mrs.Y.Swathi

(Assistant Professor of ECE)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

GANAPATHY ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(Affliated to SBTET-TS HYDERABAD)

WARANGAL-506002

TELANGANA
2022

1|Page
 2

GANAPATHY ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(Affiliated To SBTET-TS Hyderabad)

Warangal-506002

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the dissertation work entitled “INDUSTRIAL TRAINING” are the Work done By
B.RISHI , Bearing Pin No: 20552-EC-017 , Submitted in Partial fulfilment for the Award of DIPLOMA
IN ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION and submitted to the State Board of Technical Education
And Training (TS), Hyderabad is record of Bonafied work carried out by them under our guidance and
supervision The results emboited in this Project report have not been submitted to any other
institutions for the award of Diploma

PROJECT GUIDE HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

Mrs . Y.SWATHI (MTECH) Mrs . T.KEERTHI (MTECH)

INTERNAL EXAMINAR EXTERNAL

EXAMINAR Mrs.Y.SWATHI (MTECH)

2|Page
 3

A
INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT
FROM
SOFTWAYZ IT SOLUTIONS

DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE TS SBTET IN PARTIAL

FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FROM THE AWARD OF

DIPLOMA IN ELECTRONICS AND

COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED BY
B.RISHI – 20552-EC -017

Under the esteemed guidance of

Mr. C. SHASHI
KUMAR B.Tech.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING
GANAPATHY ENGINEERING COLLEGE
WARANGAL – 506 002 (T.S.)2020 - 2023

3|Page
 4

GANAPATHY ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(Affiliated To SBTET-TS Hyderabad)

Warangal-506002

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the dissertation work entitled “INDUSTRIAL TRAINING” are the Work done By
B.RISHI , Bearing Pin No: 20552-EC-017 , Submitted in Partial fulfilment for the Award of DIPLOMA
IN ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION and submitted to the State Board of Technical Education
And Training (TS), Hyderabad is record of Bonafied work carried out by them under our guidance and
supervision The results emboited in this Project report have not been submitted to any other
institutions for the award of Diploma

TRAINING INCHARGE HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

MR.C.SHASHI KUMAR ( MTECH) Mrs . T.KEERTHI (MTECH)

GUIDE PRINCIPAL

Mrs Swathi (MTECH) PRATHAPA REDDY GARU (PHD)

4|Page
 5

INDEX

CHAPTERS PGNO’S

 Chapter-1 EMBEDDED SYSTEMS 08-10

 Chapter-2 OVERVIEW OF PROJECT 11-13

 Chapter-3 ARDIUNO 14-23

 Chapter-4 HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION 24- 57

 Chapter-5 SOFTWARE IMPLEMENTATION 58-63

 Chapter-6 CONCLUSION 64-66

6

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We wish to express my healthy gratitude to Mr. P.Prathapa Reddy Principal of GANAPATHY

ENGINEERING COLLEGE for providing all the facilities required for the seminar presentation

We wish to take this opportunity to express sincere thanks to our Guide Mrs Y.Swathi , HOD

Mrs T.KEERTHI Department of ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATIONS for interest technical

support and suggestions during the seminar leading to our success

We are obliged and great full to my guide C.SHASHI KUMAR Lecturer in SOFTWAYZ IT
SOLUTIONS for his valuable suggestions guidance in all aspects during the technical of our training

We here by express my sincere thanks to all teaching staff , Parents and friends who
extended their help hand in the accomplished of the project

5|Page
 B.RISHI – 20552-EC -017

6|Page
 7

ABSTRACT

With an increasing number of vehicles, the number of accidents is also increasing at an

unprecedented rate. Each year, among the total number of deaths 1.24 million deaths occurred due to
vehicle accidents. In India, the root causes of these accidents are due to the drunken driver,
drowsiness, and badly designed speed breakers. There is no effective mechanism to prevent these
root causes. Our proposed system provides an efficient, cost-effective, and real-time solution to
prevent vehicle accidents. This project relates to systems for determining a driver’s state of alertness
and drowsiness, hence the need for design and construction of vehicle accident prevention system
using eye blink sensor with an automatic braking system for alertness monitoring and drowsiness
detection. This project provides means of accident prevention system using eye blink sensor and
automatic braking system to ensure that the vehicle gradually comes to a halt when drowsiness is
detected, and the driver fails to respond to the warning signal from the buzzer within the stipulated
time. The hazard warning lights of the vehicle are also activated to alert other road users especially
drivers behind during the stipulated time before the vehicle comes to a halt. It can help in keeping the
driver always awake while driving, hence facilitate in avoidance of any traffic accidents involving
driver’s alertness.

7|Page
 8

CHAPTER 1
EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION:
The microprocessor-based system is built for controlling a function or range of
functions and is not designed to be programmed by the end user in the same way a PC is
defined as an embedded system. An embedded system is designed to perform one particular
task albeit with different choices and options.
Embedded systems contain processing cores that are either micro controllers or digital
signal processors. Micro controllers are generally known as "chip", which may itself be
packaged with other micro controllers in a hybrid system of Application Specific Integrated
Circuit (ASIC)

Fig 1.1: Block diagram of embedded system

Figure3.1 illustrates the Block diagram of Embedded System (ES consists of
hardware and software part which again consists of programming language and physical
peripherals respectively).
On the other hand, the micro controller is a single silicon chip consisting of all
input, output, and peripherals on it. A single micro controller has the following features:
1. Arithmetic and logic unit

8|Page
 9

2. Memory for storing program

3. EEPROM for nonvolatile and special function registers

4. Input/output ports

5. Analog to digital converter

6. Circuits

7. Serial communication ports

An embedded system is a combination of both hardware and software, each
embedded system is unique, and the hardware is highly specialized in the application
domain. Hardware consists of processors, micro controller, IR sensors etc. On the other
hand, Software is just like a brain of the whole embedded system as this consists of the
programming languages used which makes hardware work. As a result, embedded systems
programming can be a widely varying experience.
An embedded system is a combination of computer hardware and software, either fixed
incapability or programmable, that is specifically designed for kind of application device.
Industrial machines, automobiles, medical equipment, vending machines and toys (as well
as the more obvious cellular phone and PDA) are among the myriad possible hosts of an
embedded system. Embedded systems that are programmable are provided with a
programming interface, and embedded systems programming id specialized occupation.
APPLICATIONS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM
We are living in an embedded world. You are surrounded with many embedded
products and your daily life largely depends on the proper functioning’s of these gadgets,
television, radio, CD layer of your living room, washing machines or microwave oven in
your kitchen, card readers, access controllers, palm devices of your workspace enable to do
many of your tasks very effectively. Apart from all these, many controllers embedded in
your car take care of your car operation between the bumper and most of the time tend to
ignore all these controllers.

In recent days you are showered with a variety of information about these embedded
controllers in many places. All kinds of magazines and journals regularly dish out details
about the latest technologies, new devices: fast applications which make you believe that
your basic survival is controlled by these embedded products.
The computer you use to compose your mail or create a document or analyze the database

9|Page
 10

is known as a standard desktop computer. These desktop computers are manufactured to

serve many purposes and applications.

MILITARY AND AEROSPACE SOFTWARE APPLICATIONS:

From in-orbit embedded system to jumbo jets to vital battlefield networks,
designer’s performance, scalability, and high-availability facilities consistently turn
to the Linux OS, RTOS and LinuxOS-178RTOs for software certification to DO-
178B rich in system resources and networking serviced, Linux OS provides an off-
the-shelf software platform with hard real-time response backed by powerful
distributed computing (COBRA), high reliability’s software certification, and long-
term support options.

COMMUNICATION APPLICATIONS:
Five-nine” availability, compact PCI hot swap support, and hard real-time
response Linux OS delivers on these key requirements and more for today’s carrier-
class systems. Scalable kernel configurations, distributed computing capabilities,
intergraded communications stacks, and fault- management facilities make Linux
OS the ideal choice for companies looking for single operating system for all
embedded telecommunication applications from complex central to single line/trunk
cards.

10 | P a g e
 11

CHAPTER 2
OVERVIEW OF PROJECT
2.1 INTRODUCTION:
The primary purpose of the Drowsy Driver Detector is to develop a system that can
reduce the number of accidents from sleep driving of vehicle. With our two monitoring
steps, we can provide more accurate detection. For the detecting stage, the eye blink sensor
always monitors the eye blink moment. It continuously monitors eye blink. If the
monitoring is over, the collected data will be transmitted to an Arduino, and the Arduino
digitizes the analog data. If the warning feedback system is triggered, the Arduino makes a
decision which alert needs to be activated. The second application of this paper is to detect
the alcohol content or any leakage of gas from the vehicle, once it deducts such sensation
the LED light glows indicating emergency and this project also deals with temperature
sensors, in case of any fire inside the vehicle the sensor senses and stops the engine. For the
alert systems, we have a beeper device. The project code is developed in C language and
then converted to hex code which is readable to Arduino.
EXISTING SYSTEM:
In the past few days, the system was developed using complete hardware modules,
and a manual operating system.
So, it is not possible to scan the process in a short time but here making system very
simple.
LITERATURE SURVEY:
There are various techniques that can be used to detect the drowsiness of drivers.
These techniques can be generally divided into the following categories: sensing of
physiological characteristics, sensing of driver operation, sensing of vehicle response,
monitoring the response of driver

PROPOSED METHOD:

The proposed method is built in four stages, and it is applied to the Arduino

1. IR LED focused on the eye.

2. Photodiode senses the reflected ray and sends a corresponding output to the Arduino.

11 | P a g e
 12

3. The Arduino compares the output with a set threshold and determines eye status.

4. If „closed eye‟ status comes in 10 out of last 60 reading to warn the driver or to wake
him

Advantages of Gadget over existing Technology:

 Comfortable and Easy to Use

 Reduced Cost

 Easy to bill

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

SWITCH FAN

IR SENSOR
ARDUINO BUZZER

2 Fig: 2.1 Block Diagram

DESCRIPTION OF COMPONENTS:

 ARDUINO

 IR SENSOR

 SWITCH

 BUZZER

WORKING:
The infrared rays are transmitted by IR transmitter into driver‟s eye. The eye

12 | P a g e
 13

reflects the transmitted infrared rays and reflected rays are received by the IR
receiver. If the eye is in closed status, the output of IR receiver is high. The IR
receiver output is low, if the eye is in opening position. This informs that the eye is
in opening or closing position. The alarm is indicated, if the output is given to logic
circuit. This project is to decrease the accidents due to comatose through eye blink.

13 | P a g e
 14

CHAPTER
3 ARDIUNO

Arduino is an open-source electronics platform based on easy-to-use

hardware and software. Arduino boards are able to read inputs - light on a sensor, a
finger on a button, or a Twitter message- and turn it into an output - activating a
motor, turning on an LED, publishing something online. You can tell your board
what to do by sending a set of instructions to the micro controller on the board.
Over the years Arduino has been the brain of thousands of projects, from everyday
objects to complex scientific instruments. A worldwide community of makers -
students, hobbyists, artists, programmers, and professionals - has gathered around
this open-source platform, their contributions have added up to an incredible
amount of accessible knowledge that can be of great help to novices and experts
alike.

Fig 3.1: Arduino board

Arduino has been used in thousands of different projects and applications.

The Arduino software is easy-to-use for beginners, yet flexible enough for
advanced users. It runs on Mac, Windows, and Linux. Teachers and students use it
to build low cost scientific instruments, to prove chemistry and physics principles,

14 | P a g e
 15

or to get started with programming and robotics. Designers and architects build
interactive prototypes, musicians and artists use it for installations and to
experiment with new musical instruments. Makers, of course, use it to build many
of the projects exhibited at the Maker Fair, for example. Arduino is a key tool to
learn new things. Anyone - children, hobbyists, artists, programmers - can start
tinkering just following the step-by-step instructions of a kit, or sharing ideas online
with other members of the Arduino community.
OVERVIEW OF ARDUINO ARCHITECTURE:
Basically, the processor of the Arduino board uses the Harvard architecture
where the program code and program data have separate memory. It consists of
two memory programs such as program memory and data memory. Wherein the
data is stored in data memory and the code is stored in the flash program memory.

15 | P a g e
 16

Fig 3.2: Arduino Architecture

Now, let us see the details of the various building blocks of the hardware of an
Arduino. The building blocks are:
 Power

 Pins -5V, 3.3V, GND, Analog, Digital

 Reset Button.

 Main IC

 Power LED Indicator

 TX RX LED’s.

 Voltage Regulator.

16 | P a g e
 17

BASIC TERMINOLOGIES IN ARDUINO:

1. Analog to digital converter (ADC):

The Arduino has 10 bits of Resolution when reading analog signals. 2 power
10=1024 increments

Fig 3.3: ADC conversion

2. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM):

The Arduino has 8-bit of resolution, when outputting a signal using PWM.
The range of output voltage is from 0 to 5Volts. Average of on/of (digital signals to
make an average voltage). Duty cycle in 100% of 5Volts.

2power 8=255 Increments

LANGUAGE REFERENCES:
The Micro controller on the board is programmed using the Arduino
programming language (based on wiring) and the Arduino development
environment (based on processing).

Arduino Programming Language (APL) (based on wiring)

The Arduino programming language is an implementation of Wiring, a
similar physical computing platform, which is based on the Processing multimedia
programming environment.

17 | P a g e
 18

Wiring
Wiring is an open-source programming framework for micro controllers.
Wiring allows writing cross-platform software to control devices attached to a wide
range of micro controller boards to create all kinds of creative coding, interactive
objects, spaces or physical experiences. The framework is thoughtfully created with
designers and artists in mind to encourage a community where beginners through
experts from around the world share ideas, knowledge and their collective
experience. There are thousands of students, artists, designers, researchers, and
hobbyists who use Wiring for learning, prototyping, and finished professional work
production.

Arduino development environment (based on processing)

Processing:
Processing is an open-source programming language and environment for
people who want to create images, animations, and interactions. Initially developed
to serve as a software sketchbook and to teach fundamentals of computer
programming within a visual context.
APPLICATIONS OF ARDUINO:
Arduino was basically designed to make the process of using electronics in
multidisciplinary projects more accessible. It is intended for artists, designers,
hobbyists, and anyone interested in creating interactive objects or environments.
Arduino can sense the environment by receiving input from a variety of sensors and
can affect its surroundings by controlling lights, motors, and other actuators.
Because of these features, Arduino finds extensive application in various fields.
Arduino projects can be stand-alone or they can communicate with software running
on a computer.

18 | P a g e
 19

Arduino is used by all classes of people in a different way. Some students

use it in their projects, some using Arduino for fun, some went out to become
entrepreneurs. This only shows how useful is this tiny device.

Fig 3.4: Arduino fever

ARDUINO is spreading rapidly across the globe. Arduino is

actually an open source hardware project that can be programmed to read
temperatures, control a motor, and sense touch. The Arduino is both a cute,
blue micro controller platform that fits nicely in the palm of your hand and
an expanding community of developers who support it, distributed across
two dozen countries, four continents, and counting.
The Arduino board is for anyone who wants to build a basic level of
intelligence into an object. Once programmed, it can read sensors, make
simple decisions, and control myriad devices in the real world. Using it is a
snap: first, hook up a few sensors and output devices to the Arduino, then
program it using the free developer’s software. Next, debug your code and
disconnect the Arduino. Then the little blue Arduino becomes a standalone
computer.
The original intention of the Arduino project was to see what would happen
if community support were substituted for the corporate support that is
usually required for electronics development. The first developers —
Massimo Banzi, David Cuatrilloes, David Mellis, and Nicholas Zambetti —
ran a series of workshops on assembling the Arduino, giving away the board
to stimulate development.

19 | P a g e
 20

Thousands of projects have been done worldwide using this tiny little device. Some
of which to mention are:
 Simple room temperature readout

 Interactive real-time auditory feedback system

 GPS receiver Module

 Ultrasonic Sensor

 Infrared detectors

 SONAR

Various sensor projects like

 Keypad security code

 Sensor tube for heart monitor

 Pulse rate monitor

Various light projects like

Multi color light display

 Seven-segment LED display

 Double seven-segment LED dice

 LED array

 LCD module

Various sound projects like

 Oscilloscope

 Light harp

 VU meter

Some of the major applications are 3D printers, who’s founder went out to become
an entrepreneur, and major pride came to ARDUINO, when giant firm GOOGLE’S
most ambitious ANDROID, deployed ARDUINO in its new venture “ANDROID
OPEN ACCESSORY DEVELOPMENT KIT”. Which allows external USB

20 | P a g e
 21

hardware to interact with an Android-powered device in a special accessory mode.

ANDROID executive announced this in annual GOOGLE IO meet conference
2011.ANDROID calls that device made of Arduino as ADK (Android development
kit).

Arduino also has won annual “2012 INTERACTION AWARD” sponsored

by GOOGLE, or its extensive applications in various fields

21 | P a g e
 Why Arduino is popular?

Here are five reasons why the Arduino is more popular than beagle board:

 Starter Projects: Editing and rewriting is often easier than writing from scratch.
It’s the samewith electronics. It’s easier to mod an idea than start with a blank slate.
That’s where the Beagle Board falls short. “It has virtually no example application
that you can just copy and hack to learn from,” says Massimo Banzi, one of the co-
founders of the Arduino project. It’s a chicken-and-egg problem for the Beagle
Board. Unless there are more example codes out there, it is difficult to draw in the
audience. And without the audience it is challenging to get enough sample projects
into the community.

 Cost and Durability: At $30 apiece, an Arduino is an inexpensive investment for

someone who wants to try it out. “It’s the price of a few sandwiches,” says Torreon.
Compare that to the Beagle Board-xM, which costs $180. One reason why the
Arduino is so cheap is because it is easy to clone. The micro controller is completely
open source so the “components are all commodity,” says Torreon. With the Beagle
Board, hobbyists don’t have the same amount of freedom. They have to work
closely with Texas Instruments or its partners, says Torreon. Arduino is also very
resilient. Drop it, smash it and it still stays alive. Add to that its low-power
requirement, and the product becomes a must-have for Diyers. An Arduino can run
on a 9V-battery for days. “The Beagle Board is fast and powerful but that also
means lots of energy is needed, which makes it difficult for simple projects,” says
Torreon.
A Thriving Community: Arduino’s popularity means it’s easy to get started.
Companies suchas Ad fruit, Spark Fun and Liquid ware not only sell chips, but they
also host blogs that suggest ideas on how to use your Arduino while providing
extensive project plans to guide you in completing your creations. Will Chellman, a
student who has played with Arduino for years, says he’s now experimenting with
the Beagle Board. But finding documentation and information to work off is not
easy, he says. The lack of well-documented projects done with the Beagle Board
can be intimidating to new users as well, says Banzi.

22 | P a g e
 Maturity is the key: Arduino has had a head start on the Beagle Board. By
October 2008, about 50,000 Arduino boards had already been shipped. That year,
the first Beagle Boards started making their way into the hands of hardware
enthusiasts. There’s also a build-your-own tablet kit that is based off the Beagle
Board.
Simple is attractive: With its single-board computer configuration, 1-GHz
processing power and the choice of accessories, the Beagle Board is a creative
engineer’s dream come true. But the same reasons make it intimidating to those who
want to geek out on a DIY project but don’t have the technical know-how. Arduino
users point out that it is simple to connect external sensors to the board, and the
example codes out there make it easy to get started quickly.

23 | P a g e
 CHAPTER-4
HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION
What is an IR Sensor:
IR technology is used in daily life and also in industries for different purposes. For
example, TVs use an IR sensor to understand the signals which are transmitted from a remote
control. The main benefits of IR sensors are low power usage, their simple design & their
convenient features. IR signals are not noticeable by the human eye. The IR radiation in
the electromagnetic spectrum can be found in the regions of the visible & microwave.
Usually, the wavelengths of these waves range from 0.7 µm 5 to 1000µm. The IR spectrum
can be divided into three regions like near-infrared, mid, and far-infrared. The near IR
region’s wavelength ranges from 0.75 – 3µm, the mid-infrared region’s wavelength ranges
from 3 to 6µm & the far IR region’s infrared radiation’s wavelength is higher than 6µm.
What is an IR Sensor/Infrared Sensor?
An infrared sensor is an electronic device, that emits in order to sense some aspects of
the surroundings. An IR sensor can measure the heat of an object as well as detects the
motion. These types of sensors measure only infrared radiation, rather than emitting it that is
called a passive IR sensor. Usually, in the infrared spectrum, all the objects radiate some form
of thermal radiation.

Infrared Sensor
These types of radiations are invisible to our eyes, which can be detected by an infrared
sensor. The emitter is simply an IR LED (Light Emitting Diode) and the detector is simply an
IR photodiode that is sensitive to IR light of the same wavelength as that emitted by the IR
LED. When IR light falls on the photodiode, the resistances and the output voltages will
change in proportion to the magnitude of the IR light received.

24 | P a g e
 Working Principle
The working principle of an infrared sensor is similar to the object detection sensor.
This sensor includes an IR LED & an IR Photodiode, so by combining these two can be
formed as a photo-coupler otherwise optocoupler. The physics laws used in this sensor are
planks radiation, Stephan Boltzmann & weins displacement.
IR LED is one kind of transmitter that emits IR radiations. This LED looks similar to a
standard LED and the radiation which is generated by this is not visible to the human eye.
Infrared receivers mainly detect the radiation using an infrared transmitter. These infrared
receivers are available in photodiodes form. IR Photodiodes are dissimilar as compared with
usual photodiodes because they detect simply IR radiation. Different kinds of infrared
receivers mainly exist depending on the voltage, wavelength, package, etc.
Once it is used as the combination of an IR transmitter & receiver, then the
receiver’s wavelength must equal the transmitter. Here, the transmitter is IR LED whereas the
receiver is IR photodiode. The infrared photodiode is responsive to the infrared light that is
generated through an infrared LED. The resistance of photo-diode & the change in output
voltage is in proportion to the infrared light obtained. This is the IR sensor’s fundamental
working principle.
Once the infrared transmitter generates emission, then it arrives at the object & some
of the emission will reflect back toward the infrared receiver. The sensor output can be
decided by the IR receiver depending on the intensity of the response.
Types of Infrared Sensor
Infrared sensors are classified into two types like active IR sensor and passive IR sensor.
Active IR Sensor
This active infrared sensor includes both the transmitter as well as the receiver. In
most of the applications, the light-emitting diode is used as a source. LED is used as a non-
imaging infrared sensor whereas the laser diode is used as an imaging infrared sensor.
These sensors work through energy radiation, received & detected through radiation. Further,
it can be processed by using the signal processor to fetch the necessary information. The best
examples of this active infrared sensor are reflectance and break beam sensor.
Passive IR Sensor
The passive infrared sensor includes detectors only, but they don’t include a
transmitter. These sensors use an object like a transmitter or IR source. This object emits
energy and detects through infrared receivers. After that, a signal processor is used to

25 | P a g e
 understand the signal to obtain the required information.
The best examples of this sensor are pyroelectric detector, bolometer, thermocouple-
thermopile, etc. These sensors are classified into two types like thermal IR sensor and
quantum IR sensor. The thermal IR sensor doesn’t depend on wavelength. The energy source
used by these sensors is heated. Thermal detectors are slow with their response and detection
time. The quantum IR sensor depends on the wavelength and these sensors include high
response and detection time. These sensors need regular cooling for specific measurements.
IR Sensor Circuit Diagram
An infrared sensor circuit is one of the basic and popular sensor modules in
an electronic device. This sensor is analogous to human’s visionary senses, which can be
used to detect obstacles and it is one of the common applications in real-time. This circuit
comprises the following components
LM358 IC 2 IR transmitter and receiver pair
Resistors of the range of kilo-ohms.
Variable resistors.
LED (Light Emitting Diode).

Infrared Sensor Circuit Diagram

In this project, the transmitter section includes an IR sensor, which transmits
continuous IR rays to be received by an IR receiver module. An IR output terminal of the
receiver varies depending upon its receiving of IR rays. Since this variation cannot be
analyzed as such, therefore this output can be fed to a comparator circuit. Here an operational
amplifier (op-amp) of LM 339 is used as a comparator circuit.
When the IR receiver does not receive a signal, the potential at the inverting input
goes higher than that non-inverting input of the comparator IC (LM339). Thus, the

26 | P a g e
 output of the comparator goes low, but the LED does not glow. When the IR receiver
module receives a signal to the potential at the inverting input goes low. Thus, the
output of the comparator (LM 339) goes high and the LED starts glowing.
Resistor R1 (100), R2 (10k ), and R3 (330) are used to ensure that a minimum of 10
mA current passes through the IR LED Devices like Photodiode and normal LEDs
respectively. Resistor VR2 (preset=5k) is used to adjust the output terminals. Resistor VR1
(preset=10k) is used to set the sensitivity of the circuit Diagram. Read more about IR sensors.

IR Sensor Circuit using Transistor

The circuit diagram of the IR sensor using transistors namely obstacle detection using
two transistors is shown below. This circuit is mainly used for obstacle detection using an IR
LED. So, this circuit can be built with two transistors like NPN and PNP. For NPN, BC547
transistor is used whereas, for PNP, BC557 transistor is used. The pinout of these transistors
is the same.

Infrared Sensor Circuit using Transistors

In the above circuit, one infrared LED is always switched on whereas the other infrared
LED is allied to the PNP transistor’s base terminal because this IR LED acts as the detector.
The required components of this IR sensor circuit include resistors 100 ohms & 200 ohms,
BC547 & BC557 transistors, LED, IR LEDs-2. The step-by-step procedure of how to make
the IR sensor circuit includes the following steps.
 Connect the components as per the circuit diagram using required components
 Connect one infrared LED to the BC547 transistor’s base terminal
 Connect an infrared LED to the base terminal of the same transistor.
 Connect the 100Ω resistor toward the residual pins of the infrared LEDs.

27 | P a g e
  Connect the base terminal of the PNP transistor toward the collector terminal of the NPN
transistor.
 Connect the LED & 220Ω resistor as per the connection in the circuit diagram.
 Once the connection of the circuit is done then gives the power supply to the circuit for
testing.
Circuit Working
Once the infrared LED is detected, then the reflected light from the thing will activate
a small current that will supply throughout the IR LED detector. This will activate the NPN
transistor & the PNP; therefore the LED will switch ON. This circuit is applicable for making
different projects like automatic lamps to activate once person approaches close to the light.
Burglar Alarm Circuit using IR Sensor
This IR burglar alarm circuit is used at entries, doors, etc. This circuit gives a buzzer sound to
alert the concerned person whenever someone crosses through the IR ray. When the IR rays
are not visible to humans, then this circuit works as a hidden safety device.

Burglar Alarm Circuit using IR Sensor

The required components of this circuit mainly include NE555IC, resistors R1 & R2
= 10k & 560, D1 (IR photodiode), D2 (IR LED), C1 Capacitor (100nF), S1 (push switch), B1
(Buzzer) & 6v DC Supply.
This circuit can be connected by arranging the infrared LED as well as the infrared sensors on
the door opposite to each other. So that IR ray can fall on the sensor properly. Under normal
conditions, the infrared ray drops always over the infrared diode & the output condition at
pin-3 will stay in the low condition.
This ray will be interrupted once a solid object crosses the ray. When the IR ray smashes, the
circuit will activate & the output turns to ON condition. The output condition remains till it
retunes by shutting the switch that means, when the interrupt of the ray is detached then an
alarm remains ON. To avoid others from deactivating the alarm, the circuit or reset switch
must be located distant or out of sight from the infrared sensor. In this circuit, a ‘B1’ buzzer

28 | P a g e
 is connected to produce sound with an inbuilt sound and this inbuilt sound can be replaced
with an alternative bells otherwise loud siren based on the requirement.
Advantages
The advantages of IR sensor include the following
It uses less power
The detection of motion is possible in the presence or absence of light approximately with
equal reliability.
They do not need contact with the object for detection
There is no data leakage because of the ray direction
These sensors are not affected by oxidation & corrosion
Noise immunity is very strong
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of IR sensor include the following
Line of sight is required
Range is limited
These can be affected by fog, rain, dust, etc
Less data transmission rate
IR Sensor Applications
IR sensors are classified into different types depending on the applications. Some of
the typical applications of different types of sensors. The speed sensor is used for
synchronizing the speed of multiple motors. The temperature sensor is used for industrial
temperature control. PIR sensor is used for an automatic door opening system and
the Ultrasonic sensor is used for distance measurement.
IR sensors are used in various Sensor based projects and also in various electronic devices
which measures the temperature that is discussed below.
Radiation Thermometers
IR sensors are used in radiation thermometers to measure the temperature depend upon the
temperature and the material of the object and these thermometers have some of the
following features
Measurement without direct contact with the object
Faster response
Easy pattern measurements
Flame Monitors

29 | P a g e
 These types of devices are used for detecting the light emitted from the flames and to monitor
how the flames are burning. The Light emitted from flames extend from UV to IR region
types. PBS, PbSe, Two-color detector, pyroelectric detector is some of the commonly
employed detectors used in flame monitors.
Moisture Analyzers
Moisture analyzers use wavelengths that are absorbed by the moisture in the IR region.
Objects are irradiated with light having these wavelengths (1.1 µm, 1.4 µm, 1.9 µm, and
2.7µm) and also with reference wavelengths.
The Lights reflected from the objects depend upon the moisture content and are detected by
the analyzer to measure moisture (ratio of reflected light at these wavelengths to the reflected
light at reference wavelength). In GaAs PIN photodiodes, Pbs photoconductive detectors are
employed in moisture analyzer circuits.
Gas Analyzers
IR sensors are used in gas analyzers that use the absorption characteristics of gases in the IR
region. Two types of methods are used to measure the density of gas such as dispersive and
nondispersive.
IR Imaging Devices
IR image device is one of the major applications of IR waves, primarily by virtue of its
property that is not visible. It is used for thermal imagers, night vision devices, etc.
For example, Water, rocks, soil, vegetation, and atmosphere, and human tissue all feature
emit IR radiation. The Thermal infrared detectors measure these radiations in the IR range
and map the spatial temperature distributions of the object/area on an image. Thermal
imagers usually composed of an Sb (indium antimonite), Gd Hg (mercury-doped
germanium), Hg Cd Te (mercury-cadmium-telluride) sensors.
An electronic detector is cooled to low temperatures using liquid helium or liquid
nitrogen. Then the Cooling the detectors ensure that the radiant energy (photons) recorded by
the detectors comes from the terrain and not from the ambient temperature of objects within
the scanner itself and IR imaging electronic devices.
The key applications of the infrared sensors mainly include the following.
Meteorology
Climatology
Photo-bio modulation
Analysis of Water

30 | P a g e
 Gas detectors
Testing of Anesthesiology
Exploration of Petroleum
Safety of Rail

What is a Buzzer?

An audio signaling device like a beeper or buzzer may be electromechanical

or piezoelectric or mechanical type. The main function of this is to convert the signal
from audio to sound. Generally, it is powered through DC voltage and used in timers,
alarm devices, printers, alarms, computers, etc. Based on the various designs, it can
generate different sounds like alarm, music, bell & siren.

Buzzer Pin Configuration

The pin configuration of the buzzer is shown below. It includes two pins namely
positive and negative. The positive terminal of this is represented with the ‘+’ symbol or a
longer terminal. This terminal is powered through 6Volts whereas the negative terminal is
represented with the ‘-‘symbol or short terminal and it is connected to the GND terminal.

31 | P a g e
 History

The history of electromechanical buzzers and piezoelectric is discussed below.

Electromechanical

This buzzer was launched in the year 1831 by an American Scientist namely Joseph
Henry but, this was used in doorbells until they were eliminated in 1930 in support of musical
bells, which had a smooth tone.

Piezoelectric

These buzzers were invented by manufacturers of Japanese & fixed into a broad range
of devices during the period of 1970s – 1980s. So, this development primarily came due to
cooperative efforts through the manufacturing companies of Japanese. In the year 1951, they
recognized the Application Research Committee of Barium Titanate that allows the
corporations to be cooperative competitively & bring about numerous piezoelectric creations.

Specifications

The specifications of the buzzer include the following.

 Color is black
 The frequency range is 3,300Hz
 Operating Temperature ranges from – 20° C to +60°C
 Operating voltage ranges from 3V to 24V DC
 The sound pressure level is 85dBA or 10cm
 The supply current is below 15mA
Types of Buzzer

A buzzer is available in different types which include the following.

 Piezoelectric

 Electromagnetic

 Mechanical

 Electromechanical

 Magnetic

32 | P a g e
 Piezoelectric

As the name suggests, the piezoelectric type uses the piezoelectric ceramic’s
piezoelectric effect & pulse current to make the metal plate vibrate & generate sound. This
kind of buzzer is made with a resonance box, multi resonator, piezoelectric plate, housing,
impedance matcher, etc. Some of the buzzers are also designed with LEDs.
The multi resonator of this mainly includes ICs and transistors. Once the supply is given to this
resonator, it will oscillate and generates an audio signal with 1.5 to 2.kHz. The impedance
matcher will force the piezoelectric plate to produce sound.

Electromagnetic

This type of buzzer is made with a magnet, solenoid coil, oscillator, housing, vibration
diaphragm, and magnet. Once the power supply is given, the oscillator which produces the
audio signal current will supply throughout the solenoid coil to generate a magnetic field.
Sometimes, the vibration diaphragm will vibrate & generate sound under the magnet &
solenoid coil interaction. The frequency range of this ranges from 2 kHz to 4kHz.

Mechanical

These types of buzzers are subtypes of electromagnetic, so the components used in this
type are also similar. But the main difference is that the vibrating buzzer is placed on the
outside instead of the inside.
Electromechanical

The designing of these types of buzzers can be done with a bare metal disc & an
electromagnet. The working principle of this is similar to magnetic and electromagnetic. It
generates sound throughout the disc movement & magnetism.

Magnetic

Like a piezo type, magnetic is also used to generate a sound but they are different due
to core functionality. The magnetic type is more fixed as compared to the piezo type because
they work through a magnetic field.

Magnetic buzzers utilize an electric charge instead of depending on piezo materials to

generate a magnetic field, after that it permits another element of the buzzer to vibrate &
generate sound.

33 | P a g e
 The applications of magnetic buzzers are similar to the piezo type in household devices,
alarms such as watches, clocks & keyboards.

Working Principle

The working principle of a buzzer depends on the theory that, once the voltage is given
across a piezoelectric material, then a pressure difference is produced. A piezo type includes piezo
crystals among two conductors.

Once a potential disparity is given across these crystals, then they thrust one conductor &
drag the additional conductor through their internal property. So this continuous action will produce
a sharp sound signal.
Mounting Configurations

The mounting configurations of buzzers include the following.

 Panel Mount
 Wire Leads
 Screw Terminals
 Through Hole
 Spring Contact
 Surface Mount
What is a DC MOTOR: Basics, Types & Its Working

Almost every mechanical development that we see around us is accomplished by an electric

motor. Electric machines are a method of converting energy. Motors take electrical energy and
produce mechanical energy. Electric motors are utilized to power hundreds of devices we use in
everyday life. Electric motors are broadly classified into two different categories: Direct Current
(DC) motor and Alternating Current (AC) motor. In this article, we are going to discuss the DC
motor and its working. And also how gear DC motors work.

What is DC Motor?

A DC motor is an electric motor that runs on direct current power. In an electric motor, the
operation is dependent upon simple electromagnetism. A current-carrying conductor generates a

34 | P a g e
 magnetic field, when this is then placed in an external magnetic field, it will encounter a force
proportional to the current in the conductor and to the strength of the external magnetic field. It
is a device that converts electrical energy to mechanical energy. It works on the fact that a
current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field experiences a force that causes it to rotate
with respect to its original position. Practical DC Motor consists of field windings to provide
magnetic flux and armature which acts as the conductor.

Brushless DC Motor
The input of a brushless DC motor is current/voltage and its output is torque.
Understanding the operation of the DC motor is very simple from the basic diagram shown below.
DC motor basically consists of two main parts. The rotating part is called the rotor and the
stationary part is also called the stator. The rotor rotates with respect to the station.
The rotor consists of windings, the windings being electrically associated with the commutator.
The geometry of the brushes, commutator contacts, and rotor windings are such that when power
is applied, the polarities of the energized winding and the stator magnets are misaligned, and the
rotor will turn until it is very nearly straightened with the stator’s field magnets.

As the rotor reaches alignment, the brushes move to the next commutator contacts and
energize the next winding. The rotation reverses the direction of current through the rotor
winding, prompting a flip of the rotor’s magnetic field, driving it to keep rotating.

Construction of DC Motor

The construction of the DC motor is shown below. It is very important to know its design
before knowing it’s working. The essential parts of this motor include armature as well as stator.

35 | P a g e
 DC MOTOR
The armature coil is the rotating part whereas the stationary part is the stator. In this, the
armature coil is connected toward the DC supply which includes the brushes as well as the
commutators. The main function of the commutator is to convert the AC to DC which is induced
in the armature. The flow of current can be supplied by using the brush from the motor’s rotary
part toward the inactive outside load. The arrangement of the armature can be done in between the
two poles of the electromagnet or permanent.

DC Motor Parts

In DC motors, there are different popular designs of motors that are available like a
brushless, permanent magnet, series, compound wound, shunt, otherwise stabilized shunt. In
general, the parts of dc motor are the same in these popular designs but the whole operation of this
is the same. The main parts of dc motor include the following.

Stator

A stationary part like a stator is one of the parts in DC motor parts which includes the field
windings. The main function of this is to get the supply.

Rotor

The rotor is the dynamic part of the motor that is used to create the mechanical revolutions of the
unit.

Brushes

Brushes using a commutator mainly work as a bridge to fix the stationary electrical circuit toward
the rotor.

36 | P a g e
 Commutator

It is a split ring that is designed with copper segments. It is also one of the most essential parts
of dc motor.

Field Windings

These windings are made with field coils which are known as copper wires. These windings
round approximately the slots carried through the pole shoes.

Armature Windings

The construction of these windings in the DC motor is two types like Lap & Wave.

Yoke

A magnetic frame like a yoke is designed with cast iron or steel sometimes. It works like a
guard.

Poles

Poles in the motor include two main parts like the pole core as well as pole shoes. These
essential parts are connected through hydraulic force & are connected to the yoke.

Teeth/Slot

The non-conducting slot liners are frequently jammed among the slot walls as well as coils for
safety from scratch, mechanical support & additional electrical insulation. The magnetic material
between the slots is called teeth.

Motor Housing

The housing of the motor gives support to the brushes, the bearings & the iron core.

Working Principle

An electrical machine that is used to convert the energy from electrical to mechanical is
known as a DC motor. The DC motor working principle is that when a current-carrying
conductor is located within the magnetic field, then it experiences a mechanical force. This force
direction can be decided through Flemings’ left-hand rule as well as its magnitude.

37 | P a g e
 If the first finger is extended, the second finger, as well as the left hand’s thumb, will be vertical
to each other & primary finger signifies the magnetic field’s direction, the next finger signifies the
current direction & the third finger-like thumb signifies the force direction which is experienced
through the conductor.

F = BIL Newtons
Where,

‘B’ is the magnetic flux density,

‘I’ is current

‘L’ is the conductor’s length in the magnetic field.

Whenever an armature winding is given toward a DC supply, then the flow of current will be set
up within the winding. Field winding or permanent magnets will provide the magnetic field. So,
armature conductors will experience a force because of the magnetic field based on the above-
stated principle.
The Commutator is designed like sections to attain unit-directional torque or the path of force
would have overturned each time once the way of the conductor’s movement is upturned within
the magnetic field. So, this is the working principle of the DC motor.

Types of DC Motors

The different types of dc motors are discussed below.

Geared DC Motors

Geared motors tend to reduce the speed of the motor but with a corresponding increase in
torque. This property comes in handy, as DC motors can rotate at speeds much too fast for an
electronic device to makes use of. Geared motors commonly consist of a DC brush motor and a
gearbox attached to the shaft. Motors are distinguished as geared by two connected units. It has
many applications due to its cost of designing, reduces the complexity, and constructing
applications such as industrial equipment, actuators, medical tools, and robotics.

 No good robot can ever be built without gears. All things considered, a good understanding of
how gears affect parameters such as torque and velocity is very important.

38 | P a g e
  Gears work on the principle of mechanical advantage. This implies that by using distinctive
gear diameters, we can exchange rotational velocity and torque. Robots do not have a desirable
speed to torque ratio.
 In robotics, torque is better than speed. With gears, it is possible to exchange the high velocity
with better torque. The increase in torque is inversely proportional to the reduction in speed.

Geared DC Motors
Speed Reduction in Geared DC Motor

Speed reduction in gears comprises of a little gear driving a larger gear. There may be few sets of
these reduction gear sets in a reduction gearbox.

Speed Reduction in geared DC Motor

Sometimes the objective of using a gear motor is to reduce the rotating shaft speed of a motor in
the device being driven, for example in a small electric clock where the tiny synchronous motor
may be turning at 1,200 rpm however is decreased to one rpm to drive the second hand and
further reduced in the clock mechanism to drive the minute and hour hands. Here the amount of
driving force is irrelevant as long as it is sufficient to overcome the frictional impacts of the clock
mechanism.

39 | P a g e
 Series DC Motor

A Series motor is a DC series motor where field winding is connected internally in series
to the armature winding. The series motor provides high starting torque but must never be run
without a load and is able to move very large shaft loads when it is first energized. Series
motors are also known as series-wound motor.

In series motors, the field windings are associated in series with the armature. The field
strength varies with progressions in armature current. At the time its speed is reduced by a
load, the series motor advances more excellent torque. Its starting torque is more than
different sorts of DC motor.

It can also radiate more easily the heat that has built up in the wind due to a large amount
of current being carried. Its speed shifts considerably between full-load and no-load. When
the load is removed, motor speed increases, and current through the armature and field coils
decreases. The unloaded operation of large machines is hazardous.

Series Motor
Current through the armature and field coils decreases, the strength of the flux lines around
them weakens. If the strength of the flux lines around the coils was reduced at the same rate
as the current flowing through them, both would decrease at the same rate at

which the motor speed increases.

Advantages
The advantages of a series motor include the following.

 Huge starting torque

 Simple Construction

 Designing is easy

40 | P a g e
  Maintenance is easy
 Cost-effective

Applications
Series Motors can produce enormous turning power, the torque from its idle state. This
characteristic makes series motors suitable for small electrical appliances, versatile electric
equipment and etc. Series motors are not suitable when constant speed is needed. The reason is
that the velocity of series motors varies greatly with varying loads.

Shunt Motor

Shunt motors are shunt DC motors, where the field windings shunted to or are connected in
parallel to the armature winding of the motor. The shunt DC motor is commonly used because of
its best speed regulation. Also, hence both the armature winding and the field windings are
presented to the same supply voltage, however, there are discrete branches for the stream of
armature current and the field current.

A shunt motor has somewhat distinctive working characteristics than a series motor. Since the
shunt field coil is made of fine wire, it cannot produce a large current for starting like the series
field. This implies that the shunt motor has extremely low starting torque, which requires that the
shaft load be quite little.

Shunt Motor
When voltage is applied to the shunt motor, a very low amount of current flows through the shunt
coil. The armature for the shunt motor is similar to the series motor and it will draw current to
produce a strong magnetic field. Due to the interaction of the magnetic field around the armature
and the field produced around the shunt field, the motor starts to rotate.

Like the series motor, when the armature begins to turn, it will produce back EMF. The back
EMF will cause the current in the armature to begin to diminish to a very small level. The

41 | P a g e
 amount of current the armature will draw is directly related to the size of the load when the
motor reaches full speed. Since the load is generally small, the armature current will be small.

Advantages
The advantages of shunt motor include the following.

 Simple control performance, resulting in a high level of flexibility for solving complex drive
problems
 High availability, therefore minimal service effort needed
 High level of electromagnetic compatibility
 Very smooth running, therefore low mechanical stress of the overall system and high
dynamic control processes
 Wide control range and low speeds, therefore universally usable
Applications
Shunt DC motors are very suitable for belt-driven applications. This constant speed motor is
used in industrial and automotive applications such as machine tools and winding/unwinding
machines where a great amount of torque precision is required.

DC Compound Motors

DC compound motors include a separately excited shunt field which has an excellent starting
torque however it faces troubles within the variable speed applications. The field in these motors
can be connected in series through the armature as well as a shunt field which is separately
excited. The series field gives a superior starting torque whereas the shunt field gives enhanced
speed regulation. But, the series field causes control issues within the applications of variable
speed drive & is normally not utilized in 4-quadrant drives.

Separately Excited

As the name suggests, the field windings, otherwise coils are energized through a separate DC
source. The unique fact of these motors is that the armature current does not supply throughout
the field windings, because the field winding is strengthened from a separate exterior DC current
source. The torque equation of DC motor is Tg = Ka φ Ia, in this case, the torque is changed
through changing filed flux ‘φ’ & independent of the ‘Ia’ armature current.

42 | P a g e
 Self Excited

As the name suggests, in this type of motor, the current within the windings can be supplied
through the motor otherwise machine itself. Further, this motor is separated into the series
wound and shunt-wound motor.

Permanent Magnet DC Motor

The PMDC or permanent magnet DC motor includes an armature winding. These motors
are designed with permanent magnets by placing them on the inside margin of the stator core for
generating the field flux. On the other hand, the rotor includes conventional DC armature
including brushes & commutator segments.

In a permanent magnet DC motor, the magnetic field can be formed through a permanent
magnet. So, the input current is not used for excitation, which is used in air conditioners, wipers,
automobile starters, etc.

Connecting DC Motor with Microcontroller

Microcontrollers can’t drive the motors directly. So, we need some kind of driver to
control the speed and direction of motors. The motor drivers will act as interfacing devices
between microcontrollers and motors. Motor drivers will act as current amplifiers since they
take a low current control signal and provide a high current signal. This high current signal is
used to drive the motors. Using L293D chip is an easy way for controlling the motor using a
microcontroller. It contains two H-bridge driver circuits internally.
This chip is designed to control two motors. L293D has two sets of arrangements where 1 set
has input 1, input 2, output1, output 2, with enable pin while another set has input 3, input 4,
output 3, output 4 with other enable pin. Here is a video related to L293D

Here is an example of a DC motor that is interfaced with the L293D microcontroller.

43 | P a g e
 DC motor interfaced with L293D microcontroller
L293D has two sets of arrangements where one set has input 1, input 2, output 1, and output 2
and another set has input 3, input 4, output 3, and output 4, according to the above diagram,

 If pin no 2 and 7 are high then pin no 3 and 6 are also high. If enable 1 and pin number 2 are
high leaving pin number 7 as low then the motor rotates in the forward direction.
 If enable 1 and pin number 7 are high leaving pin number 2 as low then the motor rotates in
the reverse direction.
Today dc motors are still found in many applications as small as toys and disk drives or in large
sizes to operate steel rolling mills and paper machines.

DC Motor Equations

The magnitude of flux experienced is

F=BlI

Where, B- Flux density due to flux produced by field windings

l- Active length of the conductor

I-Current passing through the conductor

As the conductor rotates, an EMF is induced which acts in a direction opposite to the supplied
voltage. It is given as

44 | P a g e
 Where, Ø- Fluz due to the field windings

P- Number of poles

A-A constant

N – Speed of the motor

Z- Number of

conductors

The supply voltage, V = Eb + IaRa

The torque developed is

Thus, the torque is directly proportional to the armature current.

Also, speed varies with armature current, hence indirectly torque and speed of a motor are
dependants on each other.

For a DC shunt motor, speed remains almost constant even if torque increases from no load to
full load.

For a DC series motor, speed decreases as torque increases from no load to full load.

Thus, torque can be controlled by varying the speed. Speed control is achieved either by

 Changing flux by controlling the current through field winding- Flux Control method. By this
method, speed is controlled above its rated speed.
 Armature Voltage Control – Provides speed control below its normal speed.
 Supply Voltage Control – Provides speed control in both directions.
4 Quadrant Operation

Generally, a motor can operate in 4 different regions. The four-quadrant operation of dc

motor includes the following.
45 | P a g e
  As a motor in a forward or clockwise direction.
 As a generator in the forward direction.
 As a motor in a reverse or anticlockwise direction.
 As a generator in the reverse direction.

4 Quadrant Operation of DC Motor

 In the first quadrant, the motor is driving the load with both the speed and torque in a positive
direction.
 In the second quadrant, torque direction reverses and the motor acts as a generator
 In the third quadrant, the motor drives the load with speed and torque in a negative direction.
 In the 4th quadrant, the motor acts as a generator in reverse mode.
 In the first and third quadrant, the motor acts in both forward and reverse directions. For
example, motors in cranes lift the load and also put it down.
In the second and fourth quadrant, the motor acts as a generator in forward and reverse
directions respectively and provides energy back to the power source. Thus, the way to control
a motor operation, to make it operate in any of the 4 quadrants is by controlling its speed and
direction of rotation.

The speed is controlled either by varying the armature voltage or weakening the field. The
torque direction or direction of rotation is controlled by varying the extent to which applied
voltage is greater than or less than the back emf.

Common Faults in DC Motors

It is significant to know as well as to understand the failures & faults of the motor to describe
the most appropriate safety devices for every case. There are three types of motor failures like

46 | P a g e
 mechanical, electrical & mechanical that grow into electrical. The most frequently occurred
failures include the following,

 Breakdown of insulation
 Overheating
 Overloads
 Failure of bearing
 Vibration
 Locked Rotor
 Misalignment of Shaft
 Reverse Running
 Imbalance of phase
The most common faults that occur within AC motors, as well as DC motors, include the
following.

 When the motor is not correctly mounted

 When the motor is blocked through dirt
 When the motor contains water
 When the motor is overheating
12 V DC Motor

A 12v DC motor is inexpensive, small as well as powerful which is used in several

applications. Selecting the suitable DC motor for a particular application is a challenging task, so
it is essential to work through the exact company. The best example of these motors is
METMotors, as they make PMDC (permanent magnet DC) motors with high-quality for over 45
years.

How to Select the Right Motor?

The selection of a 12v dc motor can be done very easily through METmotors because
the professionals of this company will first study your correct application and after that they
consider numerous characteristics as well as specifications to guarantee you finish up with the
finest product possible.
The operating voltage is one of the characteristics of this motor.

47 | P a g e
 Once a motor is power-driven through batteries, then low operating voltages are
normally chosen as fewer cells are necessary to get the particular voltage. But, at high
voltages, drive a dc motor is normally more efficient. Even though, its operation is achievable
with 1.5 volts that goes up to 100V. The most frequently used motors are the 6v, 12v & 24v.
Other main specifications of this motor are speed, operating current, power & torque.

The 12V DC motors are perfect for different applications through a DC supply
requiring running torque as well as high starting. These motors operate at fewer speeds as
compared with other motor voltages.
The features of this motor mainly vary based on the manufacturing company as well as
application.

 Motor speed is 350rpm to 5000 rpm

 Rated torque of this motor ranges from 1.1 to 12.0 in-lbs
 The output power of this motor ranges from 01hp to.21 hp
 Frame sizes are 60mm, 80mm, 108 mm
 Replaceable brushes
 The typical life of brush is 2000+ hours
Back EMF in DC Motor

Once the current-carrying conductor is arranged in a magnetic field, then the torque
will induce over the conductor and the torque will rotate the conductor which slices the
magnetic field’s flux. Based on the phenomenon of Electromagnetic induction once the
conductor slices the magnetic field, and then an EMF will induce within the conductor.

The induced EMF direction can be determined through Flemings’ right-hand rule.
According to this rule, if we grip our thumbnail, index, and center finger with 90° of an
angles, after that the index finger will signify the way of the magnetic field. Here, the thumb
finger represents the conductor’s way of motion & the middle finger denotes the induced
EMF over the conductor.

By applying Flemming’s right-hand rule, we can notice that the induced emf direction
is reverse to the voltage applied. So, the emf is called the back emf or counter emf. The
development of back emf can be done in series through the voltage applied, however, reverse
in direction, that is the back emf resists the flow of current which causes it.

48 | P a g e
 The back emf magnitude can be given through a similar expression like the following.

Eb = NP ϕZ/60A
Where

‘Eb’ is the motor’s induced EMF called Back EMF

‘A’ is the no. of parallel lanes throughout the armature among the reverse polarity brushes

‘P’ is the no. of poles

‘N’ is the speed

‘Z’ is the whole number of conductors within the armature

‘ϕ’ is a helpful flux for each pole.

In the above circuit, the back emf magnitude is always low as compared with the voltage applied.
The disparity between the two is almost equivalent once the dc motor works beneath usual
conditions. The current will induce on the dc motor due to the main supply. The relation among
the main supply, back EMF & armature current can be expressed as Eb = V – IaRa.

How to use a Buzzer?

A buzzer is an efficient component to include the features of sound in our system or project. It is
an extremely small & solid two-pin device thus it can be simply utilized on breadboard or PCB.
So in most applications, this component is widely used.

There are two kinds of buzzers commonly available like simple and readymade. Once a simple
type is power-driven then it will generate a beep sound continuously. A readymade type looks
heavier & generates a Beep. Beep. Beep. This sound is because of the internal oscillating circuit
within it.

This buzzer uses a DC power supply that ranges from 4V – 9V. To operate this, a 9V battery is
used but it is suggested to utilize a regulated +5V/+6V DC supply. Generally, it is connected
through a switching circuit to switch ON/OFF the buzzer at the necessary time interval.

49 | P a g e
 Buzzer Circuit Diagram

The circuit diagram of the water level indicator using the buzzer is shown below. This
circuit is used to sense or detect the water level within the tank or washing machine or pool, etc.
This circuit is very simple to design using a few components such as a transistor, buzzer, 300K
variable resistor, and power supply or 9V battery.

Water Level Circuit using Buzzer

Once the two probes of the circuit are placed in the tank, it detects the level of water. Once the
water level exceeds the fixed level, then it generates a beep sound through a buzzer connected to
the circuit. This circuit uses a BC547B NPN transistor however we can also use any general-
purpose transistor instead of using 2N3904/2N2222.
This water level sensor circuit working is very simple, and the transistor used within the circuit
works as a switch. Once the two probes notice the water level within the tank, then the transistor
turns ON & the voltage begins flowing throughout the transistor to trigger the buzzer.

How to Choose a Buzzer?

While choosing a buzzer or speaker, many principles need to be considered like the following.

 Size of the product

 Consumption of Current
 Type of terminal
 Frequency Voltage
 Volume
 Type
 AC/DC Voltage
 The tone is Continuous/Pulsed
 Fixing – Pins, Leads/Surface Mount
 Output of Sound

50 | P a g e
  Feedback Option
 Piezo Elements
Advantages

The advantages of a buzzer include the following.

 Simply Compatible
 Frequency Response is Good
 Size is small
 Energy Consumption is less
 The Range of Voltage usage is Large
 Sound Pressure is high
Disadvantages

The disadvantages of the buzzer include the following.

 Controlling is a little hard
 Generates Annoying Sound
 Training is necessary to know how to repair the condition without just turning off.
Applications

The applications of the buzzer include the following.

 Communication Devices
 Electronics used in Automobiles
 Alarm Circuits
 Portable Devices
 Security Systems
 Timers
 Household Appliances
 Electronic Metronomes
 Sporting Events
 Annunciator Panels
 Game Shows
Switches – Types & Working

A switch is an electrical component which can make or break electrical circuit

automatically or manually. Switch is mainly works with ON (open) and OFF (closed)
mechanism. Numerous circuits hold switches that control how the circuit works or actuate

51 | P a g e
 different characteristics of the circuit. The classification of switches depends on the
connection they make. Two vital components that confirm what sorts of connections a switch
makes are pole and throw.

These are classified on based the connections they make. If you were under the impression
that switches simply turn circuits on and off, guess again.

The terms pole and throw are also used to describe switch contact variations. The number of
“poles” is the number of separate circuits which are controlled by a switch. The number of
“throws” is the number of separate positions that the switch can adopt. A single-throw switch
has one pair of contacts that can either be closed or open. A double-throw switch has a
contact that can be connected to either of two other contacts; a triple-throw has a contact
which can be connected to one of three other contacts, etc.

Pole: The amount of circuits controlled by the switch is indicated by poles. Single pole (SP)
switch controls only one electrical circuit. Double pole (DP) switch controls two independent
circuits.

Throw: The number of throws indicates how many different output connections every switch
pole can connect its input. A single throw (ST) switch is a simple on/off switch. When the
switch is ON, the two terminals of switch are connected and current flows between them.
When the switch is OFF the terminals are not connected, so the current does not flow.

4 Types of Switches

Basic types of switches are SPST, SPDT, DPST and DPDT. These are briefly
discussed below.

Working of SPST Switch

The Single Pole Single through (SPST) is a basic on/off switch that just connects or
breaks the connection between two terminals. The power supply to a circuit is switched by
the SPST switch. A simple SPST switch is shown in figure below.

52 | P a g e
 These types of switches are also called toggle switches. This switch has two contacts,
one is input and other output. From the typical light switch diagram, it controls one wire
(pole) and it makes one connection (throw). This is an on/off switch when the switch is
closed or on then current flows through the terminals and the bulb in circuit will glow. When
the switch is open or off then there is no current flow in the circuit.

SPST Circuit
Working of SPDT Switch

The single pole double throw (SPDT) switch is a three-terminal switch, one for input and
other two for the outputs. It connects a common terminal to one or the other of two terminals.

For using the SPDT switch as SPST switch then just use the COM terminal instead of other
terminals. For instance, we can use COM and A or COM and B.

SPDT
From the circuit, it clearly demonstrates what happens when the SPDT switch is moved
back and forth. These switches are used in a three-way circuit to turn a light ON/OFF from
two locations, such as from the top and bottom of a stairway. When switch A is closed then

53 | P a g e
 current flows through the terminal and only light A will ON, and light B will OFF. When
switch B is closed then current flows through the terminal and only light B will ON and light
A will OFF. Here we are controlling the two circuits or paths via one way or source.

SPDT Circuit
Working of DPST Switch

DPST is abbreviation for double pole, single throw. Double pole means that the
unit contains two identical switches, side by side, and operated by one single toggle or lever.
This means that two separate circuits are at a time controlled through one push.

DPST
A DPST switch turns two circuits on or off. A DPST switch has four terminals: two inputs
and two outputs. The most common use for a DPST switch is to control a 240-volt appliance,
where both supply lines must be switched, while the neutral wire may be permanently
connected. Here when this switch is toggled current starts flowing through two circuits and
interrupted when it is turned OFF.

54 | P a g e
 Working of DPDT Switch

DPDT is a double pole double throw switch; this is equivalent to two SPDT
switches. It routes two separate circuits, connecting each of two inputs to one of two outputs.
The position of the switch determines the number of ways in which each of the two contacts
can be routed.

DPDT
Whether it is in ON-ON or ON-OFF-ON mode they function like two separate SPDT
switches operated by the same actuator. Only two loads can be ON at a time. A DPDT
switch can be used on any application that requires an open and closed wiring system, an
example of which is railroad modeling, which makes use of small scaled trains and railways,
bridges and cars. The closed allows for the system to be always ON while open allows for
another piece to be turned ON or activated through the relay.
From the circuit below, connections A, B and C form one pole of the switch and connections
D, E and F form the other. Connections B and E are common in each of the poles.

If the positive power supply (Vs) enters connection B and the switch is set to the topmost
position, connection A becomes positive, and the motor will rotate in one direction. If the
switch is set to the lower most position, the power supply is reversed, and connection D
becomes positive then the motor will rotate in the opposite direction. In the centre position,
the power supply is not connected to the motor and it does not rotate. These types of switches
are mainly used in various motor controllers where speed of that motor is to be reversed.

55 | P a g e
 DPDT-Circuit
Along with these switches, reed switch is also discussed in this article below

Reed Switch

A reed switch gets its name from the utilization of two or three meager metal pieces called
reeds, with plated contacts at their tips and dispersed a little separation apart. The reed
switches are commonly represented in a fixed glass tube loaded with inert gas. A field from a
magnet or an electromagnet avoids the reeds, doing or breaking switch contact.

Reed Switch
The contacts of a reed switch are shut by carrying a small magnet close to the switch. Two
reed devices normally have open contacts which close when activated. The three reed
versions have a couple of open and closed contacts. Operation of the switch makes these parts
change to the opposite state. Typical commercial grade reed switches handle currents in the
milliamp range on up to about 1amp of either dc or ac current. However, special designs can
get to around 10amp or more. Reed switches frequently get incorporated into sensors and into
relays. One important quality of the switch is its sensitivity, the amount of magnetic energy
necessary to actuate it.

The reed switches are used within the security systems, for instance to check
that the doors are closed or not. And also, it has many applications; they are consumer
electronic equipment, automatic measuring instruments, key switch and reed relays.

56 | P a g e
 Standard reed switches are SPST (simple ON-OFF) however SPDT (changeover)
versions are also available.

Characteristics of Reed Switch:

 Hermetically fixed within a glass tube with inert gas, reeds contacts are not
impacted by the external environment
 Comprising of operating and electrical parts arranged coaxially, reed switches are
suited to high-frequency applications
 Compact and light weight
 Low and stable contact resistance
 Reed switches are economically and easily become proximity switches.
Application of Reed Switch:

The point when a reed switch is to be connected with the inductive load or the load
where forward current or high current flows (for example capacitance load, lamp,
long cable and so on).

Reed Switch Circuit

57 | P a g e
 CHAPTER 5
SOFTWARE IMPLEMMENTATION

Software
The software used by the Arduino is Arduino IDE.

he Arduino IDE is a cross-platform application written in Java, and is

derived from the IDE for the Processing programming language and
the Wiring project. It is designed to introduce programming to artists and
other newcomers unfamiliar with software development. It includes a code
editor with features such as syntax highlighting, brace matching, and
automatic indentation, and is also capable of compiling and uploading
programs to the board with a single click. There is typically no need to
edit make files or run programs on command. Although building on
command-line is possible if required with some third-party tools such as Ino.

The Arduino IDE comes with a C/C++ library called "Wiring" (from the
project of the same name), which makes many common input/output
operations much easier. Arduino programs are written in C/C++, although
users only need define two functions to make a runnable program:

 setup () – a function run once at the start of a program that can initialize
settings
 loop () – a function called repeatedly until the board powers off

https://technoelectronics44.blogspot.com/p/microcontrollers.html

58 | P a g e
 Figure 5.1:A s creenshot of the Arduino IDE showing the
"Blink"program,a simple biginner program

https://technoelectronics44.blogspot.com/p/microcontrollers.html

A typical first program for a microcontroller simply blinks a LED on and

off. In the Arduino environment, the user might write a program like this:
https://technoelectronics44.blogspot.com/p/microcontrollers.html

#define LED_PIN 13

void setup () {
pinMode (LED_PIN, OUTPUT); // enable pin 13 for digital output
}

void loop () {
digitalWrite (LED_PIN, HIGH); // turn on the LED
delay (1000); // wait one second (1000 milliseconds)
digitalWrite (LED_PIN, LOW); // turn off the LED
delay (1000); // wait one second

59 | P a g e
 }

https://technoelectronics44.blogspot.com/p/microcontrollers.html

For the above code to work correctly, the positive side of the LED must be
connected to pin 13 and the negative side of the LED must be connected to
ground. The above code would not be seen by a standard C++ compiler as a valid
program, so when the user clicks the "Upload to I/O board" button in the IDE, a
copy of the code is written to a temporary file with an extra include header at the
top and a very simple main() function at the bottom, to make it a valid C++
program.

The Arduino IDE uses the GNU toolchain and AVR Libc to compile programs,
and uses argued to upload programs to the board.

For educational purposes there is third party graphical development environment

called Minibloq available under a different open-source license.

2.3.3.1 language reference

Arduino programs can be divided into three main

parts: structure, values (variables and constants), and functions.

https://technoelectronics44.blogspot.com/p/microcontrollers.html

Available datatypes in ARDUINO IDE are

•void

•boolean

•char ( 0 – 255)

•byte - 8 bit data ( 0 – 255)

•int - 16-bit data (32,767 - -32,768)

•long – 32 bit data (2,147,483,647 to -2,147,483,648)

•float

60 | P a g e
 •double

•string - char array

•String - object

•array
https://technoelectronics44.blogspot.com/p/microcontrollers.html

Arithmetic operators
Arithmetic operators include addition,subtraction,multiplication and
division.For math that requires fractions,you can use float variables,if you can
bear large size and slow computation speeds in your microcontroller.
e.g. ,
y = y + 3;
x = x –
7; i = j *
6;
r = r / 5;

Comparison operators
Comparisons of one variable or constant against another are often used in
if statements to test if a specified condition are true.
e.g. ,
x == y // x is equal to y
x != y // x is not equal to y
x < y // x is less than y
x > y // x is greater than y
x <= y // x is less than or equal to y
x >= y // x is greater than or equal to y
https://technoelectronics44.blogspot.com/p/microcontrollers.html

https://technoelectronics44.blogspot.com/p/microcontrollers.html

61 | P a g e
 INPUT/OUTPUT
https://technoelectronics44.blogspot.com/p/microcontrollers.html

These constants define pin levels as HIGH or LOW and are used when reading or
writing to digital pins.
HIGH is defined as logic level 1, ON, or 5 volts
LOW is logic level 0, OFF, or 0 volts.
e.g. ,
pinmode(13, OUTPUT);

2.3.3.2 Arduino/processing language Comparision

The Arduino language (based on Wiring) is implemented in C/C++, and
therefore has some differences from the Processing language, which is based on
Java.

62 | P a g e
 SIMULATOR for ARDUINO:

Fig 5.2: Simulator Arduino

The Arduino Simulator app gives the user the freedom to work without the
basic setup of hardware and software. It is designed to be used by
beginners and, experienced developers, who want to quickly develop
Arduino projects.

The developer can make the necessary changes in the code - delay, pin
number, and state - 0 (low) 1 (high) - and check it immediately. The app
shows the breadboard, complete with 14 LED pins.

You can drag and place the wires in the correct positions to connect to
Arduino. If the wires are placed according to the code, then it will show the
expected results. Once satisfied, you can save it and email it. The code can
be copied and used in an actual project just as easily.

This app is an easy way to work through Arduino projects. With

customizable codes, and a simple to use interface, this Arduino Simulator
app from Schogini Systems is a convenient app for Arduino developers.

63 | P a g e
 A screenshot of Arduino simulator is shown in the figure below

Figure 5.3: screenshot of ARDUINO simulator

64 | P a g e
 CHAPTER 6

Conclusion

Every field depending the automation for all work, based on our project we
implemented the automation for automatic barcode scanning with billing system we
avoided the waiting time for billing and more over we don’t need to use more worker
in billing section. Our system take less time for the scanning compared to hand held
method.

Future Scope

In this paper, we have designed and implemented low-cost Social Distance Shopping
Based Smart Cart system which helps the commuters to know the exact of the total
bill. This reduces the waiting time.

65 | P a g e
 Reference

REFERENCES [1]. Kuo-Lan Su, Sheng-VenShiau, Jr-Hung Guo, Chih-

Wei Shiau ““Mobile Robot Based Online Chinese Chess Game”
Innovative Computing, Information and Control (ICICIC), 2009 Fourth
International Conference, IEEE (2014).

[2]. M.Kassim, H.Mazlan, N.Zaini and M.K. Salleh, “Web Based

student attendance System using RFID Technology” 2012 IEEE Control
Research Colloquim, no.Icsgrc, pp.213-218, July-2012.

[3]. H.Oktavianto “Intelligent Image Attendance Logging System,”-6,

2012pp.

[4]. Xiaochuan Zhang, Lianchang Chen, FeiTu, Zushu Li “Discussion

on Chinese Chess decision-making system with emotion”, Control and
Decision Conference (CCDC), 2011 Chinese, IEEE.

[5]. I.A.Ujan and I.A.Ismaili system, “The 2011 IEEE/I Conference on

Complex Medical Engineering, pp. 499-501, May 2011.

[6]. T.S. Lim, S.C. Sim, RFID based M.M Attendance System,” 2009.

[7]. M.K.Y.Sabri, M.Z.A.Aziz, M.S.R.m. Shah and M.F.A.Kadir, Smart

Attendance System by using RFID,”2007.

[8]. Z.Yongqiang and L.WirelessJi, “Fingerprint Attendance System

Conference on Communication Technology,” pp. 1–4, Nov. 2006.

[9]. Qaiser and S. A. Khan, “Au Attendance using RFID Systems 13–14,
2006. [10]. A.S.Bedi and J.H.Marshall, attendance “P in Honduras,”
Journal of Deve 69, pp. 129–153, 2002.

66 | P a g e
67 | P a g e