Contents

Chapter
1 POSITION ON THE EARTH'S SURFACE

The Earth — latitude and longitude—difference of latitude, longitude — calculation of d.lat and d.long — the sea
mile — the length of the sea mile — the geographical mile — the international nautical mile — the statute mile
— the knot — linear measurement of latitude and longitude — the Earth as a sphere
DIRECTION ON THE EARTH'S SURFACE True direction—true north — true bearing — position of close
objects — true course
The compass. The gyro-compass — the magnetic compass — the magnetic meridian — magnetic north —
variation — deviation, compass north — magnetic and compass courses and bearings — graduation of older
magnetic compass cards
Practical application of compass errors. Conversion of magnetic and
compass courses and bearings to true — to find the, compass course from the true course — checking the
deviation
Relative bearings

2 The Sailings (1)

The rhumb line — departure
PARALLEL SAILING

PLANE SAILING Proof of the plane sailing formulae

MEAN AND CORRECTED MEAN LATITUDE SAILING
TRAVERSE SAILING
MERCATOR SAILING
SPHERICAL GREAT-CIRCLE AND COMPOSITE SAILING The great circle — great- circle distance and bearing — great-
circle sailing — the vertex — the composite track
Solution of spherical great-circle problems. The cosine method — a great- circle distance — the initial course

3 An Introduction to Geodesy
DEFINITIONS AND FORMULAE The oblate spheroid — the flattening of the Earth — the eccentricity — geodetic and
geocentric latitudes — the parametric latitude — the length of one minute of latitude — the length of one minute
of longitude — the geodesic — geodetic datum
THE DETERMINATION OF POSITION ON THE SPHEROID The geoid — calculation of the position — geodetic latitude and
longitude — reference datums and spheroids — satellite geodesy — world geodetic systems

4 Projections and Grids

GENERAL The 'flat Earth' — orthomqrphism or conformality — derivation of projections of a sphere —
projections of the spheroid — Lambert's conical orthomorphic projection — Mercator's projection — transverse
Mercator projection — skew orthomorphic projection — gnomonic projection — stereographic projection —
polyconic projection
MERCATOR PROJECTION/CHART Principle of the Mercator projection — longitude scale on a Mercator chart —
graduation of charts and the measurement of distance — meridional parts — to find the meridional parts of any
latitude — difference of meridional parts — property of orthomorphism — to construct a Mercator chart of the
world — to construct a Mercator chart on a larger scale — great-circle tracks on a Mercator chart
TRANSVERSE MERCATOR PROJECTION/CHART
GNOMONIC PROJECTION/CHART To transfer a great-circle track to a Mercator chart — practical use of gnomonic
charts
GRIDS Grid convergence — grids constructed on the transverse Mercator projection — transferring grid positions
5 The Sailings (2)
MERCATOR SAILING ON THE SPHERE To find the course and distance from the meridional parts
THE VERTEX AND THE COMPOSITE TRACK IN SPHERICAL GREAT-CIRCLE SAILING To find the position of the vertex of a
great circle — to plot a great-circle track on a Mercator chart — calculating the composite track
SPHEROIDAL RHUMB-LINE SAILING
To find the rhumb-line course and distance. The length of the meridional arc — meridional parts for the spheroid
— calculation of the rhumb-line course and distance
SPHEROIDAL GREAT-CIRCLE SAILING Calculation of the initial course and distance — a comparison of distances

6 Charts and Chart Outfits

GENERAL REMARKS ON CHARTS Charting policy — description and coverage — metrication — geographical
datum — International charts — latticed charts — IALA Maritime Buoyage System
NAVIGATIONAL CHARTS Charts drawn on the Mercator projection — charts drawn on the gnomonic projection —
charts drawn on the transverse Mercator projection — harbour plans — the plotting chart — distortion of the
printed chart — information shown on charts — colours used on charts — to describe a particular copy of a
chart — distinguishing a well surveyed chart — the reliability of charts — hints on using charts
THE ARRANGEMENT OF CHARTS The chart folio — the Hydrographic Supplies Handbook — the Chart Correction Log and
Folio Index — the Catalogue of Admiralty Charts and Other Hydrographic Publications — classified charts
OTHER TYPES OF CHARTS AND DIAGRAMS Astronomical charts and diagrams — co-tidal charts — gnomonic charts —
magnetic charts — Routeing charts - passage planning charts — ships' boats' charts — instructional charts and
diagrams — ocean sounding charts — practice and exercise area (PEXA) charts — meteorological working charts
— miscellaneous folios
UPKEEP OF CHART OUTFITS First supply — state of correction upon supply — action on receipt of the chart
outfit — action on receipt of a newly published chart or a New Edition — action on transfer of chart folios —
subsequent upkeep of chart outfits — disposal of chart outfits — chronometers and watches
NAVIGATIONAL WARNINGS
Admiralty Notices to Mariners. Weekly Editions — Cumulative List of Admiralty Notices to Mariners — Annual
Summary of Admiralty Notices to Mariners—Fleet Notices to Mariners — Small Craft Editions of Notices to
Mariners — distribution of Notices to HM Ships
Radio navigational warnings. Coastal radio warnings — local radio warnings — long-range radio warnings
Local Notices to Mariners
CORRECTION OF CHARTS AND PUBLICATIONS Correction and warning system — tracings for chart correction — hints
on correcting charts — hints on correcting publications
HYDROGRAPHIC REPORTS Forms — general remarks
Information for charts and Admiralty Sailing Directions. Newly discovered dangers — soundings — shoals —
discoloured water — port information —lights — buoys — beacons and marks — conspicuous objects — wrecks
— channels and passages — positions — tidal streams — ocean currents — magnetic variation —
information concerning radio services — zone time — sketches and photographs
NAVIGATIONAL FORMS Contents of the Small Envelope
THE PRODUCTION OF THE ADMIRALTY CHART Reproduction methods — plate correction

7 Publications
PUBLICATIONS SUPPLIED BY THE HYDROGRAPHER Sets of navigational publications — meteorological publications —
aviation publications
Navigational publications. Admiralty Sailing Directions — Views for Sailing Directions — The Mariner's Handbook — Ocean
Passages for the World — Admiralty Distance Tables — Admiralty List of Lights and Fog Signals — Admiralty List of Radio
Signals — tide and tidal stream publications — astronomical publications — miscellaneous publications
OTHER BOOKS OF INTEREST TO THE NAVIGATING OFFICER The Queen's Regulations for the Royal Navy — Admiralty Manual of
Seamanship — Rules for the Arrangement of . Structures and Fittings in the Vicinity of Magnetic Compasses and Chronometers —
Collisions and Groundings (and Other Accidents) — A Seaman's Guide to the Rule of the Road — tactical publications —
classified books — technical publications
'S' FORMS OF INTEREST TO THE NAVIGATING OFFICER
8 Chartwork
SYMBOLS USED IN CHARTWORK Positions and position lines
DEFINING AND PLOTTING A POSITION Plotting a position — transferring a position — position by observation
CALCULATING THE POSITION Dead Reckoning — Estimated Position - plotting the track — Position Probability Area
— allowing for wind, tidal stream, current and surface drift — allowing for the turning circle — correction for
change of speed
CHARTWORK. PLANNING
CHARTWORK ON PASSAGE Fixing — plotting the ship's position — frequency of fixing — speed — time taken to fix
— keeping the record — establishing the track — time of arrival — general points on chart work
SUMMARY

9 Fixing the Ship

Taking bearings
METHODS OF OBTAINING A POSITION LINE Compass bearing — relative bearing— transit — horizontal angle —
vertical sextant angle of an object of known height — range by distance meter when the height of the object is
known — range by rangefmder — rising or dipping range — soundings —radio fixing aids — radar range —
astronomical observation — sonar range
THE TRANSFERRED POSITION LINE The use of a single transferred position line
FIXING THE SHIP Fixing by cross bearings — fixing by a bearing and a range — fixing by a bearing and a sounding
— fixing by a bearing and a horizontal angle from which a range may be calculated — fixing by a transit and an
angle — fixing by two bearings of a single object, with a time interval between observations (running fix) —
fixing by a line of soundings -— fixing by two or more ranges — radio fixing aids
ERROR IN THE COMPASS AND ELIMINATING THE COCKED HAT
HORIZONTAL SEXTANT ANGLES AND VISUAL BEARING LATTICES
Fixing by horizontal sextant angles. Horizontal sextant angles — strength of the HSA fix — choosing objects —
when not to fix using horizontal angles — rapid plotting without instruments
Bearing lattices
THE SELECTION OF MARKS FOR FIXING Choosing objects — fixing procedure — short cuts to fixing — 'shooting
up'

10 Visual and Audible Aids to Navigation

LIGHTS Characteristics of lights — classes of lights — Admiralty List of Lights and Fog Signals — range of lights —
range displayed in the List of Lights — determining the maximum range of a light Light-vessels, lanbys, light-
floats. Remarks on light-vessels, etc. — lights on oil and gas platforms, drilling rigs and single point moorings —
other types of light — notes on using lights
BUOYS AND BEACONS Buoys — beacons — sources of information
The International Association of Lighthouse Authorities (IALA) System Application of the I ALA System in
Region A. Fixed marks — types of mark — lateral marks — cardinal marks — isolated danger marks — safe
water marks — special marks — new dangers — buoyage around the British Isles — charted buoy and beacon
symbols
USING FLOATING STRUCTURES FOR NAVIGATION Buoys
FOG SIGNALS Types of fog signals — Morse Code fog signals — using fog signals for navigation

11 Tides and Tidal Streams

TIDAL THEORY
The Earth-Moon system. The gravitational force — the tide-raising force — effect of Earth's rotation — change
of Moon's declination — the distance of the Moon
The Earth-Sun system
Springs and neaps. Spring tides — neap tides — frequency of springs and neaps — equinoctial and solstitial tides
— priming and lagging
Summary of tidal theory
THE TIDES IN PRACTICE Shallow water and other special effects —meteorological effects on tides — seismic waves
 (tsunamis)
TIDAL PREDICTION Harmonic constituents — principles of harmonic tidal analysis — tidal prediction — Simplified
Harmonic Method of Tidal Prediction — co-tidal charts
TIDAL STREAMS AND CURRENTS Types of tidal streams — tidal stream data —tidal stream atlases — tidal stream
observations — tidal streams at depth—eddies, races and overfalls
ADMIRALTY TIDE TABLES Standard ports — secondary ports — using the TideTables — supplementary information in
the Tide Tables
LEVELS AND DATUMS Datum of tidal prediction — chart datum and land survey datum — tide levels and heights

12 Coastal Navigation
PREPARATORY WORK Charts and publications — information required —appraisal
PLANNING THE PASSAGE Choosing the route — clearance from the coast and off-lying dangers — ships' routeing
and traffic separation schemes — conduct of ships in traffic separation schemes — under-keel clearances
The passage plan. Times of arrival and departure — the passage chart —the passage graph — large-scale charts
EXECUTION OF THE PASSAGE PLAN Method of fixing — selecting marks for fixing — fixing using radar, radio fixing
aids and beacons — navigational equipment — keeping clear of dangers
PRACTICAL HINTS Calculating the distance that an object will pass abeam—the time of arrival — buoys and light—
vessels — when not to fix —tidal stream and current — the record — flat and featureless coastlines —fixing by
night — altering course — entering shallow water
PASSAGES IN FOG AND THICK WEATHER Before entering fog — practical considerations for passages in fog
NAVIGATION IN CORAL REGIONS Growth of coral reefs — navigating by eye —cross currents and weather — edges
of coral reefs — passing unsurveyed reefs

13 Pilotage
REGULATIONS FOR PILOTAGE HM Ships — merchant ships
PLANNING AND EXECUTION OF PILOTAGE
PREPARATORY WORK Charts and publications — times of arrival and departure — limiting danger lines —
appraisal of the passage
THE PILOTAGE PLAN
Selection of the track. Dangers — tidal streams and wind — distance to run — night entry/departure — blind
pilotage — constrictions — the Sun
Headmarks. Transits — line of bearing — edge of land — distance of the headmark — no headmark available
Altering course. Advance and transfer — distance to new course — turning on to a predetermined line — to
allow for a current or tidal stream when altering course — use of a single position line Keeping clear of dangers.
Clearing bearings — vertical and horizontal danger angles — echo sounder
Miscellaneous considerations. Gyro checks — 'shooting up' — using radar to support the visual plan — point of
no return — alternative anchor berth — Navigating Officer's Note Book — conning — tugs — final stages of the
plan — check-off lists The plan
EXECUTION OF PILOTAGE Organisation and records — maintaining the track— assessment of danger —
identification of marks — shipping — use of the echo sounder — altering course and speed — buoys — tides,
tidal streams and wind — service to the Command — action on making a mistake — checks before departure or
arrival
Miscellaneous considerations in pilotage execution. Taking over the navigation — using one's eyes — making use
of communications — personal equipment
The shiphandling phase
Pilotage mistakes. Do's — Don'ts
NAVIGATION IN CANALS AND NARROW CHANNELS

Annex A to Chapter 13 Pilotage Check-off List

14 Anchoring and Mooring
Choosing a position in which to anchor. The depth of water — swinging
room when at anchor — proximity of dangers — amount of cable to be used — distance from other
ships — reduced swinging radius
Anchoring a ship in a chosen position. Planning the approach — approach to an anchor berth: reduction of speed
Executing the anchorage plan
Anchoring in deep water, in a wind or in a tidal stream. Anchoring in deep water — anchoring in a tidal stream
Heavy weather in harbour. Letting go second anchor — dragging
Anchoring at a definite time without altering speed
Ensuring that the anchor berth is clear
Anchoring in a poorly charted area
Anchoring in company
Mooring ship. Swinging room when moored — planning the approach —executing the mooring plan

15 Radar, Blind Pilotage

RADAR WAVES: TRANSMISSION, RECEPTION, PROPAGATION AND REFLECTION Radar detection — range discrimination and
minimum range — beam width and bearing discrimination — video signals — improvements to video signals
— atmospheric refraction — attenuation of radar waves — appearance of weather echoes — reflection
from objects — unwanted echoes — radar shadow
RADAR FOR NAVIGATION Suppression controls — radar and the Rule of the Road — other ships' radar
Range errors. Index errors — other design factors — using the display — other causes of range error
Finding the radar index error. Radar calibration chart — use of the normal chart — two-mark method — three-
mark method — horizontal sextant angle method — two-ship method — three-ship method — standard set
comparison method — allowing for range index error
Bearing errors. Causes of bearing errors — bearing alignment accuracy check
Comparison of 10 cm and 3 cm radars
LANDFALLS AND LONG-RANGE FIXING Radar range/height nomograph — long-range radar fixes — plotting the long-
range fix — the Radar Station Pointer
RADAR IN COASTAL WATERS Fixing by radar range and visual bearing —fixing by radar ranges — fixing by radar
range and bearing — use of a radar clearing range
BLIND PILOTAGE Assessment of the risk involved in a blind pilotage passage—parallel index technique — radar
clearing ranges — course alterations
Blind pilotage in HM Ships. Responsibilities — the conduct of blind pilotage — blind pilotage team and duties
Planning and execution of blind pilotage. General principles — blind pilotage planning — blind pilotage
execution — blind anchorages — navigational records — horizontal displays
TRUE MOTION RADAR Advantages of true motion radar — disadvantages of true motion radar
RADAR BEACONS (RACONS AND RAMARKS) Racons — ramarks — interference from radar beacons
SHORE-BASED RADAR
Port radar systems. Positional information — reporting points within port radar systems
Traffic surveillance and management systems. Position fixing assistance — basis of operation — reporting points
within traffic surveillance systems
USE OF RADAR IN OR NEAR ICE

16 Navigational Errors
INTRODUCTION
NAVIGATIONAL ACCURACIES Definitions
TYPES OF ERROR
Faults. Blunders
Systematic errors
Random errors
Composite errors
 Random errors in one dimension. Bias
Random errors in two dimensions. Radial error — orthogonal position lines — the error ellipse and the equivalent
probability circle — circular error probable
THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF NAVIGATIONAL ERRORS Allowing for faults and systematic errors — allowing for
random errors — limits of random errors — Most Probable Position

Annex A to Chapter 16 Navigational Errors

ONE-DIMENSIONAL RANDOM ERRORS Variance and linear standard deviation - combining one-dimensional random
errors
Rectangular errors. Rounding-off errors — effect of rectangular errors
TWO-DIMENSIONAL RANDOM ERRORS Probability heap — the circle of error —the error ellipse — equivalent
probability circles — circular error probable Derivation of the Most Probable Position from three or more
position lines

17 Relative Velocity and Collision Avoidance

Definitions
PRINCIPLES OF RELATIVE VELOCITY Relative speed — relative track and relative speed — comparison between
relative and true tracks — the velocity triangle — initial positions of ships — relative movement
USE OF RADAR Radar displays — using the relative motion stablised radar display to solve relative velocity
problems — radar plotting on relative and true motion displays
Radar limitations
Relative or true motion plotting. Aspect — effect of leeway — effect of drift and set Automated radar plotting aids
SOME RELATIVE VELOCITY PROBLEMS

18 Surveying
Types of surveying work
PASSAGE SOUNDING
FIXING NEW NAVIGATIONAL MARKS AND DANGERS
DISASTER RELIEF SURVEYS Reporting new dangers
INFORMATION ON NEW PORT INSTALLATIONS Sounding out a berth alongside a jetty
RUNNING SURVEYS
SEARCHES FOR REPORTED DANGERS
TIDAL STREAM OBSERVATIONS Pole current log — observing procedure -—recording
A COMPLETE MINOR SURVEY
Principles of surveying. Control — horizontal control — triangulation —scale — the base line — orientation —
geographical position — vertical control
The practical survey. Survey equipment — reconnaissance and planning—marking — observing — use of the sine
formula — calculation of the longest side — plotting and graduation — tracing and field boards —sounding —
methods of fixing the boat — accurate positioning of soundings — recording boat soundings — reduction of
soundings —inking in of soundings — the ship's echo sounder — tides — coastline —fixing navigational marks
and dangers — topography — aerial photography — tidal stream observations — Admiralty Sailing Directions —
preparing the fair sheet — report of survey — Shadwell Testimonial

19 Bridge Organisation and Procedures

BRIDGE ORGANISATION AND PROCEDURES WITHIN THE ROYAL NAVY Definitions
The Captain. Command responsibilities — charge of the ship — calling the Captain — Captain's Night Order
Book — shiphandling — importance of a shiphandling plan — supervision of the Navigating Officer
— training of seaman officers — bridge watchkeeping non-seaman officers
The Officer of the Watch. Looking out — calls by the Officer of the Watch — emergencies — equipment failures
— conning orders — action information organisation
The Navigating Officer. Method of navigation — in doubt — instructions for the Officer of the Watch
The Principal Warfare Officer. Essential information from the operations room Special sea dutymen
 Standing orders and instructions. Captain's Standing Orders — Bridge Emergency Orders — Bridge File —
books and publications — Navigational Departmental Orders — orders for Quartermasters — orders for
Navigator's Yeoma
BRIDGE ORGANISATION AND PROCEDURES WITHIN THE MERCHANT NAVY Navigation safety (quoting Merchant
Shipping Notice M.854) — bridge organisation (quoting ICS Bridge Procedures Guide) — principles of
watchkeeping arrangements for navigational watch (quoting Statutory Instrument 1982 No. 1699) —
operational guidance for officers in charge of a navigational watch (quoting Merchant Shipping Notice
M.I 102) — routine bridge check lists (quoting ICS Bridge Procedures Guide) — action in an emergency
(quoting ICS Bridge Procedures Guide)

Appendix

1 Basic Trigonometry
The degree — the radian
The definitions of trigonometric functions. The right-angled triangle —complementary angles — trigonometric
functions of certain angles — The signs and values of the trigonometric functions between 000° and 360° — the
sine, cosine and tangent curves — inverse trigonometric functions — Pythagorean relationships between
trigonometrical functions
Acute and obtuse triangles. The sine formula — the cosine formula — the area of a triangle — functions of the
sum and difference of two angles — double and half-angle formulae — sum and difference of functions — the sine
of a small angle — the cosine of a small angle

2 A Summary of Spherical Trigonometry

DEFINITIONS The sphere — great circle — small circle — spherical triangle— spherical angles — properties of the
spherical triangle
THE SOLUTION OF THE SPHERICAL TRIANGLE The cosine and sine formulae -polar triangles — the four-part formula
— right-angled triangles — Napier's mnemonic for right-angled triangles — quadrantal triangles — the haversine
— the haversine formula — the half log haversine formula

3 The Spherical Earth

MERIDIONAL PARTS FOR THE SPHERE Construction of the mer. part formula for the sphere — evaluation of the mer.
part formula
CORRECTED MEAN LATITUDE FOR THE SPHERE

4 Projections
THE CONICAL ORTHOMORPHIC PROJECTION ON THE SPHERE The Scale - the constant of the cone — conical
orthomorphic projection with two standard parallels
DEDUCTION OF THE MER. PART FORMULA FOR THE SPHERE
THE POSITION CIRCLE ON THE MERCATOR CHART
THE MODIFIED POLYCONIC PROJECTION
THE POLAR STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
GNOMONIC PROJECTION Principal or central meridian — angle between two meridians on the chart — parallels of
latitude — to construct a gnomonic graticule — equatorial gnomonic graticule
THE TRANSVERSE MERCATOR PROJECTION
Conversion from geographical to grid co-ordinates and vice versa. Symbols— to find the length of the meridional
arc given the latitude — to find the 'footpoint' latitude, given the true grid co-ordinates — to convert from
geographical to grid co-ordinates — to convert from grid to geographical co-ordinates

5 The Spheroidal Earth

THE EQUATION OF THE ELLIPSE
GEODETIC, GEOCENTRIC AND PARAMETRIC LATITUDES Geodetic and geocentric latitudes — the parametric latitude
THE LENGTH OF ONE MINUTE OF LATITUDE
 THE LENGTH OF THE MERIDIONAL ARC
MERIDIONAL PARTS FOR THE SPHEROIDAL EARTH
THE LENGTH OF THE EARTH'S RADIUS IN VARIOUS LATITUDES

6 Vertical and Horizontal Sextant Angles

VERTICAL SEXTANT ANGLES Base of the object below the observer's horizon
HORIZONTAL SEXTANT ANGLES Rapid plotting without instruments -
preparing a lattice for plotting HSA fixes — fixing objects within the boundaries of the chart —
fixing objects outside the boundaries of the chart

7 Errors in Terrestrial Position Lines

SEXTANT ERRORS Personal error
ERRORS IN TAKING AND LAYING OFF BEARINGS Displacement of fix when the same error occurs in two lines of bearing
— the cocked hat — the cocked hat arising from the same error in three lines of bearing — the cocked hat in
general
ERRORS IN HSA FIXES Maximum errors in the HSA fix — reliability of HAS fixes — the angle of cut
Examples of satisfactory HSA fixes
Example of an unsatisfactory fix
DOUBLING THE ANGLE ON THE BOW AND THE EFFECT OF CURRENT OR TIDAL
STREAM Effect of the tidal stream when <j> has particular values
 CHAPTER 1 Contents

Position and Direction on the Earth's

Surface
Navigation is the process of planning and carrying out the movement of transport of all kinds
from one place to another — at sea, in the air, on land or in space. The navigation of ships and all
waterborne craft is called marine navigation to distinguish it from navigation in other surroundings,
and it is marine navigation that is dealt with in this book and its companion volumes, which together
comprise a new edition of the Admiralty Manual of Navigation.
The last thirty years have seen great advances in navigational techniques. Man has landed on
the moon. Spacecraft are exploring the outer regions of the solar system. The new techniques
developed for space navigation have benefited marine navigation: detailed study of the first
satellites in orbit around the Earth has led to the development of a world-wide navigation
satellite system which can tell a ship's navigator his position with an accuracy of a few hundred
metres. Automated computer-assisted navigational systems enable the navigator to maintain a
continuous and accurate track and to avoid collisions. Hand-held calculators and desk-top
computers enable him to reckon courses and distances around the globe with great precision,
taking into account the true shape of the Earth.
The principles of marine navigation remain unchanged by new techniques; therefore the
treatment of the subject in this manual has been designed to re-state the principles while
reflecting the latest methods.
Volume I deals with the essentials of marine navigation - position and direction on the Earth's
surface, map projections, charts and publications, chartwork, tides, coastal navigation and
pilotage. Summaries of plane and spherical trigonometry, proofs of formulae, etc. may be
found in the appendices at the back of the book.
This opening chapter introduces the basic terms dealing with position and direction on the
Earth's surface.

POSITION ON THE EARTH'S SURFACE

The Earth
The Earth is not a perfect sphere; it is slightly flattened, the smaller diameter being about 24
miles less than the larger. The Earth's shape is known as an oblate spheroid (Fig. 1-1) with
greatest (a) and least (b) radii of approximately 3444 and 3432 international nautical miles. The
Earth turns about its shortest diameter PPh called the axis, the extremities of which are called the
poles.
An oblate spheroid is a figure traced out by the revolution of a semi-ellipse such as PWP], in Fig.
1—1, about its minor axis PPj. The successive positions of PWPj are called meridians. The meridian
passing through Greenwich is called the prime meridian. The circle traced out by W is called the
equator.
The Earth revolves about its axis PP/ in the direction shown by the arrow. The direction of
revolution is called east, the opposite direction west. The North Pole is on the left and the South
Pole on the right of the observer facing east.
Latitude and longitude
A position on the Earth's surface is expressed by reference to the plane of the equator and the plane
of the prime meridian. The latitude of a place (also called the geodetic, geographical or true
latitude) is the angle which the perpendicular to the Earth's surface at the place makes with the
plane of the equator. It is measured from 0° to 90° north or south of the equator. Fig. 1—2 shows
a meridional section of the spheroid. The latitude of point M is the angle MLE (</>), where L is
the point of intersection of the perpendicular to the Earth's surface at M and the plane of the
equator OE.
Planes parallel to the plane of the equator joining all places of the same latitude are known as
parallels of latitude. They are also known as small circles.
 The longitude of a place is the angle between the plane of the prime (Greenwich) meridian and the
meridian of the place measured from 0° to 180° east or west of Greenwich (Fig. 1-3).
 In Fig. 1-3 the longitude of F is the arc AB = angle AOB (east).
The position of a place may therefore be expressed in latitude and longitude. For example, the
Central Signal Station Flagstaff, Portsmouth Dockyard, is in latitude 50 degrees 47 minutes 57
seconds north of the equator and in longitude 1 degree 6 minutes 32 seconds west of Greenwich.
The position may be recorded as follows:
50°47'57"N 50°47'.95N + 50°.79917
or or
1°06'32"W 1°06'.53W - 1°. 10889
The third method of recording shown above is for use in a calculator, +ve signs being used for N
latitudes and E longitudes, — ve signs for S latitudes and W longitudes.
Difference of latitude, longitude
The difference of latitude (d.lat) between two places is the arc of the meridian between the two
parallels of latitude. When a ship is proceeding from one place to another, d.lat is named north or
south according to whether the parallel of the destination is north or south of the parallel of the
place of departure. In Fig. 1-4 the d.lat between F and Tis the same as the d.lat between G and T,
where GF is the parallel of latitude through F.
d.lat from F to T = angle GDT (south) = lat F - lat T

Fig. 1-4. d.lat

The difference of longitude (d.long) between two places is the smaller arc of the equator between
their meridians. When a ship is proceeding from one place to another, d.long is named east or west
according to whether the meridian of the destination is east or west of the meridian of the place of
departure. In Fig. 1-5 the d.long from FtoT= arc BA = angle BOA (west) = angle FPT (the angle
at the pole between the meridians of the two places).
 POSITION ON THE EARTH'S SURFACE

Calculation of d.lat and d.long

The rule for finding the d.lat and the d.long is as follows:
Same names: Subtract Opposite names: Add
If, when using this rule, the sum of the longitudes exceeds 180°, this sum is subtracted from
360° to find the smaller angle and the name is reversed.

EXAMPLES
Find the d.lat and d.long between:
1. Portsmouth (F): (50°48'N, 1°07'W) and New York (T): (40°40'N, 74°00'W).
2. Malta (F): (35°53'N, 14°31'E) and Gibraltar (T): (36°07'N, 5°21'W).
3. Sydney (F): (33°52'S, 151°13'E) and Honolulu (T): (21°18'N, 157°52'W).

1. \atF 50°48'N long F 1°07'W

lat T 40°40'N long T 74°00'W
d.lat 10°08'S d.long 72°53'W
2. la t F 3 5 ° 5 3 ' N long F 14°31'E
lat T 36°07'N long T 5°21'W
d.lat 0°14'N d.long 19°52'W
3. latF33°52'S long F 151°13'E
lat T 21°18'N long T 157°52'W
d.lat 55°10'N d.long 309°05'W
subtract from 360° _____
d.long 50°55'E
The sea mile
The sea mile is the length of one minute of arc (!') measured along the meridian in the
latitude of the position. This is illustrated in Fig. 1-6.
If M is the place on the Earth's surface and C the centre of curvature at M, and AMB is an arc
of the meridian subtending an angle of 1' at C, then AMB is the length of the sea mile at M.

On Admiralty charts on the Mercator projection (see Chapter 4), the latitude graduations form a
scale of sea miles.*
Except on charts, where the symbol M is used, the sea mile is denoted by ', which is the symbol
for a minute of arc. Thus, 10'.8 means 10.8 sea miles. The symbol is always placed before the
decimal point.
The length of the sea mile
The radius of curvature in the meridian increases as M moves from the equator to the pole; thus,
the distance subtended by 1' of arc also increases. The length of the sea mile1^ is shortest at the
equator (1842.9 m) and longest at the poles (1861.7 m), with a mean value of 1852.3 m at 45°
latitude. Its length is tabulated in Spheroidal Tables (NP 240), published by the Hydrographer of
the Navy.
The formula for the length of 1' of arc is given in Chapter 3 and its derivation in Appendix 5.
* It is a common but mistaken practice for mariners to refer to a sea mile as a nautical mile. The British Standard Nautical
Mile was discarded in 1970.
^ For the International (1924) Spheroid, see Chapter 3.
 One-tenth of a sea mile is known as a cable, which varies between 184.3 m and 186.2 m according
to latitude. A cable approximates to 200 yards, a convenient measure frequently used at sea for
navigational purposes.

The geographical mile

The geographical mile is the length of 1' of arc measured along the equator (i.e. 1' of longitude). As
the equator is a circle the length of the geographical mile is the same at all parts of the equator and is
equal to (a sin 1' of arc), where a is the radius of the equator. For the International (1924)
Spheroid, its value is 1855.4m.

The international nautical mile

This is a standard fixed length of 1852 m. Its correct abbreviation is the term n mile. Distances given
in the Admiralty Distance Tables and in Ocean Passages of the World are in international nautical miles.
The statute mile
The statute or land mile is the unit of distance of 1760 yards or 5280 feet (1609.3m).

The knot
In navigation, it is convenient to have a fixed or standard unit for measuring speed. This unit is
one international nautical mile (1852 m) per hour and is called a knot, abbreviated to kn.
In normal practice, the errors arising from using international nautical miles instead of sea miles
are very small (less than 0.5%). Sometimes, however, it is necessary to determine the error and this
is set out in Appendix 5.

Linear measurement of latitude and longitude

The linear latitude of a place is the length of the arc of the meridian between the equator and that
place. It is measured in sea miles north or south of the equator. This is illustrated in Fig. 1—7.

If point M is in latitude 60°N, then:

angle MLW = 60°
= 60 X 60 minutes of arc = 3600'
The linear latitude of M is 3600 sea miles north of the equator.
If a place MI is situated 1800 sea miles south of the equator, its latitude is

1800'— or30S.

The linear longitude of a place is the smaller arc of the equator between the prime meridian and
the meridian of the place. Along the equator it is measured in geographical miles (see above) east or
west of the prime meridian. This is illustrated in Fig. 1-8.
 Fig. 1—8. Linear measurement of longitude

If point B is 40°E of the prime meridian PAPj, the angle AOB is 40°, the arc AB of the equator is 40° =
40 X 60 = 2400 minutes of arc along the equator, i.e. 2400 geographical miles.
It will be seen from Fig. 1-8 that the distance on the Earth's surface between any two meridians is
greatest at the equator and diminishes until it is zero at
 the poles, where all the meridians meet. The linear distance of a degree of longitude on the
surface of the Earth varies approximately with the cosine of the latitude. (The error in assuming
that the length of a degree of longitude varies directly with the cosine of the latitude lies between
zero at the equator and 0.34% at latitude 89° for the International (1924) Spheroid.)
The precise formulae for the length of 1' of latitude and 1' of longitude are given in Chapter 3.
The Earth as a sphere
Although the shape of the Earth is that of an oblate spheroid, for most purposes of navigation it
may be assumed to be a sphere, with radius equal to the mean of the greatest and least radii and
measuring approximately 3440 international nautical miles.* A sphere is the figure formed by
rotating a semi-circle about its diameter.
Any plane through the centre of the sphere cuts the surface in what is known as a great circle.
Any plane which cuts the surface of the sphere, but does not pass through the centre, is called a small
circle (Fig. 1-9). Thus, when the Earth is regarded as a sphere, meridians of longitude become
semi-great circles joining (but not passing through) the poles cutting the equator at right angles.
The equator is a great circle but all other parallels of latitude are small circles.

* This figure is taken from the International (1924) Spheroid, which has mean radius
 The great circle is important in navigation because it gives the shortest distance between two
points. It is also the path taken by an electro-magnetic radiation near the Earth's surface (radio,
radar, light, etc.).
Using the mean radius for the sphere derived from the International (1924) Spheroid, the
length of 1' of arc on the meridian or on the equator equals 1853.3 m. This distance
approximates very closely to the length of the international nautical mile of 1852 m. The Earth
may therefore be treated, without appreciable error, as a sphere where 1' of latitude is considered
equal to 1 n mile anywhere on the surface. (The errors introduced by assuming a spherical Earth
based on the international nautical mile are not more than 0.5% for latitude, 0.2% for longitude.)
On the equator 1' of arc of longitude also equals one n mile. This means that linear latitude and
linear longitude may now be measured in the same units, n miles.

DIRECTION ON THE EARTH'S SURFACE

True direction
The true direction between two points on the Earth's surface is given by the great circle between
them; it is expressed in terms of the angle between the meridian and the great circle (angle
PFTin Fig. l-10(a)).
True north
True north is the northerly direction of the meridian and is the reference from which true bearings
and courses are measured.

True bearing
The true bearing of an object is the angle between the meridian and the direction of the object.
In Figs 1-10 and 1-11 the true bearing of T from F is given by the angle PFT, where PF is the
meridian through F and FT is the great circle joining F to T.
PFT is measured clockwise from 000° to 360°. In Fig. 1-10 T bears 030° from F: in Fig. 1-11 T
bears 330° from F.
Over short distances the great circle may be drawn as a straight line without appreciable error,
as in Figs l-10(b) and 1-1 l(b). The error varies with the latitude and the bearing.

Position of close objects

It is often convenient to indicate the position of an object by its bearing and distance from a known
or key position, rather than by latitude and longitude. A shoal, for example, might be described as
being 239°, 7 miles from a certain lighthouse.
True course
True course is the direction along the Earth's surface in which the ship is being steered (or intended
to be steered). It is measured by the angle between the meridian through the ship's position and the
fore-and-aft line, clockwise from 000° to 360°.
 TRUE NORTH

TRUE NORTH

True course is not to be confused with heading (or ship's head], which is the instantaneous direction
of the ship and is thus a constantly changing value if the ship yaws across the course due to the
effect of wind, sea and steering errors.
 The compass
The navigational compass is an instrument which provides the datum from which courses and
bearings may be measured. There are two principal types of compass—the gyro-compass and the
magnetic compass. (These instruments are described in detail in Volume III.) The general
principles of the two types of compass are set out below with an explanation as to how true
courses and bearings may be obtained from them.
The gyro-compass
This instrument is a rapidly spinning wheel or gyroscope, the axis of which is made to point along
the meridian towards true north. Courses and bearings which are measured using a gyro-compass
are true provided there is no error in the compass, and are measured clockwise from 000° to 360°.

Error of the gyro-compass

For a number of reasons the gyro-compass will not always point exactly towards true north.
Any error must be known before the compass may be used as an accurate reference. Details of
how the error may be found are given in Chapter 9.
The degree of accuracy of gyro-compasses used in the Royal Navy is such that the maximum
error is of the order of 5° at the equator and 1° at latitude 60°. However, in a number of commercial
compasses the error may exceed this by one or two degrees.

If the gyro bearing of an object is 077°, while its true bearing is known to be 075°, then it can be
seen from Fig. I-12(a) that the gyro is reading 2° high; similarly, if the gyro bearing is 073°, as in
Fig. l-12(b), the gyro is reading 2° low. In order to obtain the true bearing, a gyro error high must be
subtracted from the gyro bearing, and a gyro error low must be added to the gyro bearing. The
 suffixes G or T may be used to denote Gyro or True courses and bearings respectively.
The magnetic compass
This instrument may be considered as a bar magnet freely suspended in the horizontal plane and
acted upon by the Earth's magnetic field and the magnetic properties of the ship.
The Earth may be considered as a gigantic magnet. Magnetic lines of force emanate from a
position near King George V Land in Antarctica known as the South Magnetic Pole. These lines of
force follow approximate semi-great circle paths to the North Magnetic Pole, north of Bathurst
Island in the Canadian Arctic. These magnetic poles are not stationary but are continually
moving over a largely unknown path in a cycle of some hundreds of years.
The magnetic meridian
A freely suspended magnetic compass needle acted upon by the Earth's magnetic field alone
will lie in the vertical plane containing the line of total force of the Earth's magnetic field. This
vertical plane is known as the magnetic meridian. Magnetic meridians, however, do not necessarily
point towards the magnetic poles because the Earth's magnetic field is irregular. In addition, the
magnetic poles are not 180° apart; thus, it is rare for the magnetic needle to point towards the
magnetic pole.
Magnetic north
Magnetic north is the name given to the direction in which the 'north' end of a magnetic needle,
suspended so as to remain horizontal, would point when subject only to the influence of the
Earth's magnetism. It is the northerly direction of the magnetic meridian.
Variation
Variation is the angle between the geographic (true) and magnetic meridians at any place. It is
measured east or west from true north; in Fig. 1-13 the variation at F is 20° west.
Variation has different values at different places and is gradually changing. Its value at any
place may be found from the chart which gives the variation for a certain year together with a note
of the annual change. The navigator must always allow for this annual change.
Variation may also be obtained from special isogonic charts on which all places of equal
variation are joined by isogonic lines and known as isogonals (not to be confused with magnetic
meridians, which are lines offeree).
Deviation, compass north
If a magnetic compass is put in a ship, the presence of iron, steel or electrical equipment will cause
the magnetic compass to deviate from the magnetic meridian. The angle between the magnetic
meridian (magnetic north) and the direction in which the needle points (compass north) is called the
deviation. It is measured east or west from magnetic north.
The magnetic field of the ship changes direction and amount, in part, as the
ship alters course. Consequently the deviation is different for different compass courses.
I n p r a c t i c e , t h e deviation in a ship's magnetic compass is reduced to a minimum by the use of
permanent magnets and soft-iron correctors. The residual deviation is found by swinging the ship
through 360° and tabulating that residual deviation for the various compass headings. (Both these pro-
cedures are explained in detail in Volume III.)
The residual deviation may be tabulated as in Table 1-1.

Table 1-1. Deviation table*

BEARING OF DI 5TANT OBJECT

COMPASS HEADING MAGNETIC COMPASS DEVIATION

(OBSERVED)
(FROM CHART)

N (000 °) 236°M 237FC li°W

NNE (022f) 236°M 237|°C ifw
NE (045 °) 236°M 237fC ifw
ENE (067f) 236°M 237i°C IfW
E (090 °) 236°M 237 °C 1 °W
ESE (1122°) 236°M 236i°C i°W
SE (135 °) 236°M 235i°C i°E 1
SSE (157f) 236°M 235 °C °E IfE
S (180 °) 236°M 234i°C 2 °E 2
SSW (202F) 236°M 234 °C °E
SW (225 °) 236°M 234 °C IfE
WSW (247i°) 236°M 234fC U°E
W (270 °) 236°M 234|°C |°E
WNW (292i°) 236°M 235i°C NIL 1
NW (315 °) 236°M 236 °C °W
NNW (337f) 236°M 237 °C

* The standard forms used in the Royal Navy to record deviation (S374A, Record of Observations for Deviation, and
S387, Table of Deviation) are tabulated every 22|° to facilitate the calculation of the various compass coefficients (see Volume
III). Intervals of 10° or 20° may be used if so desired.
 It may also be shown in the form of a curve where deviation is plotted against the compass
heading. This is shown in Fig. 1-14.
 Intermediate values for deviation may be found by interpolation from the tables or inspection
of the curve. For example, the deviation for 260° compass heading may be found to be 1J°E.
Magnetic and compass courses and bearings
Magnetic courses and bearings are measured clockwise from 000° to 360° from magnetic north (the
magnetic meridian) and are given the suffix M, e.g. 075°M. They differ from true courses and
bearings by the variation. This is illustrated in Fig. 1-15.

Fig. 1-15. Magnetic courses and bearings

The magnetic bearing of T from F (angle MFT) is 085°M, while the true bearing of T from F
(angle PFT) is 065°. The difference is the variation, 20°W.
Compass courses and bearings are measured clockwise from 000° to 360° from compass
north, and are given the suffix C, e.g. 195°C. They differ from true courses and bearings by the
amount of variation for the place and the deviation for the compass heading. This is illustrated
in Fig. 1-16.
The compass bearing of T from F (angle CFT) is 055°C, whereas the magnetic bearing
(angle MFT) is 065°M and the true bearing (angle PFT) is 045°. Angle MFC is the deviation,
10°E, angle PFM is the variation, 20°W.
Graduation of older magnetic compass cards
There may still be some older magnetic compass cards* at sea which are divided into four
quadrants of 90°, the angles being measured from north and south to east and west. For example,
the bearing 137°M would be shown as S43°E.

* Even older cards may still be found which are divided into four quadrants by the cardinal points, north, east,
south, west. Each quadrant is divided into eight equal parts, the division marks being called points: each point has a
distinctive name—north, north by east, north north east and so on. There are 32 points in the whole card.
 Practical application of compass errors
All charts have what are known as compass roses printed on them. When there are two concentric
rings, the outer ring represents the true compass and the inner the magnetic compass, as shown
in Fig. 1-17. Some small-scale charts have only the true compass rose; others also have an
indication of the amount of magnetic variation.
On the north—south line of the magnetic rose is written the variation, the year for which it is
correct, and its rate of change.
Before he can use this magnetic rose for laying off the compass bearing or the compass course, the
navigator must apply both the deviation and the change in variation.

Conversion of magnetic and compass courses and bearings to true

The following rule should be applied for the conversion of magnetic or compass courses and
bearings to true:
Easterly variation and deviation are added or applied clockwise. Westerly variation and
deviation are subtracted or applied anti-clockwise.
This rule may be memorised by the mnemonic CADET:
C AD E T
Compass Add East True
i.e. when concerting from compass to true, add east, subtract west and vice versa.
An alternative mnemonic which may be used is:
Error West, Compass Best. Error East, Compass
Least.
 Fig. I—17. Compass rose printed on Admiralty charts

Remember that, as explained earlier, variation is the difference between true and magnetic, while
deviation is the difference between magnetic and compass, i.e.
True ± Variation = Magnetic + Deviation = Compass
There are two methods available for laying off the compass course or bearing.
Method 1
Deviation (for the compass course steered) and variation (corrected to date) are applied to the
compass course or bearing in accordance with the above rule to
 obtain the true course or bearing. The parallel ruler is then placed at the true reading on the true
rose.
Method 2
The parallel ruler is placed on the given compass bearing or course on the magnetic rose. It is
then slewed through a small angle in accordance with the above rule to allow for:
1. The change in variation to bring it up to date.
2. The deviation for the compass course being steered.
The algebraic sum ( + ve for east, —ve for west) of the deviation and the change in variation is called
the rose correction.
These two methods are illustrated by the following example.
EXAMPLE
A ship is steering 260°C. Variation from the chart was 12°W in 1982, decreasing 10' annually. The compass bearing of
an object is 043°C. Using the deviation from Fig. 1-14, what is the true course and how would the bearing be plotted
using the above two methods? The year is 1985.

Plotting the bearing Method 1

For any particular compass heading, it will be evident that the combined effect of deviation
and variation may be applied as a total error correction.
In this case, total error correction = + l2°E — 1 l2°W = — 10°W. To convert to true while on
heading 260°C, all compass bearings should be reduced by 10°.
The application of compass error in one step avoids a very common mistake, that of taking out
the deviation for the compass bearing of the object instead of the compass course of the ship.
 Method 2
Place the parallel rule on the magnetic rose in the direction 043°M. Slew through a total rose
correction of +2° clockwise (i° clockwise to allow for the easterly change of variation and l2°
clockwise to allow for the easterly deviation). Plot the bearing on the magnetic rose, 045°M. As
magnetic north on the compass rose is offset 12° to the west (see Fig. 1-17), it will be immediately
apparent that 045°M is the same as 033°T, the true bearing.

To find the compass course from the true course

The mnemonic CADET is used in the reverse direction, i.e.
True to compass, add west, subtract east
There is, however, a small complication. Before the navigator can find his compass course he
must know the deviation, but he cannot find his deviation until he knows his compass course. He
therefore enters the deviation table with the magnetic course in lieu of compass course and,
particularly if the deviation is large, makes a second calculation to get the exact deviation. For
example:
True course 260 °
Variation + 10 °W
Approx. compass course 268f°C
If the navigator enters the
deviation table with this
approximate course of 268f°C, he
will see that the correct deviation to use is nearer 1|°E than l5°E, giving a revised compass course
of268i°C.

Checking the deviation

If a compass bearing is taken of an object which has a known true bearing and if the variation is also
known, then the deviation may be found and compared with that obtained from the deviation
table. The various methods of checking the deviation are given in Chapter 9.
In practice within the Royal Navy, the deviation of a magnetic compass providing the primary
means of navigation should remain within 2° of the residual deviation obtained at the time of the
swing over a period of several months, whilst that for a magnetic compass providing a secondary
means of navigating (or a primary means of steering) should remain within 5° over a similar
period.

EXAMPLE
By calculation, the sun's true bearing is 230°, the compass bearing is 235°C, variation 12°W. What is the
deviation?
 Clearly deviation is -7° and since, true to compass, east is subtracted, the devation is 7°E.
Relative bearings
The line of reference is the fore-and-aft line of the ship, i.e. the ship's course. Bearings are
relative to this line and are measured from the bow from 0° to 180° on each side. Starboard
bearings are Green, port bearings are Red.

Fig. 1-18. Relative bearings

Relative bearings may also be measured clockwise from 000° to 360° from the fore-and-aft
line of the ship and are given the suffix Rel, e.g. 135° Rel.
In Fig. 1-18 the bearing ofZis Green 30 (030° Rel), that of YRed 140 (220° Rel). If the ship
is steering 045°, the true bearing of X is 075°, and of Y 265°. Alternatively, X could be said to
be 30° on the starboard bow, Y 40° on the port quarter.

The expressions on the bow, on the beam, and on the quarter without any specified number of degrees or
points mean respectively 45° (4 points), 90° (8 points), 135° (12 points) from ship's head.
 CHAPTER 2 Contents

The Sailings (1)

The sailings are terms used to describe the various mathematical methods of finding course and
distance from one place on the Earth's surface to another. The various sailings are:
1. Parallel sailing.
2. Plane sailing.
3. Mean and corrected mean latitude sailing.
4. Traverse sailing.
5. Mercator sailing.
6. Great-circle sailing.
7. Composite sailing.
All these sailings are described in this chapter. Mercator sailing is, however, covered in detail in
Chapters 4 and 5, while the finding of the vertex and the composite track in great-circle sailing are
set out in Chapter 5.
The rhumb line
The first five sailings all use the rhumb line, a curve drawn on the Earth's surface cutting all the
meridians at the same angle (Fig. 2-1), A ship steering a constant course is moving along a
rhumb line.

Fig. 2—1. The rhumb line

 The equator, parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude are special cases of rhumb
line. Along the equator and parallel of latitude, the rhumb line of constant course is 090° or
270°, whilst along the meridian it is 000° or 180°. Other rhumb lines, crossing the meridian at a
constant angle, spiral towards the pole and are often referred to as loxodromes.
Departure
Departure is the distance made good in an east—west direction in sailing from one place to another
along a rhumb line.

PARALLEL SAILING
If (Fig. 2-2) a ship is travelling along the equator from A to B, the departure and d.long are equal.

When the ship is travelling along any other parallel of latitude <f), FT, the d.long A, is still
AB, but the distance FT is numerically less than the d.long.
The nearer the parallel is to the pole — in other words, the higher the latitude — the
shorter FT becomes. But the d.long does not alter. The relationship between distance and
d.long may be found as follows.
The radius r of the circle of latitude <f> is R cos <j>, where R is the radius of the sphere.
The distance FT along the parallel of latitude
= r\, where A is in radians = R\ cos (f> = AB cos </>
= A cos </>, where A is in minutes
= d.long (in minutes) cos latitude
i.e. departure = d.long cos latitude
For the perfect sphere, the distance along a parallel of latitude in minutes of latitude is equal to the d.long,
expressed in minutes of arc, multiplied by the cosine of the latitude.
Parallel sailing is thus a method of converting the departure along a parallel of latitude into
longitude, assuming the Earth is a sphere.
If, for example, the latitude of the parallel is 40°N and the longitudes of F and Tare 15°E and
60°E respectively, the d.long is 45° or, in minutes of arc along the equator, 2700'.
FT= 2700' cos 40° = 2068'.3
Had the latitude been 60°N instead of 40°N, the distance along this new parallel would
have been 2700' cos 60°, i.e. 1350'.

PLANE SAILING
When a ship travels along any rhumb line other than a parallel of latitude or a meridian of
longitude, her d.lat, departure, distance and course may be considered as forming a plane
right-angled triangle (Fig. 2—3).
 Various formulae may be deduced from this triangle:

By dividing (2.2) by (2.3):

Plane sailing is thus a method of solving the relationship between d.lat, departure, distance
and course. It does not involve d.long except indirectly (see page 28).
Proof of the plane sailing formulae

In Fig. 2-4, let the rhumb line FT be divided into a large number n of equidistant parallels
of latitude cutting the rhumb line in F, A, B, C, etc. Let the meridians through the points cut the
parallels of latitude in X, Y, Z, etc.
In the small triangles FAX, ABY, BCZ, etc. the angles FXA, AYB, BZC are right angles. The
angles FAX, ABY, BCZ are all equal, being equal to the course. The sides AX, BY, CZ are all
equal.
The triangles are therefore equal in all respects and, as they are very small, may be
considered as plane right-angled triangles.

* When using formula (2.3) to find the distance, there is a fundamental weakness in the formula as the course
approaches 90° because small errors in the course introduce large errors in the distance. Formula (2.2) should be
used instead.
 In the triangle FAX:

Dividing (2.2) by (2.3):

MEAN AND CORRECTED MEAN LATITUDE SAILING

There are two methods by which a ship may determine her latitude and longitude after travelling
along a rhumb line other than in a north—south or east—west direction. One of these methods uses the
mean or corrected mean latitude, the other uses Mercator sailing (described later).
Consider the rhumb line FT in Fig. 2-5. The departure is greater than HT, the departure along the
parallel through T, and less than FG, the departure along the parallel through F.
The departure from F to T must therefore equal the departure along a parallel lying somewhere
between FG and HT. Let this parallel be UV.

Provided that the d.lat between F and Tis fairly small and, the latitudes of F and 7" are not too high,
this departure is approximately equal to the arc of the parallel MN, which has as its latitude the
mathematical mean between Fand T.
 This latitude is referred to as the mean latitude. In these particular circumstances MN and UV are
almost identical.
If QR is the d.long between F and T:

then, for the sphere:

This formula is not accurate mathematically except when F and T are on the same parallel of
latitude. In practice, its accuracy depends on how close T is to F. Such a formula should not be
used for distances exceeding 600'.
If the latitudes of F and Tare on each side of the equator and also within 10° of latitude of the
equator, the departure may be taken as the d.long without appreciable error. (The maximum
error in departure cannot exceed 0.4%.)
The true or corrected mean latitude between F and T is given by UV. It is frequently referred
to in nautical tables and navigational publications as the middle latitude.*
For the sphere, it may be shown (see Appendix 3) that the latitude L of UV, may be found
from the following formulae:

EXAMPLE 1
A ship steams from position F in latitude 30°N, longitude 40°W to a point Tin latitude 34°N, longitude 36°W.
Determine the departure, course and distance.

* Throughout the Admiralty Manual of Navigation, the term corrected mean latitude is used in
preference to middle latitude.
 The corrected mean latitude may be found from formula (2.6):

The difference in distance (0.013%) is so small that the mean latitude may be used without
appreciable error.

EXAMPLE 2
A ship in position F, 70°N, 20°W, steers a course of 020°for a distance of 600 miles. What is her latitude and
longitude at the end of the run?

The discrepancy in longitude is 25'.6E, i.e. 4.7 miles.

The discrepancy in position (0.8% of the distance) at the end of the run illustrates the danger of
using the mean latitude in high latitudes, even though the distance is only 600 miles.
 Although the computation of the longitude using the corrected mean latitude is an accurate
one, it is for the sphere. If one wishes to compute accurately the rhumb-line position taking into
account the spheroidal shape of the Earth, another method should be used. This is described in
Chapter 5.

TRAVERSE SAILING
Traverse sailing is the term given to the combination of plane sailing solutions when there are more than
two courses. The various legs of the ship's track are the hypotenuses of a series of plane sailing
triangles (see Fig. 2—4). The individual d.lats and departures may be found using formulae (2.2) to
(2.4) and the d.long using formula (2.5).
The traverse table in Norie's Nautical Tables solves the d.lat/departure/ distance/course plane
triangles for any distance up to 600'. Instructions for the use of these tables are given in the explanation.
The tables may also be used to solve the d.long by means of formula (2.5) by treating the course as
mean latitude, d.lat as departure and distance as d.long.
A pocket calculator with the normal trigonometric ratios is quicker and more accurate to use than the
traverse table and, if a calculator with a co-ordinate conversion is available, it should be possible to
read off d.lat and departure directly using Cartesian (x,_y) co-ordinates. Using a calculator avoids the
need to interpolate between sets of figures as when using the traverse table.
 In Fig. 2-6 the position of Tmay be defined in polar (r, 6) or Cartesian (x,y) co-ordinates where:

EXAMPLE
A ship in position 45°25'N, 15° 05'Wat 0900 steers the following courses and speeds. What is her position at 1315?

* When carrying out polar to Cartesian conversion using a calculator, d.lat appears as x and departure asjv because of the
difference between mathematical and navigational conventions on the initial line from which angles are measured. In
navigational notation, course is measured clockwise from the north-south line, while in mathematical notation, angle
is measured anti-clockwise from the east-west line.
Table 2—1. Traverse sailing

TIME COURSE 6 SPEED DISTANCE r TRAVERSE It \BLE CALCULATOR

COURSE DEP D.LAT DEP X D.LAT

ORD JORD

8'. 132
0900-0946 045° 15 kn ir.s N45°E 8M3E 8M3N 8'. 132 -
5'. 336 -
0946-1015 312° 16Hn 7'.975 N48°W 5'.96W 5'.33N 5'.927 -
13'. 154 -
1015-1122 217° 14| kn 16'.471 S37°W 9'.91W 13M6S 9'.912
5'.417 -6
1122-1247 103° 17 kn 24'.083 S77°E 23'.46E 5'.42S 23 '.466
'.894
1247-1315 190° 15 kn 7'.0 S10°W l'.22W 6'.89S -r.2i6
14'. 5E 12'.01S + 14'.543 -11 '.997
(E) (S)
 MERCATOR SAILING
As mentioned on page 27, Mercator sailing provides a method of determining position after
travelling along a rhumb line other than in a north-south or east—west direction. It is
similar to plane sailing but uses difference of meridional parts (DMP) instead of d.lat and
d.long instead of departure.
Meridional parts are a feature of the Mercator projection on which the great majority of
small-scale Admiralty navigational charts are based and are discussed at length in Chapter
4. The calculations involved in Mercator sailing are set out in Chapter 5.

SPHERICAL GREAT-CIRCLE AND COMPOSITE SAILING

The great circle
A straight line is the shortest distance between two points and, when the two points lie on the
surface of a sphere, the arc of the great circle joining them is the curve that most nearly
approaches the straight line, because it has the greatest radius and therefore the least
curvature. The shorter arc of the great circle joining two places on the Earth's surface is
thus the .shortest route between them. In Fig. 2-8 FT is such an arc and its length is the
shortest distance between the two points F and 7" on the Earth's surface. PF and PT are arcs of
the meridians passing through F and T and are also arcs of great circles. The triangle PFT is
therefore a spherical triangle, and the problem of finding the shortest distance between two
points is the problem of finding the length of the side opposite the pole in this triangle.
 The navigator very often requires to know the true bearing of one point from another. The true
bearing of T from F is the angle between the meridian through F and the great circle joining F
and T, measured clockwise from the meridian — that is, the angle PFT. This angle represents the
initial course to be steered by a ship sailing on a great circle from F to T. Radio waves also travel
along great circles near the Earth's surface, and the angle PFT is thus the bearing of Tfrom Fas
it would be given by MFDF (Figs 2-9(a) and 2-9(b)).
In Fig. 2-9(a) at any intermediate point G, between F and T, the true bearing of T is the angle
PGT, and this is not equal to the angle PFT. To an observer moving along the great circle from F
to T, the true bearing of T changes continuously. Only when Tis close to Fmay this change be
neglected. The area of the Earth's surface traversed by FT is then sufficiently small to be considered
as a plane or flat surface, on which great circles appear as straight lines.

Great-circle distance and bearing

The length of the side FT (Fig. 2-8) and the true bearing PFT are found by solving the spherical
triangle FPT. In this triangle the angle FPT is clearly the d.long between F and T. The lengths of
the sides PF and PT depend upon the latitudes of F and T. When these latitudes have the same
name — both F and T are north in Fig. 2-8 — PF is (90° - latitude F) and PT is (90° - latitude
T). The distance (90° — latitude) is known as the co-latitude of the place concerned. When the
destination is in the opposite hemisphere — T, has south latitude in Fig. 2-8 — the length of the
side PT, is (90° + latitude T,). Therefore:
For Latitudes of the same name:
PF = 90° - latitude F = co-latitude F PT = 90° - latitude T = co-
latitude T angle FPT = d.long
 For latitudes of the opposite name:
PF = 90° - latitude F = co-latitude F PT, = 90° + latitude T,
angle FPTj = d.long
When F is also in southern latitudes, as in Fig. 2—10, the same relations hold if PI is substituted
for P, so that for either hemisphere:
PF = 90° ± lat F PT = 90° ± lat T
the sign being determined by the name of the pole and by the latitude of the place (same names,
subtract; opposite names, add).

Great-circle sailing
If a ship followed the great-circle track she would have to change course continually. In practice,
the great-circle track is divided into suitable lengths, successive points on the great circle being
joined to form a succession of rhumb lines. This is known as approximate great-circle sailing, or simply
great-circle sailing. Fig. 2—11 illustrates any such approximate great circle. The navigator would alter
course at A, B and C and he would choose the lengths FA, AB, etc. to suit his convenience. FA for
example, might be a twelve-hour run or when a suitable meridian is crossed, e.g. 10°W, 20°W,
30°W, 40°W and so on.
The vertex
The point at which a great circle most nearly approaches the pole is called the vertex (of that great
circle) — Fin Fig. 2—10. At this point, the great circle ceases to approach the pole and begins to
curve away. It must therefore cut the meridian through the vertex at right angles. The method
of finding this position involves the use of right-angled spherical triangles, and is described in
Chapter 5.
The composite track
Since the great-circle track between two places not on the equator passes nearer to the pole
than does the rhumb-line track, the ship may be carried into the ice region. When ice is likely to be
encountered, the great-circle track must therefore be modified to avoid such high latitudes,
while remaining the shortest possible safe track. This modified track is known as the composite
track, and is formed by two great-circle arcs joined by an arc of the limiting or 'safe' parallel of
latitude.

In Fig. 2-12 FLVMTis the great circle joining F and T. Latitudes higher than the parallel of LM
are assumed to be dangerous. The ship cannot, therefore, follow the great-circle arc L VM. Nor
would she go from F to L, along to M and then down to T. The shortest route she can take is FABT,
where FA and BT are great-circle arcs tangential to the safe parallel at A and B.
 FABT is thus the composite track in this example. It is the shortest route because, if L and
M are taken as any points on the parallel outside the part AB, (FL + LA) is greater than FA
and (BM + MT) is greater than BT. Moreover, since A is the point nearest the pole on the great
circle of which FA is an arc, any other great circle from F to a point between A and B would
cut the parallel between L and A and so carry the ship into danger.
The calculation of the composite track is set out in Chapter 5.

Solution of spherical great-circle problems

Six methods are considered altogether for solving spherical great-circle problems. Table
2-2 lists the methods and their applicability to finding the distance and the course/bearing.

Table 2—2. Solving great-circle problems

METHOD DISTANCE COURSE/
BEARING

Cosine X X

Sine X

Haversine X

Sight reduction X X
tables (NP401)
Half log haversine X

ABC tables X
(N one's)

The cosine method is very suitable for use with a pocket calculator and is described below.
The sine method may be used to cross-check the cosine solution and may also be used to
determine the course or bearing. Both the cosine and the sine formulae are set out in
Appendix 2. Although the sine formula is ambiguous, this ambiguity is easily resolved in
most cases, and the calculation is simpler than the cosine method. An example is given
below.
The haversine and half log haversine methods are set out in Appendix 2. The sight
reduction and ABC methods are set out in Volume II.
The calculation of great-circle courses and distances taking into account the spheroidal
shape of the Earth is set out in Chapter 5.
The cosine method
Great-circle distance
cos FT = cos FP cos PT + sin FP sin PT cos FPT cos distance =
cos (90° ± lat F) cos (90° ± lat T)
+ sin (90° ± lat F) sin (90° ± lat T) cos d.long . . . 2.8
 The sign is determined by the name of the pole and the latitude of the place (same names, subtract;
opposite names, add).
In Fig. 2-13 F and T are on opposite sides of the equator; thus, the latitude of F would be added and
that of T subtracted.
When F and T are both on the same side of the equator, formula (2.8) resolves into:

This basic formula (2.9) may also be used to cover the contrary case by making any opposite (to
the elevated pole) latitude negative. In Fig. 2-13 sin lat (—F) and cos lat (—F) would be used.
Formula (2.9) may be modified as follows:

Great-circle course/bearing
 In Fig. 2-13 the latitude of T would be subtracted and that of F added. When F and T are both
on the same side of the equator, formula (2.11) resolves into:

EXAMPLE
A ship steams from position F (45°N, 140°E) to T (65°N, 110°W). Find the great-circle distance and the initial
course by the cosine method, and also the initial course by the sine method.

A great-circle distance
The cosine method

* In this and subsequent examples using the sailings, the final answer is usually rounded off to the nearest degree for
course and 0.1 mile for distance. This is the degree of precision to which the practical navigator usually works these
problems at sea, as governed by the accuracy of the equipment available. However, so that the student may follow the
examples given using'his own electronic calculator, the workings are normally shown to six or more decimal places.
The initial course
The cosine method

sine rule check:

The sine method

In this case the ambiguity is easily resolvable, as the great-circle course from F to !Tmust lie to
the north of east. Thus:
initial course = 028°
 CHAPTER 3 Contents

An Introduction to Geodesy
Goedesy is that branch of mathematics concerned with large areas in which
allowance must be made for the curvature of the Earth's surface. As the accuracy
to which a ship may now be navigated world-wide is governed by this irregular
shape, a general understanding of geodesy is necessary. This chapter introduces the
navigator to this subject.

DEFINITIONS AND FORMULAE

The oblate spheroid
As already mentioned in Chapter 1, the Earth is an oblate spheroid rotating
about its shortest diameter which is the polar axis, PPj in Fig. 3-1.

Fig. 3-1. The oblate spheroid

The flattening of the Earth

The polar radius b is somewhat less than the equatorial radius a; thus, the Earth
may be considered as being 'flattened' in the polar regions.
 The flattening or ellipticity of the Earth may be defined by a quantity f
where:

The eccentricity
When a point M (Fig. 3—2) moves so that its distance from a fixed point S (the
focus) is always in a constant ratio e (less than unity) to its perpendicular
distance from a fixed straight line AB (the directrix), the locus of M is called an
ellipse of eccentricity e.

In Fig. 3-2:
MS = eMC e may be defined in
terms of a and b by the formula:

From formula (3.1):

Geodetic and geocentric latitudes
Fig. 3—3 shows a meridional section of the spheroid. M is a point on the
meridian PAPj, and MK is the tangent to the meridian at M. If the normal to this
tangent LM cuts OA in L, the angle MLA is called the geodetic latitude of M, and
denoted by <f).
The angle MO A is called the geocentric latitude of M and is denoted by 0.

The difference between the geodetic and geocentric latitudes is zero at the

<f) and 9 are connected by the formula (see Appendix 5):

equator and the poles and has a greatest value when <f> — 45°. For the
International (1924) Spheroid the greatest value is about 11.6 minutes of arc.

The parametric latitude

Fig. 3—4 shows a meridional section of a spheroid WPE\ its polar axis is OP and
its shape and size are defined by the radii OE = a, and OP = b. WBE is the
me r i d i o n a l s e c t i o n o f a s p h e r e w i t h c e n t r e 0, p o l a r a x i s O B an d rad i i
OE = OB = a. M is a point on the spheroid with geodetic latitude (/>. HM is
parallel to OP and produced to cut the circle WBE at U. The radius OU makes
an angle /3 with the X axis.
 The angle /3 is known as the parametric or reduced latitude of the point M. This
It may be shown (Appendix 5) that:

parametric latitude is frequently used in long distance calculations on the

spheroid (see Chapter 5).
The length of one minute of latitude
As indicated on page 6, the length of the sea mile varies between the equator
and the poles because of the changing radius of curvature.
The length of 1 minute of latitude may be found from the formula pd<f>, where
p is the radius of curvature in the meridian and d<£ is a small increase
(measured in radians) in the geodetic latitude (f> (Fig. 3-5). It may be shown
(Appendix 5) that:
The length of one minute of longitude
As indicated on page 7:

The geodesic
In the same way that a great-circle gives the shortest distance between two
points on a sphere, a geodesic is the shortest line between two points on the
spheroidal Earth.
Geodetic datum
In geodesy there are two kinds of datum: a horizontal datum, e.g. the Ordnance
Survey of Great Britain (1936) Datum, from which basis the latitude and
longitude of a place may be determined taking into account the spheroidal
shape of the Earth; a vertical datum, e.g. Ordnance Datum (Newlyn), to which
heights are referred.

THE DETERMINATION OF POSITION ON THE

SPHEROID
Anyone at the Central Si"gnal Station Flagstaff in Portsmouth Dockyard knows
where he is in relation to his geographical surroundings. However, to inform
someone else in another place, for example the Falkland Islands, of that
 position, details need to be sent using a recognisable method, e.g. latitude
(50°47'.95N) and longitude (1°06'.53W).
Provided that the same horizontal datum is used for the determination of
latitude and longitude in both places, it is possible to calculate with accuracy
the position of one place relative to the other. However, when places are a long
way apart, the same horizontal datum is frequently not used. Thus, although
the latitude and longitude of both locations may be 'known', an exact
calculation of the bearing and distance between them cannot be made.

The geoid
The basis for the determination of latitude and longitude depends upon the
spheroidal shape of the Earth. However, the shape cannot be measured directly
although it is possible to measure a section of its surface, e.g. AB in Fig. 3-6.
This measurement is usually taken along a meridian of longitude.
 The positions of A and B may be determined using instruments such as the
theodolite to measure horizontal and vertical angles on the Earth, and the
theodolite or the astrolabe to obtain the astronomical position. These
instruments must however be levelled before use, and thus require the use of
gravity to determine the vertical. But the vertical itself is deflected by the mass
of the Earth and this means that the 'horizontal' with reference to which the
observation has been made is irregular. In Fig. 3-6, this 'horizontal' is shown by
the pecked line GLGj. This pecked line is known as the geoid and may be defined
as that surface which corresponds to the Mean Sea Level of the oceans,
assuming that it would be possible to take a mean sea level through the Earth's
continents. It tends to rise under mountains and dip above ocean basins. The
direction of gravity (or local vertical) is always perpendicular to the geoid.
Since the geoid is not of a regular shape, its surface cannot be defined by a
single, simple, algebraic formula. It is not, therefore, used for the mathematical
calculations required to determine latitude and longitude because of the
complexity involved.
This difficulty is overcome by using a regular but fictional surface, PLQ in
Fig. 3—6, called the spheroid for the calculation. This spheroid is chosen as the
closest Jit to the geoidal section GLGj.
Calculation of the position
The observer at A measures his position by observation of heavenly bodies and
adjusts it to mean sea level to fit the geoid at Aj. He then very carefully measures
the position of B on the spheroid by use of his instruments, using chosen values
of OP and OQ. The position of B on the geoid, Bh may now be calculated.
Astronomical observations at B will show the difference between the two
positions, and this difference is a measure of the way the chosen spheroid PLQ
'fits' the geoid GLG;. Usually at least two more places C and D, etc. are also
observed, to check that the chosen spheroid is satisfactory.
Geodetic latitude and longitude
Before these calculations can be used for the determination of latitude and
longitude using the selected values of the spheroid, there is one further
problem to resolve.
The astronomical observation at A (reduced to Mean Sea Level to give the
position at Aj) is determined by the direction of the local vertical at Ah A,V.
Thus, the astronomical (observed) latitude of A, is the angle AjVQ. But as it is
intended to use the spheroid PLQ for calculating latitude and longitude, the
observed latitude must be corrected for the fact that the normal to the spheroid
is not A,V but A2M and the geodetic (spheroidal) latitude which is the one
actually charted is the angle A2MQ.*
Geodetic (charted) longitude may be determined in the same way, being the
angle between the plane of the geodetic meridian at Greenwich and the
geodetic meridian of the place. The astronomical (observed) longitude is

* The deviation of the vertical, i.e. the difference between the angle AjVQ and A2MQ is very
small (only a few seconds of arc) in flat countries, and larger in mountainous regions. In extreme
cases (e.g. Colombia in South America) it may be as much as 1 minute of arc.
 adjusted for any difference between the local vertical at Greenwich and the
local vertical at the place, to arrive at the geodetic (charted) longitude.
Once the observed latitude and longitude have been adjusted in this way, the
chart may be drawn up for geodetic latitude and longitude using the assumed
values of the spheroid.
Very often, to make the calculation simpler, the spheroid and the geoid are
assumed to be coincident and parallel at the chosen point known as the origin.
There is then no difference between the two verticals. This is not a necessary
requirement, however, and geodetic values may be chosen which give the 'best
fit' over the largest area, or use the same spheroidal shape as adjacent systems.
A horizontal datum is thus a connected series of survey stations whose
positions are defined by a spheroid and by the relationship between the
spheroid and a point established as the origin, e.g. the Ordnance Survey of
Great Britain (1936) Datum is based on the Airy Spheroid and has its origin at
Herstmonceux.
Reference datutns and spheroids
Throughout the world, a number of these datums and associated spheroids
have been used for charting. In consequence, there are differences to geodetic
latitudes and longitudes, albeit small, between different charting systems.
Table 3—1 gives some examples of the datums and spheroids used.

Satellite geodesy
Since the 1960s the limitations of the classical methods have been overcome by
the use of extremely accurate satellite techniques. Accurate co-ordinates of
ground stations and the Earth's gravity field have been determined from
Doppler and laser observations to satellites, and the height of the geoid has
been measured over sea areas by satellite altimetry.
By combining these data with surface measurements, a worldwide 3-D
reference system and a spheroid which best fits the geoid have been defined. It
has also been possible to establish the relationships between previously
unconnected datums and to convert them to the world datum.
World geodetic systems (WGS)
In the past the differences in the various datums used for charting had very
little effect on the day to day navigation of ships, particularly as the errors
inherent in astronomical observation were larger than any discrepancy in
charted latitude and longitude. However, it became clear in the late 1950s that
the increasing range of weapon systems (thousands of miles in some cases) and
the requirements for manned space flight necessitated the establishment of an
agreed worldwide spheroid which fitted the actual shape of the whole Earth as
closely as possible and whose centre coincided with its centre of mass. This
came about with the development of the World Geodetic System 1972 (WGS
72) spheroid, details of which are given in Table 3-1. A few metric charts
throughout the world are now compiled on this basis.
The US Navy Navigation Satellite System (TRANSIT), which came into being
in 1964, is now based on WGS. The increasing world-wide use of this system,
accurate to the order of 100 metres, shows up the discrepancies in the various
Table 3—1. Comparison of datums and spheroids
CHARTED DATUM SPHEROID EQUATORIAL POLAR FLATTENING ECCENTRICITY ECCENTRICITY2
2 1/2
,2 = 2/-/2
1

AREAS RADIUS 0 RADIUS b /= a ,= ( 2 /-/ )

METRES METRES (N
(N MILES)
MILES)

British Ordnance Airy 1/299.325 0.081673374 0.006670540

Isles Survey of 6 377 563 6 356 257
Great Britain
(1936) Datum (3443.609) (3432.104)

North-west European Inter-

Europe 6 378 388 6 356912
Datum national* 1/297 0.08199189 0.006722670
(3444.054)
(1950) (1924) (3432.458)
North The North Clarke 1/294.98 0.08227185 0.006768658
America American 1866 6 378 206 6 356 584
(1927) Datum
(3443.956) (3432.281)
1
Southern Arc Datum Clarke 6 356 515 1/293.465 0.0824834 0.006803511
Africa 1880 6 378 249 (3432.245)

(3443.98)
Worldwide World WGS 72 1/298.26 0.0818188 0.006694318
Geodetic 6 378 135 6 356 751
System 1972
(3443.917) (3432.371)

* The International (1924) Spheroid is used for the calculations of distances in the Admiralty Distance Tables and Ocean Passages for the World. f
Meridional parts (see Chapter 4) for the Clarke (1880) Spheroid are tabulated in Norie's Tables.
datums used for charting. It has thus become necessary to tabulate this discrepancy on any chart
not based on WGS in the form of a correction to the latitude and longitude of the position obtained
from TRANSIT. This correction is known as the datum shift and may be as large as several hundred
metres in well surveyed areas. For example, in Southampton Water the datum shift amounts to about
130 metres (145 yards). A further error, amounting to a mile or more in poorly surveyed areas such as
parts of the Pacific Ocean, may also arise from errors in the charted geographical position.
A similar problem exists with the Royal Navy's automated Navigational Plotting System, which
is also based on WGS.
NAVSTAR GPS is based on the WGS 84 Datum, which uses the GRS (Geodetic Reference
System) 80 Spheroid. As far as the navigator is concerned, the differences between WGS 72 and
WGS 84 are negligible.
These three systems are described in detail in Volume III of this manual.
 CHAPTER 4 Contents

Projections and Grids

GENERAL
For the purposes of navigation it is necessary to project the features of the
Earth's surface on to a chart. A projection is a means of representing a spheroidal
surface on a plane. It is usually expressed as a mathematical formula for
converting geographical co-ordinates on the spheroid to plane co-ordinates on
the chart or map. Provided it is suitable a projection may be used to represent
any portion of the Earth's surface.
Since it is impossible to fit exactly a plane surface on to a spheroidal one,
projections of anything but very small areas will contain some distortion. For
example, in Fig. 4—1 it can be seen that three identical circular areas on the
Earth's surface are each represented by a quite different size and shape when
the outline is projected from a point of origin at the centre of the Earth on to a
plane chart.
The distortion of a projection must involve some or all of the following
properties:

1. Shape. 2. Bearing. 3. Scale. 4. Area.

It is possible to devise a good projection which will eliminate or reduce to

negligible proportions some of these distortions while keeping the others
within reasonable and thus usable limits. The choice of projection for a chart or
map is governed by the requirements of the user. The mariner requires a chart
which will not only show the correct shape of the land he is looking at, but also
give him his correct position, course and speed when he plots bearings and
distances on it. Unfortunately all these requirements cannot be met in one single
projection, and a compromise must be made by accepting a very close
approximation to all three (shape, bearing, distance), or satisfaction of two
(usually shape and bearing) at the expense of the third (distance or scale).
The network of lines representing the meridians of longitude and parallels of
latitude which derive from any projection is known as a graticule.
A grid is a reference system of rectangular (Cartesian) co-ordinates obtained
when a projection is applied to a particular part, or the whole of the world.
Grids are described in detail at the end of this chapter.
Further information on projections, including their mathematical
derivations, is given in Appendix 4.
The 'flat Earth'
Over a limited area (12 mile radius from a point) the Earth may be assumed to
be flat for all practical purposes, as the errors introduced by this assumption
are less than those resulting from the measurement of angles and distances. At a
distance of 50 miles from a point, the errors introduced by assuming the Earth
is flat are about 1:12,000 for distance (i.e. approximately 8 metres in 50 miles)
and 8" for angles, and increase fairly rapidly beyond this distance. A plan may
be constructed on the principle of the assumed flatness of the Earth by
transferring measurements made on the spherical surface directly to a sheet of
squared paper.
Orthomorphism or conformality
An orthomorphic or conformal projection is a type of chart or map projection
on which the shape of the land truly pictures that on the Earth. At any point on
that chart or map the scale, whatever it may be, is the same in all directions,
and also the parallel of latitude and meridian of longitude at that point are at
right angles to each other. Thus, angles around any point on that chart or map are correctly
represented.
Correctness of shape applies only to small areas. On the same chart the scale in
one latitude may not be the same as the scale in another latitude, but so long as
the scale along the meridian is equal to the scale along the parallel, the
immediate neighbourhood of that point is just as correctly shown as the
immediate neighbourhood of a point some distance removed. Mercator charts
are orthomorphic. On a Mercator chart of the world, for example (Fig. 4—2), the
area around Cape Farewell in Greenland is just as correctly shown for shape as
is the estuary of the Amazon in South America, although Greenland as a whole
'appears' about the same size as South America whereas it is actually about one-
tenth the size. This is because the scale of distance in the Greenland area is quite
different from the scale being used to depict South America on the same chart.
The real significance for navigation of this orthomorphic property of charts
is as follows. If distortion of shape occurs, then distortion of the bearing scale or
compass rose must also occur. A compass rose on a chart which is not
orthomorphic will not be circular, nor will its graduation be uniform, and it
would be very difficult if not impossible to lay off courses and bearings
correctly.

Derivation of projections of a sphere

Consider an imaginary sphere shown in Fig. 4—3. It would be possible to fit
plane surfaces around it in a variety of ways, six of which are shown. In (1), (3)
and (5) the surfaces touch the sphere along a circle or at a point; in (2), (4) and
(6) they have been sunk into the sphere, in (2) and (4) cutting it along two
circles and in (6) cutting it along a single circle.
If the detail on the sphere is now projected on to the plane surface from a
point on the axis of the cone, cylinder or plane circle, there will be no distortion
of scale along the tangential circles or points which are shown in stipple.
Elsewhere there is distortion of some sort or another, which will persist when
the planes are unwrapped and laid flat.
 In (1), (2), (3) and (4) the point from which the projection takes place is
usually the centre of the sphere, while with (5) and (6) it may take place from
anywhere on the axis at right angles to the plane but usually either from B, the
centre of the sphere, or A, the opposite 'pole'. The projections are usually
referred to as follows:
1 Conical with one standard parallel.
2 Conical with two standard parallels.
3 Cylindrical with one standard parallel.
4 Cylindrical with two standard parallels.
r , c f Zenithal projected from A — stereographic.
[Zenithal projected from B — gnomonic.
There is no reason except convenience why the cones should occupy the
upright position as in Fig. 4^3; they could equally well be inclined at any angle
to the vertical.

Projections of the spheroid

None of the projections shown in Fig. 4—3 (except 5 and 6 when projected from
A) is orthomorphic for the sphere, and none of them is orthomorphic for the
spheroid (the shape of the Earth). To overcome this, a whole family of
projections has been devised, analogous to the graphical ones in Fig. 4-3 but all
completely mathematical, with their formulae adjusted in such a way as to
ensure that some are orthomorphic, some are equal area and so on, as required.
Types of projection in current use both for charts and grids are summarised in
Table 4-1 pp. 58-9.
Lambert's conical orthomorphic projection
This projection (Table 4—1, A) is a modification of the conical projection with
one or two standard parallels (Fig. 4-3(1) and (2)). The parallels other than the
standard parallels appear as circular arcs concentric with the standard
parallels, but the distances between them are chosen so that the projection is
orthomorphic. To achieve this, the scale along the meridian at any place must
be equal to the scale along the parallel at that place. Clearly, the scale along the
meridians cannot now be uniform but must be adjusted to the scale along the
parallels. The scale is correct only along the standard parallels; if there are two
of these, the scale is smaller between them and it becomes increasingly large
outside. The extent of latitude covered by the projection is limited so that the
scale error does not become unacceptable. Great circles are very nearly
represented by straight lines on this projection.
Lambert's projection is suitable for countries with a large extent in longitude
but not much in latitude; however, it cannot be used at all in very high
latitudes. It has been used a great deal in the past but is being superseded by
the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) projection.
Mercator's projection
This projection (Table 4—1, B) is described in detail later. It is a special case of
the Lambert's conical orthomorphic projection in which the equator is used as
the latitude of the origin. It is also special in that the units employed are
 generally minutes of longitude measured along the equator. Owing to its
unique properties the projection is widely used for navigational charts. In this
form the actual grid is not shown, although accurate calculations are generally
carried out in terms of meridional parts which form the unit of the grid.

Transverse Mercator projection

This projection (Table 4—1, C) is described in detail later. It is made by turning
the Mercator projection through 90° so that the equator becomes in effect a
central meridian and a chosen geographical meridian becomes the transverse
equator. The scale error and distortion in shape away from this central meridian
or transverse equator are the same as those of the standard Mercator away from
the equator. If wide bands of longitude have to be covered, new central
meridians must be chosen for new zones. The projection is orthomorphic while
the geographical meridians and parallels are curved lines (except the meridian
where the cylinder touches the sphere, Fig. 4—3(3) turned through a right
angle).
This projection may be used for polar charts and maps although RN polar
charts are based on the polar stereographic projection (see below).
The transverse Mercator projection has been used for new Admiralty
large-scale charts and harbour plans since the mid 1970s instead of the
modified poly conic (see page 61).

Skew orthomorphic projection

The skew orthomorphic projection (Table 4—1, D) is the general case, of which
both the Mercator and transverse Mercator projections are special cases. It is
used mainly for land surveys, particularly those of narrow extent, e.g. Malaysia
and Malagasy. Instead of a central meridian, a central great circle passing
through the axis of the country is used as the transverse equator.

Gnomonic projection
The gnomonic projection (Table 4—1, G) is described in detail later. It is only
applied to a sphere which represents the Earth and on it great circles project as
straight lines. It is not orthomorphic. It is used for very small scale charts,
which enable the navigator easily to obtain great-circle tracks.

Stereographic projection
The point of origin of a stereographic projection (Table 4—1, F) may be
anywhere; however, as this projection is only used in polar areas, only a brief
description of the Universal Polar Stereographic projection is given.
The meridians and parallels of latitude are projected on to a plane tangential
to the pole, the centre of projection being the opposite pole (Fig. 4—3(5)).
Meridians appear as straight lines originating from the pole, parallels of
latitude as circles radiating outwards from and centred on the pole. The
projection is orthomorphic and has less distortion than the polar gnomonic
projection previously used for polar charts. Great circles (except meridians)
are not projected as straight lines (although in practical terms little accuracy is
lost by plotting them as such).
Table 4—1. Types of projection in use
 This projection is used for polar charts and orthomorphic maps of polar
regions. It should be noted that there are now no Admiralty charts on the polar
gnomonic projection.
Poly conic projection
The polyconic projection (Table 4—1, H and Fig. 4—4) is another modification of
the simple conical projection. The chosen central meridian of the area to be
shown is divided correctly for intervals of latitude, but each parallel is
constructed as if it were the standard parallel of a simple conical projection.
The parallels are arcs of circles, the radii of which steadily increase as the
latitude decreases. The meridians, other than the central one, are curved. The
central meridian is of course a straight line.

The projection is neither orthomorphic nor equal area, so it is unsuitable for

large areas. Its main advantage is that, if small areas are shown on this
projection, each area covering the same amount of longitude, the sheets on
which the geographical graticules are drawn fit exactly along their northern
and southern edges and, for ordinary purposes, along their eastern and western
edges, although the join here is a 'rolling fit' as the meridians are curved. It is
therefore suitable for topographical maps which, individually covering a small
area, combine to cover a large one.
 In slightly modified form (in which the meridians project as straight lines)
the polyconic projection is used for the 1:1 Million International maps, and for
most large-scale Admiralty charts. In this latter form it has often wrongly been
referred to as the gnomonic projection, and is indeed so referred to on the
large-scale chart itself. As mentioned on page 57, this projection has now been
superseded by the transverse Mercator for large-scale charts since the
mid-1970s.

MERCATOR PROJECTION/CHART
To the navigator, the most useful chart is one on which he can show the track of
his ship by drawing a straight line between his starting point and his
destination, and thus measure the steady course he must steer in order to arrive
there. The Mercator chart permits him to do this because it is constructed so
that:
1. Rhumb lines on the Earth appear as straight lines on the chart.
2. The angles between these rhumb lines are unaltered, as between Earth and
chart.
It therefore follows that:
1. The equator, which is a rhumb line as well as a great circle, appears on the
chart as a straight line.
2. The parallels of latitude appear as straight lines parallel to the equator.
3. The meridians appear as straight lines perpendicular to the equator.*
The idea of the projection belongs to Gerhard Kremer, a Fleming who
adopted the name Mercator. Kremer used the graticule derived from the
projection in the world map which he published in 1569. The graticule,
however, was inaccurately drawn above the parallels of 40°, and there was no
mathematical explanation of it. That was not forthcoming until Wright
calculated the positions of the parallels and published the results in his Errors of
Navigation Corrected thirty years later. The chart came into general use among
navigators in about 1630, but the first complete description of it did not arrive
until 1645, when Bond published the logarithmic formula.
Principle of the Mercator projection
Earlier in this chapter (page 56) the Mercator projection is referred to as a
special case of the Lambert conical orthomorphic projection in which the
equator is used as the latitude of the origin (f)o. Fig. 4—5 shows what happens
when the latitude of the origin is 0°.
RO is a central meridian and is equal in length to VQ cot </>, where V0 is the
radius of curvature at right angles to the meridian at 0 for the figure of the
Earth in use, and </> is the latitude of 0. As the cotangent of 0° is infinity, R
recedes northwards (or southwards) to infinity.

* For all practical purposes, a meridian may be considered as a rhumb line on a Mercator
projection. The argument that it cannot be one since there is a change of direction of 180° at the
pole is academic as the Mercator projection cannot extend as far as the pole.
 Fig. 4—5. Mercator projection

The angle between true north and grid north becomes zero for this
projection, thus there is no convergence.
OPO coincides with grid east, all the parallels become straight lines parallel
to OPo and, since there is no convergence, all the meridians are parallel to grid
north.
The choice of a minute of longitude measured along the equator (or standard
parallel) as the unit of the grid makes this projection very suitable for
navigational work.
The characteristics of this projection are governed by two considerations: it
is orthomorphic and the constant of the cone is zero.* For this reason it is
always known among cartographers as a cylindrical orthomorphic projection,
and it is a mathematical, not a perspective, projection.
* The quantity sin <t>a is known as the Constant of the Cone, and it is of course a constant for any
given latitude of the point of origin. When the equator is the point of origin:
sin (f>0 = sin 0° = 0
 The orthomorphic property is achieved by spacing the parallels at increasing
intervals as they approach the poles; this arrangement, coupled with the fact
that the meridians and the parallels on any cylindrical projection where the
standard parallel is the equator must be straight lines at right angles, the
meridians furthermore being equally spaced, leads to the other property so
important to the navigator, namely that rhumb lines also are straight lines. The
meridians on a Mercator chart being thus parallel straight lines running north
and south, any straight transversal makes a constant angle with them, and
there is no distortion of this angle because the orthomorphic property ensures
that the correct shape is preserved at all points along the transversal. It is thus
the true angle and, since it is constant, the transversal is a rhumb line.
The problem of the Mercator chart is thus the problem of finding the chart
length of any parallel from the equator when the orthomorphic property is to be
achieved.
Longitude scale on a Mercator chart
Since the meridians of the Mercator graticule are straight lines at right angles
to the equator, the longitude scale is the same everywhere and provides the
means of comparing chart lengths. Let the scale of any Mercator chart be
x millimetres to 1' of d.long. Then, since departure — d.long cos lat,* the
departure on the chart represented by x millimetres approximates to 1' cos lat:
i.e. one mile in that particular latitude is represented by x sec lat millimetres on
the chart, approximately.
The latitude scale cannot be used because it is continually being streched as
the latitude increases, and the distance of any parallel from the equator must
be expressed in units of the longitude scale in order that the parallel may be
drawn in its correct position on the graticule. The scale of latitude and distance
at any part of a Mercator chart is proportional to the secant of the latitude of
that part. For this reason, the amount of distortion in any latitude is governed
by the secant of that latitude. Greenland, in 70°N, for example, appears as
broad as Africa is drawn at the equator, although Africa is three times as broad
as Greenland (sec 70° — 3). For a similar reason Borneo, an island on the
equator, appears about the same size as Iceland in 65°N, although in area
Borneo is about five and a half times as large as Iceland.
Graduation of charts and the measurement of distance
Graduation of charts
Mercator charts are graduated along the left- and right-hand edges for latitude
and distance, and along the top and bottom for longitude. The longitude scale is used
only for laying down or taking off the longitude of a place, never for measuring a distance.

Measurement of distances on the chart

The length of the rhumb line between two places is referred to as the distance
between them.

* This formula is only correct for the sphere. For the spheroid, the precise length of one minute
of longitude is given by formula (3.12) (see page 45).
 In Fig. 4—6 FABCT is a rhumb line as it appears on the chart; FF,, AA,, BB,
etc. are parallels of latitude.
The distance FA must be measured on the latitude scale between F, and Ah
the distance AB on the scale between A! and /?/, and so on. If FT is not large —
less than 100' — no appreciable error is made by measuring it on the scale
roughly either side of its middle point.

Meridional parts
Since the latitude and distance scale at any part of a Mercator chart is
proportional to the secant of the latitude of that part, this scale continually
increases as it recedes from the equator, until at the pole it becomes infinite.
(For this reason, the complete polar regions cannot be shown on a Mercator
chart.) The latitude scale thus affords no ready means of comparison with the
fixed longitude scale. The tangent of the course-angle PFT, for example, is not
PT divided by FP, where PT is measured on the longitude scale and FP on the
latitude scale. For that ratio to be valid, PT and FP must be measured in the
same fixed units. The fixed longitude scale provides this unit, which is the
length of 1 minute of arc on that scale. This length is called a meridional part, and
gives rise to the definition:
The meridional parts of any latitude are the number of longitude
units in the length of a meridian between the parallel of that latitude
and the equator.
The number of meridional parts for any latitude may be found from formulae
(4.1) for the sphere (page 65), and (5.21) for the spheroid (page 95). They are
also tabulated in:
Nome's Nautical Tables (NP 320) (compression ratio 1/293.465)
Burton's Nautical Tables
Table of Meridional Parts based on the International (1924) Spheroid (NP 239)
(compression ratio 1/297)
 If the longitude scale on the Mercator chart is 1 degree or 60 meridional parts
to 10 mm, the length of the meridian between the parallel of 45°N and the
equator, when measured on the chart, is not 450 mm but 502.3 mm, the length
of 3013.58 meridional parts (NP 239). Meridional parts thus involve chart
lengths. They are not in any way connected with distance on the Earth's
surface, which is expressed in sea or n miles.
b find the meridional parts of any latitude
In Fig. 4—7, the upper half of which represents a part of the Earth's surface, Fis
a point on the equator, and FT the rhumb line joining it to T. The lower half of
the figure shows this same rhumb line as the straight line ft on a Mercator
chart.
If TQ is now divided into n small lengths a, so that (na) is equal to the latitude
of T, the arcs of parallels drawn through the points of division are equally
spaced and, with the meridians, form a series of small triangles FAX, ABY, . . .
If, furthermore, a is so small that these triangles may be considered plane, they
are equal in all respects, since:

and, since these small arcs recede in succession from the equator, the
meridians which bound them are spaced successively farther apart. Hence:

A comparison of the two halves of the figure should make clear the relation
between the small triangles when they are drawn on the Earth and their
appearance on the chart. On the Earth they are all equal, but on the chart they
are only similar. They increase progressively as they recede from the equator.
This increase can be found by considering two similar and corresponding
triangles. Thus:

But qt, the length of the meridian between the parallel through t and the
equator, is the sum of all the elements fx, ay . . . kz.. That is:
 This formula (see Appendix 3) gives the number of meridional parts in the
latitude of T for a perfect sphere. In the Table of Meridional Parts (NP 239), as
previously mentioned (page 64), the meridional parts are given allowing for the
spheroidal shape of the Earth; the accurate formula is given in Chapter 5,
formula (5.21) (page 95) and its proof given in Appendix 5. For example, the
number of meridional parts between the parallel of 20° and the equator is
1217.23.

Difference of meridional parts

Where the two positions are both remote from the equator, for example A and K
in Fig. 4—7, their relative position may be determined by the difference between
 the meridional parts for K and the meridional parts for A, which gives the
number of longitude units in the length of a meridian between the two parallels
of latitude through A and K. This length mk is usually referred to as the
difference of meridional parts and written as DMP. (See the examples given on
pages 87 and 95 of this volume for the sphere and the spheroid respectively.)

Property of orthomorphism
Since the scale along a meridian in the neighbourhood of a point in latitude 4> is
stretched by the same amount (sec (f>) as the scale along the parallel through
that point, and the meridians and parallels on the Mercator projection are at
right angles, the projection must be orthomorphic. (See pages 54 and 62 of this
chapter.)

To construct a Mercator chart of the world

Since there is no distortion at the equator, the base on which the chart is built
must be the line representing the equator, and convenience governs the length
of this line. Suppose it is 720 mm (about 28 in). Then the longitude scale must
be:

that is, 5° of longitude or 30 meridional parts to 1 mm; more conveniently, 5° of

longitude or 300 meridional parts to 10 mm. Vertically the scale will be the
same, 300 meridional parts to 10 mm.
If it is required to draw the meridians for every 20°, for example, the
equatorial line must be divided into eighteen equal parts, 40 mm long. The
perpendiculars drawn through the points of division will be the meridians. The
one through the left-hand extremity will be the meridian of 180°W, the one
through the right-hand extremity the meridian of 180°E.
The Table of Meridional Parts (NP 239) gives all the information necessary for
deciding the positions of the parallels of latitude. The number of meridional
parts between the parallel of 20° and the equator is 1217.23 and, since these are
drawn on a scale of 300 meridional parts to 10 mm, the parallels of 20° must be
drawn 1217.23 -=- 30, or 40.57 mm either side of the equatorial line on the
chart.
 The number of meridional parts between the parallel of 40° and the equator
is 2607.82. The parallel of 40° is therefore drawn 2607.82 -5- 30, or 86.93 mm
from the equatorial line.
In the same way the other parallels are drawn, and on the graticule thus
formed it is possible to insert the position of any place the latitude and
longitude of which are known.

To construct a Mercator chart on a larger scale

In order that small portions of the Earth may be shown in detail, it is necessary
to employ a larger scale and construct only the relevant portion of the chart. If it
so happens that the equator is not included, the chart lengths between
successive parallels of latitude on the chart are found by reducing to
millimetres, according to the scale employed, the difference between the
corresponding meridional parts.
Suppose, for example, it is required to construct a chart from 142°E to 146°E,
and 45°N to 49°N, the scale of the chart being 1° of longitude to 30 mm, or 1' of
30
longitude to — = 0.5 mm. 60
The difference of longitude between limiting meridians is 4° and, since the
scale of the chart is 1° of longitude to 30 mm, the line at the bottom of the chart
representing the parallel of 45°N is 120mm long, as shown in Fig. 4-8. The
meridians of 142°, 143°, 144°, 145° and 146° will be perpendiculars erected on
this line at its two ends and at the points dividing it into four equal parts.
The length in millimetres beween the parallels of 45° to 49° can be deduced
from the difference of meridional parts as shown in Table 4-2.

Table 4—2. Chart lengths between parallels

LATITUDE MERIDIONAL DMP CHART LENGTH

PARTS BETWEEN
(INTERNATIONAL PARALLELS
SPHEROID) (DMP x 0.5)

49° 3364.62 90.29 mm

48° 3274.33 88.54 45.14
47° 3185.79 86.89 44.27
46° 3098.90 85.32 43.45
45° 3013.58 42.66

In order to increase the accuracy with which positions can be plotted, the
chart lengths between meridians and between parallels are divided, if
necessary, into convenient units: 10' of longitude between meridians, and 10'
of latitude between parallels. This division is easily effected on the longitude
scale because that is fixed. On the latitude scale, however, it can be carried out
only with the further aid of the relevant table of meridional parts (see page 64),
which is now entered for every 10' between 45° and 49° instead of every degree.
 Fig. 4—8 shows the complete graticule. Each rectangle, whatever its
dimensions in millimetres, represents a part of the Earth's surface bounded by
meridians 1° apart in longitude and parallels 1° apart in latitude; and, although
the chart lengths between these parallels vary from 42.66 mm to 45.14 mm as
shown, each length represents a distance of 60 miles on the Earth's surface.
The actual distance in miles between the meridians depends on the latitude in
which it is measured on the chart, and may be obtained from Spheroidal Tables
(NP 240), published by the Hydrographer of the Navy, Norie's Tables, or
formulae (3.12) and (3.9).
As already explained, distances between places must be measured on the
latitude scale on either side of the places. The distance between F and T, for
example, is measured on the latitude scale between 46° and 48°, and is found to
be 135 miles.

Great-circle tracks on a Mercator chart

Since only rhumb lines appear as straight lines on a Mercator chart, great
circles will in general appear as curves.
 Moreover, since the limiting great circles are the equator, which appears as a
horizontal line, and any double meridian, which appears as two separate lines
180° apart and perpendicular to the equator, any other great circle passing
through their points of intersection must appear as two curves with vertices
towards the poles, as shown in Fig. 4—9. The great circle joining F and T will,
therefore, always lie on the polar side of the rhumb line joining them and, when
the difference of latitude between F and T is small and the difference of
longitude large, it is seen that the difference between the two tracks is
considerable. If, however, the two points lie on opposite sides of the equator, as
at A and B, then the rhumb line almost coincides with the great circle.

TRANSVERSE MERCATOR PROJECTION/CHART

This very important projection, also known as the Gauss conformal projection,
is essentially a Mercator projection turned through 90°.
In the transverse Mercator projection a cylinder is chosen touching the Earth
along a chosen geographical meridian. This central meridian is then the
transverse equator of the chart — NOS in Fig. 4—10. If a system of great circles is
drawn through the places where the axis of the cylinder cuts the surface of the
Earth, E and Wm Fig. 4—10, then these may be regarded as transverse meridians. A
system of small circles parallel to NOS corresponds to transverse parallels.
These systems are transferred to the cylinder in the same way as the
meridians and parallels are transferred in the normal Mercator projection; the
expansion of the distance between successive small circles is proportional to
the secant of their angular distance from the central meridian NOS. The small
circle QR is projected at QjR, and the transverse meridian PQM is projected at
PQjM,.
 Fig. 4-11 shows part of a transverse Mercator grid, which has been made by
turning the Mercator projection through 90°, where the central meridian is
represented by SOQFR and is similar to the equator on the Mercator
projection. The lines SS1} 00, and FP are all great circles (or geodesies) cutting
the central meridian at right angles. They are therefore analogous to the
meridians on the Mercator projection, and will plot on the transverse Mercator
projection as parallel straight lines at right angles to the central meridian.
Grid north on the projection is defined as the direction SOQFR; it is
coincident with true north on the central meridian only. Grid east is defined as
the directions SS,, 00/ or FP, all of which are parallel on the projection. It
follows that the meridians and parallels (with the exception of the central
meridian and the equator) will plot as curves on the projection. PN is the
meridian through P, and PQ is the parallel through P; the angle NPQ is of
course 90°. Geodesies on the projection will all plot as curves unless they
coincide with the central meridian, or grid east lines. (The grid east lines are
not quite geodesies, due to the fact that scale factor changes very slowly with
grid northing, but the difference is very small indeed.)
In order to make the projection orthomorphic, the scale in an east—west
direction has to be increased, away from the central meridian, to make it
everywhere equal to the slowly increasing scale in a north-south direction. Put
another way, this means that the east-west distance on the Earth, from the
central meridian to a point P, has to be increased slightly before plotting the
point by its co-ordinates on the projection, whilst the north-south distance is
plotted direct. The analogy with the Mercator projection is exact.
In Fig. 4—11 the point of origin of this particular grid is on the central
meridian at 0; it might equally well be anywhere else along the central
meridian. The true point of origin of the projection is always on the central
meridian and the equator.
The scale error and distortion in shape away from the central meridian are
exactly those of the standard Mercator away from the equator so that, for
topographical large-scale map use, when the maximum permissible scale
errors are limited to amounts of less than 0.1%, this projection can be used only
for a limited extent in longitude. If wide bands of longitude have to be covered,
new central meridians must be chosen for new zones.
This projection has now been used since the mid-1970s for new Admiralty
large-scale charts instead of the modified polyconic or gnomonic projection (see
page 61).

GNOMONIC PROJECTION/CHART
In order to assist the navigator in finding the great-circle track between two
places, charts are constructed so that any straight line drawn on them shall
represent a great circle. These are known as gnomonic charts, and they are formed
by projecting the Earth's surface from the Earth's centre on to the tangent
plane at any convenient point. They are thus a zenithal projection from
position B (see Fig. 4-3(5) on page 55). The angle at the apex of the com " 180°,
whereby the cone becomes a plane, touching the surface of the sphere at the
one tangent point. The gnomonic projection is a perspective projection, the
meridians and parallels being projected on to the tangent plane from the centre
of the sphere. The tangent point is chosen at the centre of the area to be shown
on the chart, to minimise distortion.
Since a great circle is formed by the intersection of a plane through the
Earth's centre with the Earth's surface, and as one plane will always cut
another in a straight line, all great circles will appear on the chart as straight
lines. However, the meridians will not be parallel unless the tangent point is on
the equator, nor will rhumb lines be straight. Angles are also distorted, except
at the tangent point. It is therefore impossible to take courses and distances
from a gnomonic chart. The mathematical theory of this chart is explained in
Appendix 4.
 Fig. 4—12 shows the graticule of a gnomonic chart in which the tangent point
is on the equator, and it will be noticed that the graticule is symmetrical about
the meridian through this tangent point, which is independent of the
longitude. The longitude scale can therefore be adjusted to suit the navigator's
convenience. In the figure the tangent point is in longitude 0°.
Chart 5029, the Great-circle Diagram, is a graticule of this type.

To transfer a great-circle track to a Mercator chart

The transference of a great-circle track, such as FT in Fig. 4—12, from a
gnomonic to a Mercator chart, which is the normal navigational chart, is
effected by noting the latitude and longitude of convenient points A, B, C . . . on
the line FT, marking these points on the Mercator chart, and joining them by a
smooth curve.
 When F and T lie on opposite sides of the equator, F being north and T south,
the same chart can be used because a gnomonic chart of both hemispheres
when the tangent point is on the equator must be symmetrical about the
equator. The following geometrical construction therefore suffices:
1. Mark the position of T as if it were in the northern hemisphere.
2. Join F to K, the point on the equator which has T's longitude.
3. Join T to //, the point on the equator which has .F's longitude.
4. Drop a perpendicular RQ on the equator from R, the point where FK cuts
TH.
5. Draw FQ and QT. Then FQ is the great-circle track in the northern
hemisphere, and QT is the reflection of its continuation south of the
equator. Points on QT may therefore be treated as if they were in the
southern hemisphere.

In Fig. 4-13, FT is the great-circle track between the points 40°S, 90°W, and
35°S, 150°W. As it appears on the gnomonic chart, it tells the navigator little
about the course he must steer in order to follow it because angles, other than
bearings from the tangent point, are distorted. The track must therefore be
transferred to a Mercator chart, a transference that is easily made by noting the
latitudes of the points where the great-circle track cuts the meridians. The
result is the smooth curve FT'in Fig. 4—14. The dotted line FT shows the rhumb
line.
Fig. 4—15 shows three tracks -- rhumb-line, great-circle and composite —
between two places, for comparison, all on a Mercator chart.
Practical use of gnomonic charts
The distortion of the gnomonic graticule, which is a perspective distortion that
gives neither the orthormorphic nor the equal area property, makes the
graticule quite unsuitable for civil purposes. Its purpose is limited entirely to
the use that can be made of the fact that, on it, great circles are represented by
straight lines.

GRIDS
A grid is a reference system of rectangular (Cartesian) co-ordinates obtained
when a projection is applied to a particular part, or the whole, of the world. It
will have all the properties of a projection and may have some special ones
peculiar to itself. Several grids, all different, may be based on the same
projection.
Fig. 4—16 shows a grid on which has been superimposed a geographical
graticule. It is simply a large piece of graph paper, specially constructed, and
graduated in suitable units north, south, east and west from the point of origin.
 The intersections of the meridians and parallels are converted into quantities
known as grid eastings and northings. Eastings refer to the linear distance
eastwards from the north—south grid line which passes through the origin.
Northings refer to the linear distance northward from the east-west grid line
which passes through the origin. Distances west and south of the point of origin
are given negative values of eastings and northings respectively.
The northings and eastings are then plotted as individual points on the grid
and the points joined by smooth curves to form the geographical graticule. To
make this conversion simple, a set of tables will have been constructed,
depending on the projection in use.
At the point of origin of the grid, in this case (0,0) or 50°N, 20°W, the scale
factor of any projection in all directions is such that there is no distortion at this
point. Distortion elsewhere on the grid will depend upon the type of projection
in use.
The point of origin does not necessarily have to be numbered (0,0). For
example, the point of origin of the Ordnance Survey National Grid of Great
Britain is 49°N, 2°W (Fig. 4—17). To ensure that all positions in Great Britain
are covered by positive co-ordinates (i.e. above and to the right of the point of
origin) this position is given a false easting of+400 000 metres. It is also given a
false northing of —100 000 metres to ensure that all points on the mainland of
Scotland will have northings less than 1 000 000 metres. This then produces a
false origin 100 kilometres north and 400 kilometres west of the true origin. It is
from this false origin that all positions on the National Grid are referenced.
Grid convergence
All the north-south grid lines do not point due north, as may be seen from Fig. 4-
18, and this has a significance for navigation when using grids (see page 81). At
any point, the angle between the meridian, as represented on the plane of the
projection and grid in use, and the grid north line is known as the grid
convergence C.* It will vary from place to place, depending on the projection, and
can be as much as 180° on certain projections (e.g. polar stereographic). On the
Mercator projection, on which most small-scale charts are constructed, the
convergence is zero everywhere but grid convergence still exists if the grid is a
different projection.
In Fig. 4-18 that part of the grid in Fig. 4—16 containing the points A and B is
shown enlarged. AP/ and BP are the meridians through A and B respectively. It
will be noticed that they are both curved. AN/ and BN both define the direction
of grid north.
C, the convergence at B = angle PEN
C/, the convergence at A = angle P/AN'/

* The quantity used by mariners to correct a great-circle bearing (or true azimuth) to a
Mercatorial or grid bearing which is a straight line on the chart is usually referred to as
half-corniergency and must not be confused with grid convergence. The correction for half-
convergency is described in Volume I I I of this revised edition.
Grids constructed on the transverse Mercator projection
There are many grids constructed on the transverse Mercator projection, such
as the National Grid of Great Britain (Fig. 4—17), the Universal Transverse
Mercator Grid and the Jamaica Grid. Scale on the central meridian of this
projection is correct over the entire distance from the North to the South Pole
so that it is suitable for world-wide cover using several zones of similar limited
longitude extent, and as such is used for US military surveys.
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) Grid
If, in Fig. 4-11, 0 is made to coincide with S, the figure represents the UTM
Grid. P is then a point north and east of the point of origin; by inverting the
diagram, overturning it, or both, the figure can be made to represent the
situation in either hemisphere or on either side of the central meridian.
The UTM Grid covers the whole world from latitude 84°N to 80°S, in zones of
longitude 6° wide. These zones are numbered from 1, which covers 180°W to
174°W in an easterly direction, to 60, which covers 174°E to 180°E. Each zone is
therefore about 360 miles wide at the equator, 180 miles wide in latitude 60°,
and 62 miles wide in latitude 80°. The central meridian of each zone bisects it.
Latitude and longitude may be converted into grid terms and vice versa,
using the appropriate formulae and a suitable programmed calculator or mini-
computer (see Appendix 4).

Transferring grid positions

Sometimes it will be found necessary to transfer a grid (e.g. for bombardment
purposes) from a map to a chart. There is a theoretical difficulty in doing this,
because the chart and map projections will almost certainly be different. Thus,
the lines of the grid may not be parallel to the parallels of latitude nor to the
meridians of longitude, and may indeed be curved (see Fig. 4—16). Also, the
degree of distortion from the central meridian or standard parallel may not be
the same for both projections. Moreover, there may be a difference in the
geodetic datums (see Chapter 3) used for chart and grid.
On a small-scale chart drawn on the Mercator projection, a grid transferred
from any of the topographical map projections would be formed by curved lines
but, in practice, when a larger scale chart (such as the standard coastal chart) is
used and the area covered small, the grid may be drawn with straight lines
without appreciable loss of accuracy. If, however, the whole of the coastal chart
is gridded up, grid positions on the eastern and western edges being joined
together by a straight line, appreciable errors can occur. These can be as much
as 200 yards in the centre of a 1:75,000 chart and 800 yards in the centre of a
1:150,000 chart. Grid positions of suitable intermediate points across the chart
must be identified and the curved east-west grid lines drawn accordingly.
Ideally, the transfer of the grid position to the chart and vice versa should be
carried out using the appropriate mathematical formulae on a computer,
provided the appropriate programs are available and the computer itself is
suitable. If such facilities are not available, grid positions may be transferred
using rough graphical methods as described below.
A gridded map usually gives the geographical positions of the corners of the
map and, if these are plotted on the chart, the grid may be inserted according to
scale. This assumes, however, that the determinations of latitude and
longitude for map and chart are in agreement. If they are not and this can be
seen by inspection, an adjustment must be made before the grid is transferred.
On a small-scale Mercator chart, where rapid change of scale occurs away from
the equator, the transferred grid will appear as a series of trapeziums of curved
sides, but on a larger scale coastal chart, where the scale over the small area to
be covered is approximately the same in all directions, the transferred grid will
be in the form of squares, (Fig. 4-19).
 Another method, and probably the most satisfactory graphical method for all practical purposes, is
to identify at least two and preferably four (one towards each corner of the area to be gridded) marks
common to both chart and map. From these the grid may be constructed taking into account:
1. The difference between true and grid north.
2. The scales of the chart and map.
When the geographical positions of the corners of a gridded map are not given, the geographical
position of the origin is normally shown, and from this the grid corners of the map may be
calculated.
A map may sometimes have to be used as a chart, as happened for example during the Korean
War. Maps, however, do not usually show enough navigational information and may have
insufficient sea area.
Provided that the map is orthomorphic, it may be used with the following modifications:
1. A compass rose is cut from a chart and pasted on the map. More than one
rose may be needed, as the grid convergence (see page 79) may be different
on different parts of the map.
2. Distance scales, which must take account of any change in scale away from
the central meridian or standard parallel over the area to be used, should be
pasted in a convenient position.
3. The sea may have to be extended to seaward with blank chart paper pasted
along the edge and navigational information, marks, soundings, etc.
transferred.
The most likely projections used for the map are the Lambert conical orthomorphic (see page 56)
or some form of the transverse Mercator (see page 57). The former is steadily being superseded by
the latter. In both cases the map is orthomorphic. The other projection still used for topographical
maps is the polyconic (see page 60) and the mariner may come across this from time to time. Although
not orthomorphic, provided the map is of a reasonably large scale (i.e. similar to that for the
standard coastal chart or larger), the mariner may treat it as such for all practical purposes without
any measurable loss of accuracy.
 CHAPTER 5 Contents

The Sailings (2)

The sailings were introduced in Chapter 2, which dealt with the parallel, plane, mean
and corrected mean latitude, traverse and great-circle sailings. This chapter now
deals with the somewhat more complex sailings, which are as
follows:
1. Mercator sailing on the sphere.
2. The vertex and the composite track in spherical great-circle sailing.
3. Spheroidal rhumb-line sailing.
4. Spheroidal great-circle sailing.

MERCATOR SAILING ON THE SPHERE

This was introduced in Chapter 2 (page 33). It uses meridional parts, which
were described in Chapter 4 (page 64). Meridional parts for the sphere are
given by formula (4.1), being the latitude:

To find the course and distance from the meridional parts

Where any point does not lie on the equator, its latitude has its meridional
parts. The number of meridional parts in the length of a meridian on a
Mercator chart between the parallels of latitude through two points F and T
(Fig. 5-1} wilj therefore be;
1. F and T on the same side of the equator (Fig. 5-1 (a))
mer. parts T minus mer. parts F . . . 5,1
2. F and T on opposite sides of the equator (Fig. 5-1 (b))
mer. parts T plus mer. parts F . . . 5.2

This length MT is always called the difference of meridional parts and written
DMP.
From the triangle FTM in Fig. 5-1, it is apparent that:
The angle thus obtained is exact, irrespective of the length of FT. That length,
as in plane sailing, is obtained from formula (2.3), slightly modified:

Formula (5.4) is quite satisfactory in use for courses approaching 90°, when
using a calculator which will register the course to at least 6 decimal places.
There is, however, a fundamental weakness in this formula at course angles
between 60° and 90° because, as mentioned in Chapter 2, small errors in the
course introduce increasingly large errors in the distance. When using tables in
these circumstances it is preferable to use the formula:

Fig. 5—2 shows the relation between the two methods of finding the course. In
the meridional parts method the d.lat is stretched into DMP and the d.long
remains unchanged; in the departure method, the d.lat remains unchanged
and the d.long is compressed into departure. Hence:

The use of the departure formula, however, involves finding a corrected

mean latitudet (page 28) if an error in the course is to be avoided. For this
reason, the DMP formula is preferred.
EXAMPLE
What is the rhumb-line course and distance by Menator sailing from F(45°N, 140°E) to
T(65°N, 110°W) (the positions given in the example in Chapter 2, page 39)?
 Using the alternative formula (5.5), the distance is also 3876'. 09.
The rhumb-line distance may also be found from formula (2.7) using the
corrected mean latitude (56°. 052499 in this example) but this is always bound
to give the same result as using meridional parts directly, as the formula:

THE VERTEX AND THE COMPOSITE TRACK IN

SPHERICAL GREAT-CIRCLE SAILING
The vertex and the composite track were introduced in Chapter 2 (page 36).
The calculations of the vertex and the composite track are given below.
To find the position of the vertex of a great circle
If a series of parallels is drawn, it is clear that one parallel will touch the great
circle FT at a point V, the vertex of the great circle, and it is the point on the great
circle nearest the pole in the appropriate hemisphere (Fig. 5-3). (See also page
36.)
Since the great circle and the parallel touch at Fand the meridian PVcuts the
parallel at right angles, it also cuts the great circle at right angles, and the
spherical triangles PFV and PTV are right-angled at V.
 The longitude of the vertex can be found at once from the formula:

The latitude may be found from:

Otherwise, if the initial course has been found, the position of V can be
obtained from Napier's rules (Appendix 2, page 603). Thus:

EXAMPLE
Find the position of the vertex in the example given on page 39, F (45°N, 140°E) to T (65°N,
110°W), using the information from the cosine method (page 39).

Note: The vertex may not be situated between F and T. There is only one
great-circle between F and T, and the point at which it most nearly approaches
the pole may be beyond For T. For example, if the final course angle is less than
90° the vertex lies beyond T.

To plot a great-circle track on a Mercator chart

The simplest method of plotting a great-circle track on a Mercator chart is that
by which points are transferred from a gnomonic chart (see Chapter 4) but, if a
gnomonic chart is not available, the track can be plotted with reference to the
vertex.
Consider the position of any point G on the great circle joining F and T, G
being fixed by its difference of longitude from V (Fig. 5-4, page 90).
Having found the position of V (formulae 5.10, 5.11), intermediate positions
are obtained from the following formula, where G is any position on the great
circle:

A table of latitudes may now be prepared using suitable intervals of

longitude.
EXAMPLE
Find the latitudes where the great-circle track in the example given on page 89 cuts the
meridians of 150°E, 160°E, 170°E, 180°, 170°W, 160°W, 150°W, 140°W, 130°W, 120°W.
(F (45°N, 140°E), T (65°N, 110°W).)

Using formula (5.13), Table 5-1 may be prepared.

Table 5-1
LONGITUDE

LONG 150°E 160°E 170°E 180° 170°W

VG (D.LONG) 59°. 298 49°.298 39°.298 29°.298 19°.298
LAT G 55°18'.l 61°32'.3 65°26'.9 67°56'.l 69°28'.0
LONG 160°W 150°W 140°W 130°W 120°W
VG (D.LONG) 9°. 298 0°.702 10°. 702 20°. 702 30°. 702
LAT G 70°17'.5 70°31'.8 70°12'.8 69°17'.9 67°39'.0

The latitudes and longitudes of G may now be plotted on the Mercator chart
and joined by means of a series of rhumb lines, which the navigator may now
steer.
Alternatively, the following formula may be used to find where a track cuts
intermediate meridians. This method avoids the need to find the position of the
vertex.
 If, however, a number of intersections are required, it is simpler to find the
vertex first, then apply (5.12) or (5.13).
There is no simple formula for finding where a track cuts parallels of latitude
without knowing the position of the vertex.
Calculating the composite track
The reasons for adopting composite sailing were described in Chapter 2.

In Fig. 5-5 LABM is the limiting parallel; the great circle joining F and 1 is
FLVMT. The composite track is FAST, in which FA and BTare great-circle arcs
touching the parallel at A and B, and AB is part of the limiting parallel itself.
The positions of A and B are quickly found because the course angles at A
and B are right angles. Also, along AB the ship is steering a course of 090°/270°
and, if the latitude of this limiting parallel is

The formulae to be used are those for the spherical right-angled triangle:

Formula (5.15) gives the length of the great-circle arc FA and formula (5.16)
the d.long between F and A by which the position of A may be found. BT may
also be found in a similar manner.
EXAMPLE
Find the distance in the example on page 89, when a limiting latitude of 67°N is applied.
(F (45°N, 140°E), T (65°N, 110°W).)
 The course from F to A and B to T may be found by the usual methods
described earlier.

SPHEROIDAL RHUMB-LINE SAILING

The formulae for plane sailing, corrected mean latitude (Chapter 2) and
Mercator sailing (Chapter 5) are accurate for the sphere. If these formulae are
used for the spheroid without suitable adjustment, the rhumb-line solution will
be inaccurate to some extent, dependent on course, distance and latitude. In
the days before computers and accurate navigational aids such as SATNAV, these
small inaccuracies (less than about 0.5% at worst) were swept up in those larger
errors incidental to the practice of navigation and thus did not matter to the
practical navigator. Nowdays, however, they have to be considered.
Various efforts have been made from time to time to resolve this problem.
Meridional parts have been used for the spheroid instead of the sphere, but this
method is still inaccurate if the eccentricity of the Earth is not also allowed for
in formula (5.4), distance = d.lat sec course. Other methods use the corrected
 mean (middle) latitude derived from meridional parts for the spheroid, but
some of these mid.lat correction tables are wrong, erroneous in principle and
only valid for small latitude differences.
Provided that the meridional parts and the length of the meridional arc
between the latitudes of the two places concerned, e.g. EM in Fig. 5—7, are
computed for the spheroid, an accurate rhumb-line course and distance on any
spheroid may be determined.
To find the rhumb-line course and distance
The length of the meridional arc
The length € of the meridional arc EM may be found from the formula:

where is the geodetic latitude of the place and p the radius of curvature in the
meridian. The value of p is given in formula (3.8) in Chapter 3 (page 44) and
thus the precise formula to be integrated becomes:

may be determined for any spheroid of known major semi-axis a and

eccentricity e (see Chapter 3), and expressed, dependent on what unit is used for
a, in metres, international nautical miles, etc. Such a formula is expanded in
the form:

where is measured in radians and:

A computer is ideal for this calculation; a program may be devised to carry

out the computation to as many terms as the user wishes.
Meridional parts for the spheroid
Meridional parts for the spheroid are tabulated in the following publications:
Table of Meridional Parts based on the International (1924) Spheroid (NP 239),
published by the Hydrographer.
 Norie's Nautical Tables (NP 320), based on the Clarke (1880) Spheroid.
Burton's Nautical Tables, also based on the Clarke (1880) Spheroid.
Meridional parts m may be evaluated for any spheroid from the formula:

Once again a computer is ideal for this calculation.

Calculation of the rhumb-line course and distance

The rhumb-line course and distance may now be calculated as follows:

EXAMPLE
What is the, rhumb-line course and distance from F (40 °43'N, 74 °00' W) to T (55 °45'S,
37°37'E) on the International (1924) Spheroid?

Such a calculation may also be determined reasonably quickly and to a high

degree of accuracy using an ordinary pocket calculator and disregarding terms
of*6 (10~7 X 3.1) and higher powers.
* If the DMP for the spheroid were to be used with d.lat only, the rhumb-line distance would be
8188'.49 measured in units of minutes of latitude.
 SPHEROIDAL GREAT-CIRCLE SAILING*
There are a variety of solutions for computing the shortest distance (the
geodesic) and course on the spheroid. Some of these use the geodetic and some
the parametric latitude, terms described in Chapter 3. Some of the formulae
required are much too complex for general use.
One of the most suitable formulae is the Andoyer-Lambert method using
parametric latitude; this is described below. This method has been adopted by
the US Naval Oceanographic Office for navigational applications and is also
used in the Royal Navy's automated plotting system. The method has a
maximum error of 1 metre at 500 miles and 7 metres at 6000 miles, the azimuth
(bearing) being correct to within 1 second of arc.
In this method distance and bearing are pre-computed on a sphere of radius
equal to the semi-major axis of the spheroid on which the positions are located
(see Fig. 3-4 on page 44), Corrections are then made to obtain the correspond-
ing spheroidal values.
Calculation of the initial course and distance
In this calculation latitude N, longitude E, and d.long E are given a positive ( + )
value, while latitude S, longitude W, and d.long W are given a negative ( —)
value.
The latitudes are reduced to parametric form to compensate for the
flattening of the Earth using formula (3.7):

and converted into radians.

The spheroidal corrections M, N, U, V are now calculated as follows:

* Strictly speaking, the title should be spheroidal geodesic sailing but the term 'great-circle' has
been used in preference as it is more familiar.
 where a is the equatorial radius measured in international nautical miles and
the flattening coefficient for the spheroid in use (see Chapter 3).

EXAMPLE

What is the geodesic course and distance from F (40°43'N, 74°00'W) to T (55°45'S,
37°37'E) on the International (1924) Spheroid?
 A comparison of distances
Table 5-2 gives a comparison of distances when evaluated by different
methods, using the positions in the example on page 95, also when T is in the
Northern Hemisphere.
Table 5-2. Comparison of distances
POSITION SPHERE INTERNATIONAL (1924) SPHEROID
(WGS 72 IN BRACKETS)
F40°43'N MERIDIONAL RHUMB-LINE GREAT-CIRCLE MERIDIONAL COMPUTED COMPUTED
74°00'W PARTS DISTANCE DISTANCE PARTS RHUMB-LINE GREAT-CIRCLE
DISTANCE DISTANCE

2679.12 2644.031
(2644.094)
55°45'S -4047.17 8167'.67 8048'. 08 -4028.034 (- 8166.09 8046.03
37°37'E 4028.114) (8165.83) (8045.78)
7-55°45'N 4047.17 4506'. 74 4052'. 35 4028.034 4522.75 4066.54
37°37'E (4028.114) (4522.54) (4066.35)

Note: Distances on the spheroid are in international nautical miles.

Distances on the sphere are in units of minutes of latitude.
CHAPTER 7 Contents

Publications
CHAPTER 8 Contents

Chartwork
 CHAPTER 9 Contents

Fixing the Ship

CHAPTER 10 Contents

Visual and Audible Aids

to Navigation
 CHAPTER 11 Contents

Tides and Tidal Streams

CHAPTER 12 Contents

Coastal Navigation
CHAPTER 13 Contents

Pilotage
CHAPTER 14 Contents

Anchoring and Mooring

CHAPTER 15 Contents

Radar, Blind Pilotage

CHAPTER 16 Contents

Navigational Errors
CHAPTER 17 Contents

Relative Velocity and Collision

Avoidance
 CHAPTER 18 Contents

Surveying
 CHAPTER 19 Contents

Bridge Organisation and

Procedures
APPENDIX 4 Contents

Projections
 APPENDIX 5 Contents

The Spheroidal Earth

APPENDIX 6 Contents

Vertical and Horizontal Sextant

Angles
APPENDIX 7 Contents

Errors in Terrestrial Position Lines