Chapter 8

The Flight Environment

Airports (2)
Chapter 4 (B,C), Jeppesen Sanderson
Chapters 15, Kroes and Rardon

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Flight Environment – Airport (2)
Airport Visual Aids
Runway markings
– Runways with precision approaches and with
– non-precision approaches
– Displaced threshold
– Blast pad / stopway
– NOTAM
Taxiway markings
– Taxiway marks
– Ramp area hand signals
Airport Signs & Lightings
 Airport 2 (Continued)
Airport Visual Aids
Airport Signs
Airport Lighting
Airport Beacon
Visual glideslope indicators
Runway edge lights
Taxiway lighting
Obstruction lighting
Aeronautical Charts

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Hong Kong International Airport (HKIA)
 Runway Markings (1)
Runway markings vary between runways
used only for VFR and those that can be
used both for VFR and IFR.
A runway used for VFR alone usually is
marked with only the runway number and
the dashed white centerline.
A runway that can be used for IFR has
markings that allow pilots to navigate to the
runway using only the flight instruments
 Runway Markings (2) –
Precision & Non-precision Approaches
Runways for IFR can have two types of
approach guidance - those using electronic
glide slope to guide landing are said to use
precision approaches.
IFR runways that do not have electronic
glide slope are said to use non-precision
approaches. IFR runways with non-precision
approaches also have somewhat different
runway markings from those for precision
approaches.
 Runway Markings (3) –
Precision & Non-precision Approaches
A runway using non-precision instrument
approach has a threshold and might also
include an aiming point markings.
In addition to the threshold and aiming point
markings, precision approach runways also
include touchdown zone markings.
(Fig 4-17)
Visual, Non-precision, & Precision runways (4-17)
 Runway marking - HKIA
RWY edge line
Runway Stop
Bar at each exit
RWY centreline

Landing strip
Aiming Point Marking
Touchdown
Zone Markings RWY threshold
RWY Direction
code
Runway Markings (4) – Displaced Threshold

Sometimes a runway might be obstructed by

buildings or other objects near the end.
In such case the initial part cannot be used
for landing and the threshold is displaced
forward and a solid white line is added as
the beginning of the threshold. Landing has
to be done starting on or beyond the
threshold.
The initial part is marked with white arrows.
It cannot be used for landing but can be
used for taxiing, takeoff, and as landing
rollout if the aircraft landed from the
opposite end of the runway. (Fig 4-18)
Displaced Threshold (4-18)
Runway Markings (4) – Blast Pad / stopway
A blast pad / stopway looks similar to the
initial part preceding a displaced
threshold, except that the markings are
yellow inverted-V’s instead of white
arrows.
However it cannot be used for takeoff or
even for taxiing.
The area can only be used for
decelerating after an aborted takeoff or
an abnormal landing from the other side.
In this area jet blast dissipation will not
affect others. (Fig 4-19)
Blast Pad / stopway (4-19)
 Taxiway Markings
The links between the runway and the parking
areas for airplanes are the taxiways.
A taxiway can easily be identified with its
continuous yellow centerline.
In some airports, edge marking are added to
separate the taxiway from pavements that are
not for airplane driving.
When a taxiway intersects a runway a hold line
(consists of two solid lines and two dashed
lines) is drawn to prevent airplanes from
wrongly entering the runway. (4-21)
Taxiway marking and Hold Line (4-21)
 Ramp Area
The area where airplanes park are called
the apron or ramp area.
Airport terminals and maintenance facilities
are often located near the ramp area.
Standard hand signals are used by ramp
personnel (called marshallers) for directing
pilots during airplane ground movements
and ground operations around the ramp
area (called Fix Base Operations or FBOs).
(Fig 4-23)
Standard Hand Signals by Marshallers (4-23)
 Airport Signs
The International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO), a United Nations
agency, develops standard airport signs.
There are six basic types of airport signs,
specified by their size, width and height,
color, and where the signs should be put.
Some examples of the signs used are
shown in Figs. 4-24 and 4-25.
Airport Signs (4-24)
Example of airport sign usage (4-25)
 Airport Beacon
Lights which might have different colors
and might change with time that are
specifically used to guide pilots flying to
airports in the dark are called airport
beacons. (Fig 4-27)
These beacons are most noticeable from
one to ten degrees above the horizon.
(Remember that standard landing is at 3∘)
Different types of airports use different
colors of beacons (Fig. on next slide).21
Airport Beacon (4-27)

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 Visual Glideslope Indicators (1)
Visual glideslope indicators are light
systems to let a pilot flying VFR know
his/her position in relation to the desired
glide path in landing onto the runway.
They are located on the left side of the
runway and can be used both during the
day and at night.
One typical type is the visual approach
slope indicator (VASI).
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 Visual Glideslope Indicators (2)
VASI may have either 2 bars (rows) of
lights (some uses 3 bars).
A 2-bar system has one near and one far
bar. Each bar can contain 2, 4 or 12 light
units.
If both bars show white lights, you are too
high for your landing.
If both bars show red, you are too low.
If the far bar is red and the near bar is
white you are just right. (Fig 4-28)
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2-Bar VASI (4-28)

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Visual Glideslope Indicators (4) - Tri-color VASI

Tri-color VASI uses a single light unit that

projects a three-color visual path.
If while descending you see an amber
light you are too high.
If you see a green light you are right on
the glide path.
If you see red you are too low for correct
landing. (Fig 4-29)

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Tri-color VASI (4-29)

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 Visual Glideslope Indicators (5) - PAPI
Some airports, like HKIA, use the
precision approach path indicator (PAPI)
which uses 2 or 4 lights in a single row
(instead of the two rows used in a VASI)
put on the left side of the runway.
A two light system is quite similar to a
VASI although the 2 lights are in the same
row.
In a 4-light system if all lights are white
you are too high.
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 Visual Glideslope Indicators (5) - PAPI
If there are 3 white light and one red you
are slightly high.
If there are 3 red and 1 white light your
are slightly low.
If all four lights are red you are too low.
If there are 2 white lights and 2 red ones
you are just right. (Fig 4-30)
If the pilot flies IFR with precision
approach, electronic glideslope indicator is
displayed on screen in the cockpit.
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The PAPI (4-30)

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 Runway Edge Lights (1)
Runway edge lights consists a row of white
lights on each side of the runway, plus
lights identifying the runway threshold.
At some airports the pilot can adjust the
intensity of these runway lights from the
cockpit using the radio transmitter.
Some runway edge lights incorporates
yellow “runway remaining” lights on the
last half of the runway (or the last 2000
feet of the runway, whichever is less).
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 Runway Edge Lights (2)
In some runways the threshold lights might be
replaced with a row of green lights across the
beginning of the runway.
These green lights are actually two-ways.
When viewed from the other side of the
runway (for planes taking off or landing from
the opposite direction) they are red in color,
indicating the end of the runway from that
direction.
Sometimes high intensity strobe lights are
placed on each side of the runway at the
threshold and can be used together with the
green threshold lights.
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 In-Runway Lighting (1)
Some precision approach runways have
flush-mounted (level with the ground)
lightings for the runway centerline, the
touchdown zone, and taxiway turnoff area.
The runway centerline lighting system
(RCLS) is white until the last 3000 feet.
From the last 3000 to the last 1000-foot
point, the lights are alternating between
red and white. In the last 1000 feet the
lights are all red. The pilot thus knows
about how much runway is left for used.
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 In-Runway Lighting (2)
Touchdown zone lighting (TDZL) consists
of two rows of transverse light bars on
either side of the runway centerline
starting at 100 feet from the threshold
and extends to 3000 feet (or extends over
half the length of the runway, whichever
is less).

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 Taxiway Lighting
Taxiways are lined with blue lights on
both sides to guide the pilot on the
taxiway from the runway to the ramp area.
At some airports taxiways are also
installed with green centerline lights in
addition to the blue lights on the edges.

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 Obstruction Lighting
Obstruction lighting is used both on and
off the airport, during day and night.
They are used to warn pilots of large
structures such as towers, buildings, and
sometimes even powerlines.
Bright red and high intensity white lights
are typically used, and sometimes flashing
lights are employed.
Fig 4-23 displays different runway,
taxiway, and obstruction lightings.
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Lightings for an airport with 3 runways (4-32)

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 Hong Kong
International Airport
(HKIA) Lighting

RWY Centreline
Touch Down Zone
Threshold
PAPI
RWY Edge Inner Cross Bar
Outer Cross Bar

Supplementary
approach Elevated
Approach Lights
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 NOTAM
If a runway has to be closed unexpectedly
and there is not enough time to publish
the information on standard operational
publications, a NOTAM (Notice to Airmen)
may be issued to pilots about the closure.
Also, NOTAMs can include changes in the
status of navigational aids or instrument
approach facilities, radar service
availability, or other information essential
for landing operations.
Position Identification in Flight
 Latitude and Longitude (1)
A pilot (and also a Flight Planner) has to know
the earth in detail while planning the flight or
during flying to get to the destination.
They rely on aeronautical charts (detailed maps)
for these purposes.
Between the north pole and the south pole, the
earth is divided into horizontal parallel lines
called latitudes.
The largest circle is the equator which is mid-
way between the two poles and is labeled as
0∘latitude.
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 Latitude and Longitude (2)
The parallel circular lines north from the
equator are numbered from 0∘to 90∘,
with 90∘north latitude being at the north
pole.
Similarly, the parallel latitude lines south
of the equator are also numbered from
0∘to 90∘, with 90∘south latitude being
at the south pole.

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 Latitude and Longitude (3)
Vertical imaginary lines joining the north
and the south pole are called longitudes.
The longitude that passes Greenwich,
England is labeled 0∘longitude (called the
Prime Meridian).
The hemisphere east of Greenwich is
divided into 180∘of longitude, and the
hemisphere west of Greenwich is similarly
divided into 180∘.
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 Aeronautical Chart
The lines of latitude and longitude are
printed on an aeronautical chart.
Each degree in latitude and longitude is
sub-divided into 60 parts called minutes.
Thus the earth is divided into 360x60 or
21,600 parts both on the east-west
direction and 180x60 or 10,800 parts on
the north-south direction on an
aeronautical chart. (Fig 4-34)
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Latitude and Longitude on Aeronautical Chart (4-34

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 Projections (1)
When printing the aeronautical chart the
3-dimensional earth has to be projected
into a 2-dimensional map.
In our everyday wall map, both the
latitudes and longitudes are projected as
parallel straight lines onto the map.
However in such projection the distances
are greatly distorted as a very short
distance near the poles that crosses 30∘
longitudes will appear much longer on the
map. (Fig 4-35) 46
Wall map projection (4-35)

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 Projections (2)
To minimize the distortion problem
aeronautical charts uses a different way of
projection called Lambert Conformal
Conic projection. (Fig 4-36)
Aeronautical charts for VFR often show
more details of the earth than those used
for IFR.
If you have to do a flight plan for a trip,
say, going from east to west, following a
latitude line might not be the shortest
route. 48
Conic projection for aeronautic charts (4-36)

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