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C H A P T E R
• • • •
3
Main concepts
in consumer
behaviour,
including models
of consumer
behaviour adapted
for tourism
The purpose of consumer behaviour models is to attempt to
give a simplified version of the relationship of the various
factors that influence consumer behaviour. Various models
have been developed to describe consumer behaviour with
the intention of trying to control the behaviour patterns. The
models, however, fall short of these objectives and at best
give the reader an appreciation of interactive factors that in-
fluence behaviour patterns. It is only possible to review some
of the general consumer behaviour models here. One of the
earliest models of consumer behaviour was proposed by
Andreason (1965). This model is shown in Figure 3.1.
The model recognizes the importance of information in the
consumer decision-making process. It also emphasizes the
importance of consumer attitudes although it fails to consider
attitudes in relation to repeat purchase behaviour.
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Constraints
Attitudes Income
towards product budget priorities
Direct Flows substitutes, physical capacity
Perceived complements household capacity

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Feedbacks Attitudes beliefs, norms,
towards values of
Advocate sources significant others HOLD
impersonal
sources Yes
Personalit y Other
Information Select purchase Ownership
No decisions

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Independent
impersonal Beliefs Feelings
Intrinsic sources
Search
attributes
FILTRATION
Advocate
Extrinsic personal

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attributes sources Disposition No action

Price Independent
availability personal Direct Wants
sources experience want strength

Information
storage

Main concepts in consumer behaviour

OTHER CUSTOMER DECISION-MAKERS

Figure 3.1
Andreason model of consumer behaviour
Source: adapted from Andreason (1965).
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Consumer Behaviour in Tourism

A second model, which concentrates on the buying decision for a

new product was proposed by Nicosia (1966). This model is shown in
Figure 3.2. The model concentrates on the organization’s attempts to
communicate with the consumer, and the consumers’ predisposition to
act in a certain way. These two features are referred to as Field One. The
second stage involves the consumer in a search evaluation process
which is influenced by attitudes. This stage is referred to as Field Two.
The actual purchase process is referred to as Field Three, and the post-
purchase feedback process is referred to as Field Four. This model was
criticized by commentators because it was not empirically tested
(Zaltman, Pinson and Angelman, 1973), and because many of the vari-
ables were not defined (Lunn, 1974).
The most frequently quoted of all consumer behaviour models is the
Howard–Sheth model of buyer behaviour which was developed in
1969. This model is shown in Figure 3.3. This model is important be-
cause it highlights the importance of inputs to the consumer buying
process and suggests ways in which the consumer orders these inputs
before making a final decision.
The Howard–Sheth model does have limitations, and does not ex-
plain all buyer behaviour. However, it was a comprehensive theory of

Subfield One Subfield Two

Message consumer’s
exposure attributes Attitude
Firm’s
attributes (especially
predispositions) Field Two
Search for, and
evaluation of,
Search means-end(s)
evaluation relation(s)
(pre-action
Experience field)

Motivation

Field Four Field Three

The feedback Consumption The act of
storage Decision purchase
(action)

Purchasing
behaviour

Figure 3.2
A summary description of the Nicosia model
Source: adapted from Nicosia (1966).

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Exogenous variables

Inputs Perceptual constructs Learning constructs Outputs

Purchase

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Stimulus display Intention

Significative
a. Quality
b. Price Intention
c. Distinctiveness
d. Service Overt Confidence
e. Availability search

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Attitude

Symbolic
a. Quality
b. Price Brand
c. Distinctiveness comprehension
d. Service Stimulus Attitude

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e. Availability ambiguity

Attention
Social
a. Family
b. Reference
Groups
c. Social class
Motives Choice Brand
criteria comprehension

Main concepts in consumer behaviour

Attention Perceptual Satisfaction
bias

Figure 3.3
The Howard–Sheth Model of buyer behaviour
Source: adapted from Howard and Sheth (1969).
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Consumer Behaviour in Tourism

buyer behaviour that was developed as a result of empirical research

(Horton, 1984).
More recent research on consumer behaviour has concentrated on
the exchange processes and has attempted to look at the marketer’s
perspective on the process. One example of such an approach is shown
in Figure 3.4. This model was developed by Solomon (1996). He also
suggested that consumer behaviour involves many different actors.
The purchaser and user of a product might not be the same person.
People may also act as influences on the buying processes.
Organizations can also be involved in the buying process. One exam-
ple of an organization which may make purchase decisions is the
family.
The models considered so far are useful in academic research. Foxall
and Goldsmith (1994) suggested that these models mean little in the
absence of a general understanding of how consumers act. They sug-
gest that consumer behaviour is a sequence of problem-solving stages,
as follows:

• the development and perception of a want or need

• pre-purchase planning and decision-making
• the purchase act itself
• post-purchase behaviour, which may lead to repeat buying, repeat
sales and disposition of the product after consumption.

Much of marketing activity, they suggested, concentrates on adapting

product offerings to particular circumstances of target segment needs

CONSUMER’S PERSPECTIVE MARKETER’S PERSPECTIVE

PRE-PURCHASE How does a consumer decide that he/she How are consumer attitudes toward
ISSUES needs a product? products formed and/or changed?
What are the best sources of information What cues do consumers use to infer
to learn more about alternative choices? which products are superior to others?

PURCHASE Is acquiring a product stressful or How do situational factors, such as time

ISSUES pleasant experience? What does the pressure or store displays, affect the
purchase say about the consumer? consumer’s purchase decision?

POST-PURCHASE Does the product provide pleasure or What determines whether a consumer
ISSUES perform its intended function? will be satisfied with a product and
How is the product eventually disposed whether he/she will buy it again?
of, and what are the environmental Does this person tell others about his/her
consequences of this act? experiences with the product and affect
their purchase decisions?

Figure 3.4
Some issues that arise during stages in the consumption process
Source: adapted from Solomon (1996).

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Main concepts in consumer behaviour

and wants. It is also common to stimulate an already existing want

through advertising and sales promotion, rather than creating wants.
The definitions and models which have been presented so far have
been from general marketing theory. Tourism is, by its very nature, a serv-
ice rather than a product which may have a considerable effect on con-
sumer behaviour. Services have been defined by Kotler and Armstrong
(2004) as: ‘Any activity or benefit that one party can offer to another that
is essentially intangible and does not result in the ownership of anything.
Its production may or may not be tied to a physical product’.
The intangible nature of the service offering has a considerable effect
on the consumer during the decision-making process involved with
purchase. This, coupled with the high-spend aspect of tourism, means
that tourism for the consumer is a high-risk decision-making process.
Therefore the consumer will be highly interested and involved in the
purchase decision. This was recognized by Seaton (1994):

They involve committing large sums of money to something

which cannot be seen or evaluated before purchase. The op-
portunity cost of a failed holiday is irreversible. If a holiday
goes wrong that is it for another year. Most people do not
have the additional vacation time or money to make good the
holiday that went wrong.

There is a philosophical question as to whether service marketing is

substantially different to product marketing (Horner and Swarbrooke,
1996). It is clear, however, that tourism products have many distinctive
features which mean that consumer behaviour will be fundamentally
different. To cope with these differences, academics have developed
definitions and models of consumer behaviour, specifically for
tourism. These range from the more general definitions to more de-
tailed models.
Middleton and Clark (2001) presented an adapted model of consumer
behaviour for tourism which was termed the stimulus – response model
of buyer behaviour. The model is shown in Figure 3.5 and is based on four
interactive components, with the central component identified as ‘buyer
characteristics and decision process’.
The model separates out motivators and determinants in the con-
sumer buying behaviour and also emphasises the important effects
that an organization can have on the consumer buying process by the
use of communication channels.
Other models which attempt to explain consumer buying behaviour
in tourism have been advanced. Wahab, Crampton and Rothfield
(1976) suggested a linear model of the decision-making process in
tourism. This is shown in Figure 3.6.
Mathieson and Wall (1982) suggested a linear five-stage model of
travel buying behaviour, which is shown in Figure 3.7.
Gilbert (1991) suggested a model for consumer decision-making in
tourism, which is shown in Figure 3.8. This model suggests that there
are two levels of factors which have an effect on the consumer.

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Consumer Behaviour in Tourism

Stimulus input Communication Buyer characteristics Purchase outputs

channels and decision process (response)

Communication
filters Motivation

Range of Advertising Learning Demographic

competitive Sales promotion economic and
products Brochures social position
produced and Personal selling
marketed by PR Psychographic
the tourist characteristics Product
industry Brand
Perceptions Price
Friends Needs Outlet
Family Wants
Reference Goals
Goups

Experience Attitudes

Post-purchase
and post-
consumption
feelings

Figure 3.5
A stimulus-response model of buyer behaviour
Source: adapted from Middleton and Clarke (2001).

Initial framework Conceptual alternatives Fact gathering Definition of

assumptions Design of stimulus Forecast of consequences Cost

benefits of alternatives Decision Outcome

Figure 3.6
A ‘linear model of the tourism decision-making process
Source: adapted from Wahab, Crampton and Rothfield (1976).

Felt need/ Information Travel decision Travel Travel

Travel collection (choice between preparation satisfaction
desire and evaluation alternatives) and travel outcome and
image experiences evaluation

Figure 3.7
Travel-buying behaviour
Source: adapted from Mathieson and Wall (1982).

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Main concepts in consumer behaviour

Socioeconomic Cultural
influences influences

Motivation Perception
energizers

Consumer or
decision-maker

Personality/ Learning
attitude

Reference Family
group influences influences

Figure 3.8
Consumer decision-making framework
Source: adapted from Gilbert (1991).

The first level of influences is close to the person and include psy-
chological influences such as perception and learning. The second level
of influences includes those which have been developed during the so-
cialization process and include reference groups and family influences.
All these models that have been adapted for tourism offer some in-
sights into the consumer behaviour process involved during the pur-
chase and post-purchase decision stages. The problem with the models
is that little empirical research has been conducted to test them against
actual consumer behaviour. This is an area which requires further de-
tailed research. We will return to this discussion later in the book, when
we consider models of consumer behaviour in tourism in more depth.

Conclusions
Most consumer behaviour models in tourism seem to be linear
and rather simplistic when compared to general consumer behaviour
models. Yet, as Figure 3.9 illustrates, the diverse characteristics of
tourism mean that consumer behaviour in tourism will inevitably be
very complex. The inadequacy of models of tourist behaviour is a sub-
ject we will return to in Chapter 6.

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Consumer Behaviour in Tourism

48

* Tourism product as a * Destination products

*Products can be sold exist at a number of geographical
service product
individually, e.g. airline levels:
- intangibility
seats or hotel beds local, e.g. Orlando
- inseparability
*Products can be

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- heterogeneity
- - regional, e.g. Provence
- perishability combined into composite - national, e.g. Thailand
products, e.g. package continental, e.g. Europe
holidays

Tourism Customers can have

products very high expectations

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represent an of the product, e.g. tourists
infrequent but can hope it will put *Organizations marketing the
high-value life into failing destination product do not own
* Product only bestows purchase marriages or help them or control all the elements of the
on the purchaser: find new partners product. For example, local
- temporary user rights,

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authority tourist departments do
e.g. right to use hotel
for a week TOURISM not usually own hotels or restaurants
- shared user rights,
e.g. have to share the hotel
with other people
*The identical product is sold
The use of simultaneously:
Distinction between sophisticated - directly to customers
consumers and customers, brand loyalty - via agents
e.g. in business tourism, schemes to retain * Price does not always reflect quality or the
where companies pay the customers in cost of production:
competitive - some elements of the tourism product are External influences have a major impact on
bills and are the customers,
markets, e.g. free, e.g. beaches and some museums purchase decisions, e.g. friends, relatives,
while the business traveller
airline frequent - some products are priced below their true industry, literature and the media
uses the service and is the
consumer flyer programme value because of subsidies, e.g. some theatres
and museums

Figure 3.9
Characteristics of tourism
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Main concepts in consumer behaviour

Discussion points and essay questions

1 The purchase of a holiday does not result in the consumer owning

any physical product. Discuss the effect of this on consumer behav-
iour.
2 Evaluate the reasons for a consumer choosing to buy a composite
tourism product rather than the individual components.
3 The media can have a major influence on consumer choice in
tourism. Evaluate the ways in which a tour operator can use this fea-
ture to boost sales.

Exercise
Design a small-scale consumer panel which could be used to evaluate
the reasons for consumers choosing a particular tourism product.

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