Progress in Science LEARNER’S BOOK | PLYSON MUZUMARA | LAISON ZULU | Peto ete RUAUUL=S) ‘Scanned with CamScannerGrade Science LEARNER’S BOOK PLYSON MUZUMARA LAISON ZULU with HUGH JAMES OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS ‘Scanned with CamScannerOXFORD ‘UNIVERSITY PRESS, Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in researchy scholarship, ‘and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of ‘Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in Zambia by Oxford University Press ORBIS (Pty) Limited ‘asco Boulevard, Goodwood, NI City, PO Box 12119, Cape Town. South Africa Oxford University Press ORBIS (Pty) Ltd 2014 ‘The moral rights of the author have been asserted First published 2014 Alltights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press ORBIS (Pty) Ltd, ‘or as expressly permitted by law, by licence, or under terms agreed the appropriate reprographic rights organisation. Enquiries concerning, reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, ‘Oxford University Press ORBIS (Ply) Ltd, at the above address, ‘You must not circulate this work in any other form ‘and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer. Progress In Seience Grade 10 Learner’s Book ISBN 978 0 19 904738 3 Second impression 2015 Acknowledgements Publisher / Commissioning editor: Marie-Louise Kriel* Editor: Ellen Cameron Designer: Sandi Hall Illustrators: See acknowledgements page “Typesetter: Lizette Watkiss Printed and bound by: ABC Press, Cape Town, ‘The authors and publisher gratefully acknowledge permission to reproduce copytight material inthis book. Every effort has been made to trace copyright holders, but if any copyright infringements have been made, the publisher would be grateful for information that would enable any omissions or errors to be corrected in subsequent impressions. ‘Sce page 186 for acknowledgements Cover photograph: Andrey Armyagov/shutterstock.com ‘Scanned with CamScannerMechanics.... Introduction to chemistry The particulate nature of matter Experimental techniques... Atoms, elements, compounds and molecule...» ‘Scanned with CamScannerHow to use this book ‘Welcome to the Progress in Science series for Grades 10-12! ‘This series is based on the Senior Secondary Syllabus for Science issued by the Ministry of Education, Science, Vocational Training and Early Education. All the knowledge, skills and values expressed in the document are addressed in the Progress in Science Grade 10 Learner's Book, so that you can feel confident about your success in this subject. The book is divided into topics so that you can easily see what content will be covered in your Science class. On the first page of every topic, you will find: A box that shows you which Sub-topics and Specific Outcomes will be covered during the topic. ‘Assessment exercises-that At the end of each topic, you will find the following: help you prepare for tests and A topic exams. summary that , wate yon es Bloom's taxonol aikdy ove categories are - referred to in all key learning Revision and points from the ‘Assesement topic. t ei . Exercises. lesion ‘The taxonomy questions hat categories used it elp you to this book are: Tevise the topic’s K = Knowledge work and to C = Comprehen: check your ‘A= Application understanding. $ = Synthesis. iv ‘Scanned with CamScannerYou will see the following throughout the book: CChomistry Introduction to Chemistry Starter activity: This prepares ———— you for the topic you are about to start. New words boxes: These give you the definitions of key words or explain what a certain new word means. These words and the definitions are also in the Glossary at the back of the book. ‘—— Did you know? boxes: These give you more and new knowledge about what you are learning. Parca of moments Activity: These are tasks where you apply the knowledge and skills you have learnt in that section. Note: We use the term “activity” to refer to both written work and practical activities. Experiments: These practical activities — give step-by-step instructions for doing experiments and also indicate what the aim of the experiment is. ‘Scanned with CamScanneraN es Detailed contents Sub-topic 1 International system of unit: 2 Sub-topic 2 Length and time... 7 Sub-topic 3 Mass and weight. 15 Sub-topic 4 Density 20 Summary 28 Revision exercises 29 Assessment exercises. . peer woe 2D eens a) Sub-topic 1 Linear motion. 33 Sub-topic 2 Forces. 54 Sub-topic 3. Moment of forces. 67 Sub-topic 4 Work, energy and powe: 72 86 Sub-topic § Simple machines. Summary si Revision exercises Assessment exercises... What is physics? Physics is the study of matter and energy. It is all about understanding the world around us and the way it works. Look at the photos and think about how the hot air balloons stay up in the air, or what forces created the mountain range, or how a bolt of lightning is created. In studying physics, we become more conscious of the physical world around us. vi ‘Scanned with CamScannerPhysics: General physics o International system of | » Distinguish between basic and derived quantities. units © Identify basic units and derived urits. } © Recognize prefixes, multiples and sub-multiples of fundamental and derived units. ® Use scientific notation and significant figures in numerical problems. Length and time © Demonstrate the use of various measuring instruments to determine length. * Demonstrate the use of clocks and devices for measuring an interval of time. © Identify factors that affect the period of a simple | pendulum. | Mass and weight © Distinguish between mass and weight. | © Demonstrate how to measure mass and weight. * Demonstrate how to locate the centre of mass of an | object. | © Describe qualitatively the effect of the position of the centre of mass on the stability ofan 1 object. Determine the density of floating objects. Determine the density of a mixture of liquids. Describe what relative density is. Calculate the relative density of air. | Density Starter activity) Answer the following questions in pairs: 1. Which instrument would you use to measure the length and width of your Science book? 2, Name an instrument to measure length that would not be appropriate to. use for this task. 3. Which instrument would you use to measure the mass of a pencil accurately: a kitchen scale, a bathroom scale or a science laboratory scale? 4. Discuss why a wooden stick floats in water but a stone sinks. ‘Topic 1 Physics: General physics 1 ‘Scanned with CamScannerSUB-TOPIC 1 Units of measurement In physics experiments, we take accurate measurements to measure physical quantities such as length and time. A physical quantity is a measurable feature or property of an object such as its length. In the past, a number of different units were used to measure the same quantity. To avoid confusion, scientists now use one set of units — the SI units. Base units Scientists chose a set of base quantities that they could use to describe other quantities. By international agreement, they then defined the size of the base unit of measurement of each quantity. In the case of length, the base unit of measurement is the metre. So, wherever we are in the world, a length of one metre is the same. The seven base units of measurement International system of units Dpnecan These units are named SI units from the French “Le Systeme International d’Unités”. New words physical quantity: a measurable feature or property of an object base quantities: the set of basic physical quantities that can be used to describe other quantities base unit of measurement: the unit of measurement of a base quantity that was defined by international agreement Figure 1 A standard candle | emits about | mere jm length * one candela of |kiogram) kg | mass luminous | second s {time candela is one of } | { | the base units of | kelvin = K__ thermodynamic measurements. | | _ temperature Figure 2 An a i. ammeter |r mol amount of W micasures an | electric current ampere A electric current Th amperes }— —— ne ‘candela ed luminous intensity lao one of the a "measurement. 2 ‘Topic 1 Physics: General physics © ‘Scanned with CamScanner[Activity 10) Base units of measurement Answer the following questions on your own: 1. Refer to the table on the previous page and write down a list of the base quantities and their SI units that you have used before in your Science classes. 2, Identify some practical examples of situations where you have used the base units you listed in question 1. 3. List units for length, other than the metre, that are commonly used. How are these units related to the base unit for length? Derived units A derived unit of measurement is one which we i ot New words obtain by multiplying or dividing two or more base units. This allows us to measure quantities derived unit of measurement: that are not base quantities. For example, speed is a unit obtained by multiplying or measured in metres per second (m/s). dividing two or more base units Some quantities that are measured in derived units Peet Area ‘square metre _ oe Volume: cubic metre - _ Velocity _ metre per second _— Acceleration metre per second squared Density __ kilogram per cubic metre “Force _kilogram metre per second squared “Pressure kilogram per metre per second square | “Energy _kilégram metre squared per second squared _kg-m/s? Power: kilogram metre squared per second cubed _kg-m*%/s? Some derived units have been given names: the newton, pascal, joule and watt are named after famous scientists. When we write the name of a unit of. Measurement, we do not write it with a capital letter, However, we do write a symbol that is named after a person with a capital letter. For example, the symbol for the unit newton is N. Gaza Derived units Answer the following questions in pairs: 1. Identify whether the following are base units or derived units: a)m b) cd 9 m @) mol ©) Pa. 2. Write down the derived units for: a) area b) the newton ©) the watt d) the joule. Sub-topic 1 Inta@jgtional system of units 3 top ‘Scanned with CamScannerMultiples and sub-multiples of units Multiples and sub-multiples of units often make them easier to use. For example, a kilometre is a thousand metres and a millimetre is a thousandth of a metre. See the table below for the accepted prefixes and symbols. (esse esoenalel ets Lge G giga- 1000 000 000 mega- 1.000 000 _ - - kilo- 1000 mille | 0001 7 micro- “millionth . nano- billionth 000 000 001 pico- | 0,000 000 000 004 Scientific notation and significant figures Scientific notation It is easy to make a mistake when you write a number such as 0.000205 or 5 360 000. Scientific notation overcomes this. It expresses a number as a product of two numbers: N x 10", Nis called the coefficient. nis called the exponent. It is an itis a number that is equal integer (a positive or negative ‘to or greater than 1, but ~p ac whole number) or zero. We say smaller than 10, Nx 10!“ 10/s raised to the power of n. e.g. 3.15 x 10° = 3 150 New words © Nis called the coefficient. Its a number that is scientific notation: expresses equal to or greater than 1, but smallerthan 10. a number as a product of two * nis called the exponent. It is an integer (a numbers: N x 10" positive or negative whole number) or zero. coefficient: a constant (a number) that must be multiplied ‘We say 10 is raised to the power of 1. ‘wih another quantity exponent: the power to which For example: another quantity is raised 2000 =2x 10x 10x 10=2x 10 Here, N= 2 angi = 3 because you have to multiply N by {0 three times to get 2 000. “To find N, look for the first 0.04 =4+10+10=4x 107 non-zero digit in the number. If Here, N = 4 and n = -2 because you have to ‘there are more non-zero digits divide N by 10 two times to get 0.04. after this, they go after the decimal point in N. A Topic 1 Physics: General physics < a ‘Scanned with CamScannerInstead of counting the number of times you multiply or divide by 10 to find n, count the Reese number of places that you move the decimal point has a length of ° so that it is on the right of the first digit of N. less than one H H nanometre, or a If the original number is equal to or greater than _ billionth of a metre. : . But, a human hair is about 1, then n will be a positive number. fanaa . nanometres wide, If the original number is smaller than 1, then nwill be a negative number. (GEES example Write the following numbers in scientific notati 1. 5 360 000 2. 0.000205 Answer 1. In 5 360 000, N = 5.36 and the decimal point moves 6 places to the left. Therefore, 5 360 000 = 5.36 x 10° 2. In 0.0000205, N = 2.05 and the decimal point moves 5 places to the right. Therefore, 0.000020S = 2.05 x 10> Significant figures The number of digits in a measurement shows how precise the measurement is. We call these significant figures. significant figures: the digits in ‘A measurement of 5 mm is less precise than a 2 Measurement that indicate how precise it is Measurement of $.13 mm. The measurement of 5 mm is precise to the nearest millimetre and we can make such a measurement with an ordinary ruler. But a measurement of 5.13 mm is precise to two decimal places. This means it is precise to the nearest hundredth of a millimetre. ‘To determine the number of significant figures in a measurement, write it in scientific notation and then count the number of digits in N. ‘The more significant figures Example: 0.0032 m = 3.2 x 10?m there are, the more precise Therefore, the number of significant figures is © Measurement. two, because N contains two digits. As a rule, the number of significant figures of the answer should be the same as the ‘smallest number of significant figurés in the calculation, But, if one of the numbers in a calculation is an exact number, ignore how many digits it has. Sub-topic 1 Intemational system of units 5 ‘Scanned with CamScannerCalculations with numbers in scientific notation Addition and subtraction without a calculator Provided the numbers have the same exponent (which means that the numbers are to the same power of ten), you can add or subtract the coefficients (N) of the numbers: Examples: 2.5 x 10° + 1.3 x 10° = (2.5 + 1.3) x 10° = 3.8 x 10° 2.5 x 10?— 1.3 x 10° = (2.5 - 1.3) x 10% = 1.2 x 10% If the numbers are not to the same power of ten, change them back to ordinary numbers first and then add or subtract.s Example: 1.8 x 103 + 5.4 x 10?= 1800 + 540 = 2.340 Multiplication and division without a calculator To multiply two numbers multiply the coefficients (N) and add the exponents (n). Example: (3 x 102) x (5 x 10°) = ( x 5) x (10? x 10°) = (8 x 5) x 10% = 15 x 108 = 1.5 x 10° To divide two numbers, divide the coefficients and subtract the exponents (1). Calculations with a scientific calculator A calculator does all the work for you, but you must enter the numbers correctly. Example: Enter 3.25 x 10+ into a calculator as follows: OS) Ex) Oo @) Notice that you press th key instead of entering 10. Press the (()) key only if the exponent is negative. Scientific notation and significant Answer the following questions on your own: 1. Write the following numbers in scientific notation and state the number of significant figures in each case. jures a) 32300 b) 400 000 ©) 0.00042 4d) 0.002763 2. Convert: a) 20 cm to metres b) 0.5 m to millimetres © 2mm to metres ) 3 km to metres. 3. Carry out the following calculations, first without and then with a calculator: a) (3 x 10%) + (8 x 10°) b) (2.1 x 10) + (9.5 x 103) ©) 8.6 x 10°) - (S.7 x 10%) ) (7.4 x 10°) (6.2 x 102) e) (5 x 10°) x (6 x 10°) f) (2.2 x 10°) x (3 x 10%) 9) (7x 103) + B.S x 10) h) (7.5 x 10°) + (2.5 x 109) 4. Carry out the following calculations and give the answers to the correct number of significant figures: a) 3.14 mf’ + 21.30 mm +43.1mm_—_b) 21.3 mx 42.5 m 6 Topic 1 Physics: General physics ‘Scanned with CamScannerB-TOPIC2 Length and time Measuring length Before you make a measurement, first estimate what you think the reading should be, then use a measuring instrument to confirm your estimate and record the measured value. The table below shows some instruments that are used to measure length, and the degree to which these instruments are precise. Instruments for measuring length and their precision | micrometer screw “gauge I 7 _very short diameter of thin wire diameter of coin _medium length of pendulum metre rule mm /10. mm (1 cm) | long “length of classroom tape measure Tape measure A tape measure or measuring tape is a flexible form of a ruler. Its design allows it to be carried in a pocket or toolkit and to measure over uneven surfaces and even around corners. : x x Figure 3 A tape measure Figure 4 For accuracy, keep your eyes perpendicular to the scale to avoid the error of parallax, Metre rule ® The scale on a metre rule is divided in millimetres and so it has an accuracy of 1 mm. Use a metre rule to measure in millimetres (mm) or centimetres (cm), up to a metre. Figure 5 One end of a metre rule ‘Sub-topic 2 Length and time 7 ‘Scanned with CamScannerVernier caliper horns: inside measurement —_———__—- screw clamp New words main scale vernier caliper: an ne instrument that measures length and has a vernier stem: depth Sonia \ + emer scale_vernier scale: a sliding moveable jaw Scale that enables accurate jaws: outside measurement measurements Figure 6 A vernier caliper ‘The vernier caliper in Figure 6 can make measurements up to 150 mm (15 cm). Place an object between the jaws to measure its outside diameter. Use the horns to measure the inside diameter of an object such as a tube. Use the stem to measure depths such as the depth of a hole drilled into a piece of steel. The vernier caliper has two scales. The main scale is numbered in centimetres and the smallest subdivision is 1 mm. It also has a sliding scale called a vernier scale. Each number on the vemnier scale represents 0.1 mm and the smallest subdivision is 0.02 mm. bee) i Figure 7 Read the meagagement on the scale. How to read the measurement on a vernier caliper Step 1 Write down the reading on the main scale in Figure 7 that is just to the left of the zero on the sliding vernier scale. The reading is 24 mm. (The 2 on the scale represents 2 cm which is 20 mm.) Step 2. Find the first graduation mark on the vernier scale that lines up exactly with a mark on the main scale. It is the 0.30 mm mark. Step 3 Add the readings from steps 1 and 2: 24 mm + 0.30 mm = 24.30 mm 8 ‘Topic 1 Physics: General physics Se | ‘Scanned with CamScannerMicromeier screw gauge A micrometer screw gauge is more precise than a vernier caliper. The one in Figure 8 measures _.. up to 25 mm with an accuracy of 0.01 mm. We micrometer screw gauge: an can use it to measure the thickness of wires, instrument that measures rods, ball bearings and sheets of paper or metal. _length, has a vernier scale and Bach time you turn the thimble through a full _'S more precise than a vernier revolution, the gap between the anvil and caliper the spindle changes by 0.5 mm. As a result, anvil spindle main scale ratchet the graduations on the sleeve are 0.5 mm apart. New words How to read the measurement on a micrometer screw gauge Step 1 Place the object between the anvil and thimble the spindle. _— Step 2. Use the ratchet to turn the thimble so it vemien holds the object between the anvil and frame lock scale spindle, The mechanism of the ratchet stops the spindle from exerting too much pressure on the object. Step 3 Tighten the lock so that the thimble does not move while you take the reading. Figure 8 A micrometer screw gauge Figure 9 Read the measurement on the scale. Step 4 Write down the reading of the last line that is visible on the horizontal scale that is marked in millimetres (the upper one in Figure 9). The steading is 7 mm. Step 5 Look to the right of the line in Step 4 on the scale that is below it. These are the 0.5 mm divisions. If a line is clearly visible, add 0.5 mm. If not, add zero. The reading is 0.5 mm. Sub-topic 2 Length and time 9 ‘Scanned with CamScannerStep 6 Read the scale on the thimble where it lines up with the horizontal line on the sleeve. Fach division on the thimble represents 0.01 mm, so the reading 22x 0.01 = 0.22 mm Step 7 Add up the readings: 7 mm +0.5 mm + 0.22 mm = 7.72 mm Zero reading ‘When you use a measuring instrument you should take a zero reading. If you close the calipers with nothing between the jaws it should read zero. If it does not, note the zero reading and use it to correct the measurement of the object. Ema Measure length Perform this activity in pairs. Read the scale on each of the photographs below: 1. | iy New words zero reading: the reading on the scale when a measurement should read zero 4. Choose suitable measuring instruments and measure the: a) lengths of the walls of the classroom b) lengths and diameters of items such as steel nails, pencils and welding rods ©) thicknesses and diameters of coins and washers. 10 topic 1 Physics: General physics ‘Scanned with CamScannerMeasuring time The measurement of time began when people started counting events that repeat, like the rising and setting of the sun or from one full moon to the next. When we see how technology has changed over time, we can appreciate how difficult it was for those in ancient times to determine time accurately, and how easy it is for us today. The second (s) is the SI unit for time. In Science, FREEETE we use seconds and minutes as units of time very often. 60 seconds = 1 ~ . . 60 minutes = 1 hour Devices for measuring time 24 hours = 1 day Clocks A clock uses either a mechanical or an electronic system to measure how much time has passed. Battery-operated clocks count the vibrations of a small quartz crystagpr the vibrations of an electronic circuit. Clocks either have an analogue display with hour, minute and second hands or a digital display which shows the time as a number. Figure 10 An analogue clock and a digital clock ‘We use clocks and watches to tell the time of the day such as when the school day starts. We also use them to measure an interval of time, such as the length of a lesson. Sub-topic 2 Length andtime 11 ‘Scanned with CamScannerStopwatches and timers It is very difficult to use a clock to measure the interval of time of a 100 m race. For this purpose, a stopwatch is better. You can use your fingers to operate it while keeping your eyes on the race. It can measure time intervals to a fraction of a second. Even more accurate are electronic timers that are started by an electrical signal from the starting gun and are stopped when the first athlete crosses a light beam at the finish. Scientists use the same principles to measure time intervals in experiments, such as how long it takes for a solution to turn cloudy in a chemical reaction. Figure 11 A wind-up stop clock with an analogue display (left) and an electronic. stopwatch with a digital display (right). Cina Time Answer the following questions on your own: 1. Write the name and symbol of the SI unit for time. 2. Calculate the number of: a) minutes in a day ) seconds in an hour. Cn Measuring a time interval Carry out this activity in groups of four. Measure the time interval for an athlete to complete a $0 m sprint. Compare results and decide how to choose and use the timing devices that give the most accurate results. 12 Topic 1 Physics: General physics ‘Scanned with CamScannerA simple pendulum A simple pendulum consists of a bob or a weight hanging at the end of a string or a thin wire, When the bob is pulled to the side and let go, the gravitational force of the earth causes it to swing back and forth. Calculate the period of a pendulum It is more accurate to time how long it takes for a pendulum to make a number of swings and then calculate its period, than it is to time a New words period: the time needed to complete one cycle of motion oscillation (or cycle): a single swing. Use the equation: complete swing of a motion ! . %® frequency: the number of j» Where: complete oscillations (cycles) T = period of the pendulum Per second amplitude: the maximum t= time to complete n oscillations, and distance an object moves from n= number of oscillations tts equilibrium or rest position ‘frequency = the number of complete cycles in 1 s time to complete 1 cycle = period Figure 12 A pendulum WinceeenaG Calculate the period of a pendulum that completes 25 oscillations in 37.5 s. Answer Variables t=375s T=t 3258 “8 =15s The period of the pendulum is 1.5 s. » Sub-topic 2 Length andtime 13, ‘Scanned with CamScannerCra The period of a pendulum This experiment allows you to work with a pendulum, Factors that could affect the period of a pendulum are the mass of the bob, length of the pendulum and amplitude of the swing. Carry out this experiment in groups of four. Ea Experiment Materials You will need: { Investigate the factors that affect * a point of ! the period of oscillation of a pendulum. suspension t © string | Procedure © afew pieces of metal } 1. Construct a pendulum using * astopwatch or watch one piece of metal for the bob. 2. Use a clock or stopwatch to time 25 oscillations of the bob é and calculate the period of the pendulum. Pay attention to the number of significant figures in your answer. 3. One at a time, investigate the effect of changing Figure 13 A each factor. Measure the time for 25 oscillations pendulum set up and compare the period with the period in Step 2: for the experiment © Change the mass of the bob by adding more pieces of metal. © Change the amplitude of the oscillation by moving the bob a little further to the side before letting it go. Use the same bob as in Step 2. * Change the length of the string by making it shorter or longer. 4. Write down the results of the investigation. Discussion of results Of the above factors, the one that affects the period of the pendulum is its length. The mass of the bob has no effect and the effect of large changes of amplitude is very small. See if you agree. Gaal Measuring time Answer the following questions in pairs: 1. Explain what is meant by saying that a pendulum has a period of 1.5 s. 2. If the period of a pendulum increases when you lengthen it, what happens if you make it shorter? 3. A pendulum makes 30 oscillations in 36 seconds. Calculate: a) itsperiod —_—_b) the number of oscillations it makes in 1 min. 4, Explain why some mechanical clocks use a pendulum as a timing device. 14 Topic 1 Physics: General physics ‘Scanned with CamScanneres 3 Mass and weight | Mass and weight | | Mass Mass is the quantity of matter in an object. Whether an object is on the earth or on the moon, the amount of matter that it contains is the same and therefore, so is its mass. The symbol for mass is m. The SI unit for mass is the kilogram (kg). In physics, we also | use the gram (g), which is a thousandth of a kilogram. Weight ‘The weight of an object is the gravitational force that the earth exerts (pulls) on it. From Grades 8 and 9 Science, you know that force is either a push or a pull. All masses exert a force on each other and we call this force the gravitational force (g). If you drop something, the gravitational force of the earth causes it to fall to the ground. Figure 14 A set of mass pieces Net ds mass: the amount of matter in an object weight: the gravitational force that the earth exerts on an object gravitational force: the force of attraction that masses exert on each other Weight is measured in newtons (N), the SI unit for force. The relationship between mass and weight On earth, the gravitational force on a mass of 1 kg is 9.8 N, which we can round off to 10 N. This means that the weight of a mass of 1 kg is 10N. Large masses exert stronger gravitational forces on each other than small ones do. A 1 kg mass has a weight of 10 N and a2 kg mass, with twice the mass, has a weight of 20 N. So the relationship between weight and mass is 10 N/kg. To calculate weight, use the equation: \ ity, Where: eight measured newtons (N) m = mass measured in kilograms (kg) §= 10 Nikg Many people think weight and mass have the same meaning. If you ask someone what their weight is, they give the answer in kilograms. When we are not doing physics, we often use the word weight to mean mass. 15 Sub-topic 3 Mass and weight ‘Scanned with CamScannerCal Mass and weight Answer the following questions on your own: 1. Write definitions for mass and weight. 2. Give a reason why: a) an object’s weight on the moon is not the same as on the earth b) the mass of an object on the moon is same as on the earth. 3. Calculate the weight of a book if it has a mass of 0.6 kg. 4. On the moon, the value of g is 1.67 N/kg. Calculate the weight of the book in question 3 if it is on the moon. Measuring mass and weight Measuring weight A spring stretches the same amount for each. newton of force that you apply to it. This means that we can use a spring to measure the size of a force like weight. Figure 15 shows a spring balance that is weighing a mass piece. It has a scale that is graduated in newtons. Measuring mass ‘Mass can be measured using instruments called Figure 15 This spring balance balances. They compare mass with mass. So, measures the weight of an object. they would even give a correct measurement of New words mass on the moon where the weights of the 7 masses would be smaller, In Science class, you spring balance: an instrument may have to use either a regular balance, or a that measures force triple beam balance. balance (one meaning): an instrument that measures the How to use a balance mass of an object triple beam balance: a balance Step 1 Place the object on a tray (pan). with three beams Step 2 Place mass pieces of known mass in the other tray until they balance the object (when the lever is perfectly horizontal). Step 3. Write down the total mass: The mass of the object equals the sum of the masses of the small mass pieces. In laboratories, sensitive electronic balances are used to measure mass. 16 Topic paysies: General physics ‘Scanned with CamScannerHow to use a triple beam balance Figure 17 A triple beam balance Step 1 There are mass pieces called riders that [REN GUCGE can be moved along each beam. Before you take a measurement, make sure that | all three are moved as far left as ‘We move the riders as far left as. possible before taking a reading to ‘zero’ the triple beam possible. balance. The riders must give | | Step 2 Place the object in the middle of the zero readings so that we know tray (pan). that our measurement will not Step 3. First move the largest rider to the right, contain any errors. one notch at a time, and stop at the notch just before the beam drops below the zeto indicator on the far right. : ‘adlecioed To measure substances like | Step 4 Then move the middle-sized Tider to the chemicals, first place them ina | tight, and also stop it before the container and then on the tray. | indicator drops below zero. Do not forget to find the mass | Step 5 Do the same with the smallest rider, until of the empty container and to the mass is perfectly balanced (and the ‘Subtract it from the mass of the indicator is exactly on the zero mark). contalnet-and chemicals; | Step 6 Read the marking on each beam where each rider is, and add the readings | | together to find the mass of the object. | | [Activity 10) Measure mass and weight | Answer the following questions on your own: 1. Describe the properties of a spring that are applied in a spring balance. | 2. Identify the balances in this sub-topic that compare “mass with mass”. 3. Collect a number of small objects. Measure the weight of each object with a spting balance and its mass with a balance that compares “mass with mass”. Sub-topic 3 Mass and weight = 17 ‘Scanned with CamScannerCentre of mass If you balance a ball (or a pencil or ruler) on your fingertip, then you are supporting it below its centre of mass. If the ball or pencil drops to the ground, it means that your finger was not exactly below the centre of mass of the object. The centre of mass of an object is a point on. the object at which its entire mass seems to act. It is sometimes called the centre of gravity. Figure 18 The basketball player's finger is below the The centre of mass of a regular object, like a centre of mass of the ball, so tuler, is always at its centre. the ball is perfectly balanced. The centre of mass of an object The following experiment shows you how to find the centre of mass of an object that is not regular. Carry out this experiment in groups of four. Eien Materials } Aim You will need: Find the centre of mass of an irregular-shaped lamina © acardboard lamina | (irregularly shaped card). (flat sheet) i + aplumb line (thread | Procedure and bob) } 1, Puta cork in the clamp as shown in Figure 19(a). © astand and clamp 2. Push the pin through the cardboard lamina and * acork then into the cork. * apin . Suspend the plumb line from the pin. . Make sure that the lamina and plumb line are free to clamp move. . When the lamina and plumb line are stil, use a pencil cork to mark the position of plumb line on the lamina. . Repeat Step 5 by suspending the lamina from two or | stand three other points. © 7. Remove the lamina from the apparatus. Use a pencil a) and ruler to draw a line from each pin mark to the Figure 19(a) and (b) How _ pencil mark below it. The centre of mass is the point to set up the apparatus where the lines cross. Results 1. See if you can balance the lamina on a pencil point with its point of action placed below the centre of mass. 2. What happens when the point of action is not exactly on the centre of mass? 3. What conclusion do you draw from your experiment? 18 topic 1 Physics: General physics ‘Scanned with CamScannerStability (equilibrium) An object is in equilibrium fords when the forces that act on it neue balance. In other words, the centre of ma: point on or in an object at which object is steady when it isin _its entire mass seems to act equilibrium. There are three __ Point of action: the location where a force is marin applied types of equilibrium: equilibrium: an object is in equilibrium when the forces | © stable equilibrium that act on it balance and itis steady * unstable equilibrium stable equilibrium: an object returns to its original © neutral equilibrium position after being tilted unstable equilibrium: an object does not return to its original position after being tilted neutral equilibrium: an object stays in its new position after being moved PR ee Ct MC icon large base small base This object is in stable * The object is now in The object is in neutral equilibrium. unstable equilibrium. equilibrium. An object is in stable An object in unstable If an object is in neutral equilibrium if it returns to equilibrium does not equilibrium and is moved, its original position after return to its original it stays in the new being tilted. If you tit the position after being tilted. position. The object has object, its centre of mass _If you tilt the object, its rolled to the side. Its becomes higher. Let it go centre of mass becomes _ centre of mass remains at and it drops to its original lower. Let it go and it falls the same height above the | position. _to.alower position. | surface. [Activity 12) Centre of mass Answer the following questions in pairs: | 1, State what is meant by centre of mass. | 2: The diagram on the right shows three chairs. | Write down the letter of the one that is: a) least stable b) most stable. Give a reason for each answer. 3. A pipe stops after rolling across the floor. Name the type of equilibrium it is in. Sub-topic 3 Mass and weight 19 ‘Scanned with CamScannerSUB-TOPIC 4 Density Density ‘The steel block in Figure 20 has more mass for its size than the wooden block has. We say that its density is greater than that of the wooden block. The density of a material is its mass per unit volume. Calculate the density of a substance with the following equation: mass volume In symbols: '!, lensity (p is the Greek letter “tho”) m= mass V=volume density where: The units for density are grams per cubic centimetre (g/cm?) for mass in grams (g) and volume in cubic centimetres (cm). ‘The units are kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m?) for mass in kilograms (kg) and volume in cubic metres (m’). WoncdocmaS Calculate the density 0 volume of 10 cm’. Answer pm _ 78.78 =10 cn? = 7.87 g/cm ‘The density of iron is 7.87 g/cm’. 20 = — topic 1 Physics: General physics Figure 20 A block of wood (left) and a block of steel (right): These two blocks have the same volume but not the same mass. New word density: the mass per unit volume of a material m You can write the equation asm=pxVoras V=/, depending on which value you have to calculate. n if a block of iron has a mass of 78.7 ganda Variables ‘Scanned with CamScanner| Activity:13))| Calculate and compare densities Answer the following questions on your own: 1. Write a definition of the term, density. 2. A block of wood has a volume of 500 cm? and a mass of 400 g. a) Calculate the density of the wood. b) Compare the density of a small block of the same type of wood with the answer to question 2(a). 3. The density of copper is 8.96 g/cm? and of gold is 19.32 g/cm’. a) Which has the greater mass, 10 cm® of copper or 10 cm* of gold? Give a reason for your answer. b) Calculate the mass of a piece of copper that has a volume of 20 cm?. Measuring volume We can use mathematical formulae to calculate the volume of some solids. Example: The volume of a cube is V= 1°, where 1m! =1om® is the length of the side of the cube, eT et We can also laboratory apparatus to measure volume. The volume of a liquid If you have to measure the mass of a liquid, use a balance to measure the mass of the measuring cylinder when empty (dry). Then measure it again with the liquid in it: Mass of liquid = second mass - first mass. Figure 21 Ameasuring Figure 22 How to read cylinder the volume of a liquid in a measuring cylinder Use a graduated measuring cylinder to measure the volume of a liquid (see Figure 21). They are usually graduated in millilitres and litres. ‘The surfaces of most liquids curve up at the sides of the cylinder. For accuracy, take the reading _@ Substance at the bottom, or centre, of the meniscus and ea lia the curved surface avoid the error of parallax (see Figure 22). aus New words Sub-topic 4 Density 21 ‘Scanned with CamScannerThe volume of an irregularly shaped solid To find the volume of an object such as a stone which has an irregular shape, lower it into a liquid and measure how much liquid it displaces. There are two ways of doing this: Procedure with a measuring cylinder Measure how much water the object displaces (or takes the place of) when it is lowered into a measuring cylinder with some water in it Step 1. Pour water into the cylinder and read the volume. Tie a thin thread round the object and gently lower it into the water. Read the new volume. ‘The volume of the object is the volume of water it displaced: Volume of stone = final volume - initial volume. In Figure 23, the volume of the stone is 10 millilitres. Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Procedure with a eureka can The object is lowered into the eureka can and the displaced water runs down the spout into an empty measuring cylinder. Step 1 Fill the eureka can with water up to the spout. Step 2 Tie a thin thread round the object and gently lower it into the water. Step 3. Read the volume of water in the measuring cylinder. 22 Topic 1 Physics: General physics final volume Figure 23 How volume is determined using a measuring cylinder eureka can | measuring cylinder 40. 30: 10. Figure 24 How volume is determined using a eureka can ‘Scanned with CamScannerDensity of a floating object Use a displacement method to find the density of a floating object. The mass of a floating object If an object floats in water it is possible to determine its mass by measuring the water it displaces. It is not necessary to use a balance to do so. When an object is lowered into a liquid, the liquid exerts an upward force on the object. This force is called buoyancy. The object will float if the upward force balances the weight of the object. Figure 25 An object floats when the upward force of the liquid is the same size as the object’s weight. Archimedes was a brilliant Greek scholar who lived over 2 000 years ago, He realized that the ‘Weight of the displaced liquid is the same size as_ Figure 26 Archimedes of the upward force on the object. Syracuse, Sicily ‘This provides a method for measuring the mass of a floating object. If the weights of the floating object and the displaced liquid are the same, then their masses are also equal. If we use pure water which has a density of 1 g/cm*, the object will displace 1 cm* of water for each gram of its mass. The volume of a floating object In the experiment below, use a thin rod to push the object down until it is just covered with water. The object’s volume equals the total buoyancy: the upward force on volume of water that it displaces when it sinks. an object in a liquid New word Sub-topic 4 Density 23 ‘Scanned with CamScannerMeasure and compare densities In this experiment, you will investigate the various densities of different objects. Carry out this experiment in groups of four. Soden Materials | Aim You will need: ! Determine the densities of floating objects. * small objects that float (e.g. a cork and a small wooden { 1, Pour pure water (tap water or rain water will do) block) into a measuring flask or a eureka can. thin thread | 2. Tiea thread round the object. Lower the object water gently into the water until it floats and measure a measuring ; the volume of water it displaces. The mass of the cylinder (or a eureka object in grams is equal to the volume of water can and measuring in cm? (or ml). _ cylinder) 3. Push the object down to just cover it with water t and measure its total volume. 4. Use the mass and volume of the object to calculate its density. Procedure for each object In each case, the density of a substance that floats in pure water is less than 1 g/cm’, Compare the densities of the objects. Which one floats higher in the water? Each time another person Droplets of mist are supported by the buoyancy climbs on a boat, the boat of air. displaces more water and floats lower in the water. 24 — Topic 1 Physics: General physics ‘Scanned with CamScannerDetermine the density of a mixture of liquids Liquids that mix, such as water and alcohol, are N 4 . lew words called miscible liquids. Liquids that do not mix, on such as water and oil, are immiscible. miscible: capable of being mixed Calculate the density of a mixture of two miscible liquids by dividing the sum of the masses of the liquids by their total volume: In symbols: p = 4% = tm) Pe where: W+¥) ea +m, and m, are the masses of the two liquids, and Figure 27 immiscible liquids * V, and V, are their volumes. form layers instead of mixing. Ni NeYascere I etuny elle} Calculate the density of a mixture that contains 100 cm’ of alcohol of mass 79 g and 200 cm? of water of mass 200 g. Answer (m, +m,) p= emt my) (+, _ (79.5 +2008) ~ (100 cms + 200 cm) = 0.93 g/cm’ Variables Density 1. Calculate the density of a liquid, given the following information: © mass of empty measuring cylinder = 104.7 g © mass of cylinder and liquid = 159.3 g * volume of liquid = 42 ml. 2. A block of wood displaces 64.3 ml of water when it floats and 90.5 ml of water when it is pushed under the surface of the water. a) Write down the volume of the block. b) Write down the mass of the block if the density of water is 1 g/cm’. ©) Calculate the density of the wood. . Paraffin and linseed oil are miscible. Calculate the density of a mixture of 50 cm" paraffin of mass 40 g mixed with 150 cm? linseed oil of mass 140 g w Sub-topic4 Density 25 ‘Scanned with CamScanner