Asian Development Foundation College

GRADUATE SCHOOL
Tacloban, City
COMPREHENSIVE EXAMINATION

Subject: METHODS OF RESEARCH

Name: JENNEFREN B. PUNDAVELA – MA.ED SOCIAL STUDIES

1. One of the requirements in Graduate School is to conduct a research study to make a

contribution in the field of education. Based on your learning in research, make a brief
proposal in your field of specialization either for elementary or secondary students in your
school/district. Outline your proposal in the following order:

I. Title of the Study

The Difficulties that Tolosa NHS’s Grade 9-Nickel faced on the implementation of face-
face learning after two years

Statement of the Problem

This studies aims to determine the difficulties that Tolosa NHS’s Grade 9-Nickel
faced on the implementation of face-face learning after two years. The statement of the
problem would be the guide of the questionnaire in the survey of researchers corresponding
to its research topic.
1. What is the profile of Grade 9-Nickel
1.1 Gender
1.2 Socioeconomic status (High, Middle, and Low)
2. What are the difficulties that Tolosa NHS’s Grade 9-Nickel faced on the
implementation of face-face learning after two years?
3. What are interventions of the teacher with the difficulties faced by Grade 9- Nickel
faced on the implementation of face-face learning after two years?
Theoretical/Conceptual Framework

Behaviour Personal

Factors Factors

Social Learning
Theory

Figure 1. Environmental
Factors
 This study is anchored on the theory of social learning developed by Albert Bandura.
Social learning theory propose that learning is about interacting with environment
and making a permanent change in knowledge or behavior that improves human
performance.
According to this theory we learn from interacting with others in a social context. We
observed, assimilate, and imitate others behavior when witnessing positive or rewarding
experiences.
Social learning theory provides a helpful framework for understanding how an
individual learns via observation and modeling (Horsburgh & Ippolito, 2018). Cognitive
processes are central, as learners must make sense of and internalize what they see to
reproduce the behavior. Psychological processing is required to match cognition and
behavior between the observation and the performance (Horsburgh & Ippolito, 2018). The
theory can help teachers better understand how specific behavior has developed and how to
intervene, either to act as a role model or to encourage learners.
The researcher adapted this social learning theory as a guide on the conduct of this
study.
Conceptual Framework
Figure 2. Illustrates the conceptual framework of the study. The researchers were
able to make a diagram on how behavioral factors, environmental factors and personal
factors affect the performance of the learners.

Behavior Factors
- Self-esteem
- Poor Vocabulary
- Retention
- Time management
- Socialization

Output
-Learners
performance
Environmental Personal Factors
Factors - Socioeconomic status
- Parents parental support
- Classroom set up - Finances
- Home - Moral support
environment - Health conditions
Significance of the Study
The importance of this study may benefit the following:
To the Learners of Tolosa NHS’s Grade 9-Nickel. This study will enable them to identify
the difficulties that they are experiencing and to know how to handle same situation when it
rises.
To the Researchers. To be able to gather about the level of difficulties that learners of
Tolosa NHS’s Grade 9-Nickel and be able to provide interventions.
To the Future Researchers. The finding of the study will serve as a reference to
researchers or students who will conduct similar research.
To the Teachers. This study will be able to give them insights and ideas on what are the
difficulties mostly encountered by the students and will be able to innovate interventions.

Scope and Delimitation of the Study

The researchers focused on the difficulties that Tolosa NHS’s Grade 9-Nickel faced
on the implementation of face-face learning after two years.
This research also tackle intervention with the difficulties that they have experienced.
This research also discussed how learners cope with the difficulties they faced during
the implementation of face-to-face class.
Through this research, difficulties in the implementation to face-to-face classes will
be identify and give intervention.

Definition of Term
The terms used in study that are defined conceptually and operationally are the following:
Learners - a person who is learning a subject or skill
Teachers - a person who teaches, especially in a school
Corona Virus disease (Covid-19) - is defined as illness caused by corona virus called
severe acute respiratory syndrome corona virus (SaRs-CoV-2; formerly called 2019-nCoV),
which was first identified amid outbreak of respiratory illness cases in Wuhan City, Hubei
Province of China.
Difficulty - a thing that is hard to accomplish, deal with, or understand
Intervention - action taken to improve a situation
Face-to-face classes - is an instructional method where course content and learning
material are taught in person to a group of students.
Distance Learning - a method of studying in which lectures are broadcast or classes are
conducted by modules or over the internet,
Modular Distance Learning - the use of Modules made by teachers with different tasks
and learning activities based from the essential learning competencies

II. Review of Related Literature

This chapter provides a discussion of the varied literary sources like books, journals,
magazines, internet, unpublished thesis, and di

Foreign Literature
Face-to-face classes is not new to us. Since education started this has been the set up.
When pandemic CoVid-19 started in Wuhan China everthing shifted. By late March 2020,
as the coronavirus pandemic unfolded, primary and secondary schools closed in nearly
every country, affecting more than 1.5 billion learners, according to UNESCO. In many
places, educators quickly shifted to remote teaching with the hope of salvaging the
academic year. Since then, some countries have cautiously reopened schools with mixed
results. Others don’t plan to resume in-person classes until 2021. But lack of access to
technology and concerns about widening achievement gaps have forced a seemingly
impossible decision onto school leaders: reopen their doors and risk new outbreaks of the
virus, or continue virtual alternatives that could leave students further behind and suffering
from social isolation.
According to UNICEF, as of October 18, 8 countries and territories have completely
closed schools, 19 are partially closed, and 9 have reopened them completely. Only in one
country in the region schools are in recess. Over the last month, the number of children
affected by school closures has decreased from 86m to 74m, as a result of the start of the
new academic year in many countries and the progress made in the reopening schools.
Some countries that were in academic recess have already started the new 2021-2022
academic year, such as the Dominican Republic and St. Vincent & the Grenadines, while
others that had schools completely closed last month have partially opened them, such as
Belize, Anguilla, and Cuba. It is important to note that, although some countries have not
yet opened all their schools, most of their students are already receiving on-site classes,
such as Argentina and Chile. The cases of Colombia, Mexico, Bolivia, and Paraguay are
also noteworthy, with more than half of the students in these countries already benefiting
from face-to-face classes.
Schools have struggled with what to do if a student or teacher tests positive. Most of
the dozens of countries that reopened schools earlier in the year reported relatively low
numbers of cases of the new coronavirus disease, COVID-19, and conducted widespread
contact tracing. It remains to be seen, however, if schools can safely reopen in places
suffering widespread outbreaks and community transmission. Reopening schools is also
expensive. Health experts have called on schools to guarantee they have enough personal
protective equipment (PPE), such as masks and face shields, for students and teachers;
cleaning supplies; and other safety materials, including plastic barriers, the costs of which
can add up. Some schools have hired more teachers because of smaller class sizes, and
others have paid to improve their ventilation systems and build handwashing stations.

Local Studies
Formal education in the Philippines was brought to the Philippines by the Spaniards,
which was conducted mostly by religious orders. Upon learning the local languages and
writing systems, they began teaching Christianity, the Spanish language, and Spanish
culture.
Education in the Philippine had change from Spanish, American and to Japanese rule.
The manner of classes has always been face-to-face that’s why when pandemic Covid-19
hit the Philippine it was unimaginable. Learners and teacher was shock by the changes
needed to be done. As school embraces new learning modalities from school year 2020-
2021 and school year 2021-2022 to distance learning.
For over two years since the pandemic struck in March 2020, the Philippines was
among the few countries in the world where schools had not fully opened for in-person
classes. The return to face-to-face classes in the Philippines is long overdue, considering the
country’s education system that is largely unprepared for distance learning.
Now School Year 2022-2023, millions of students trooped back to school the first
time most of them to be attending face-to-face classes in over two years due to the
pandemic. Strictly implementation of health and safety protocols, ensuring that schools
have adequate ventilation, safe spaces, and proper water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH)
facilities had been prioritized. Strengthening the education systems and access to quality
and inclusive education - Schools should be able to address educational inequalities and be
able to support the specific needs of learners most impacted by inequality and
discrimination. There should also be referral mechanisms and contingency plans for re-
closure and reopening of classes, as well as alternative/ flexible learning options, as
necessary. Teachers should also be trained in the assessment of learners' level of learning to
inform remedial efforts and provide age-appropriate learning support.

III. Methodology
Research Design
The research design utilized by the researcher in this study is descriptive method using
questionnaires as the main tool of gathering data. The data were collected, recorded, tallied
and analyzed.

Locale of the Study

The locale of the study was in Tolosa, Leyte in Tolosa NHS Grade 9-Nickel where the
researchers distributed the survey questionnaire to the respondent.

The Respondents
The respondent of the study is the learners of Tolosa NHS Grade 9-Nickel which there
is a total of 58 learners.

Research Instruments
The research instrument to be used is a questionnaire which will consist set of
structured questions designed by the researchers to obtain data from the respondents.

Data Gathering Procedure

The researchers prepared a questionnaire for the respondents to be answered.
The researchers explained the purpose of the study to the respondents and provided the
survey questionnaire to the respondents to start the research study. The respondent were
given ample time to answer the survey questionnaire. After the respondent answered the
questionnaire, the researchers started gathering the data.
The researchers prepared their study to be presented, interpreted and analyzed by them.

Asian Development Foundation College

GRADUATE SCHOOL
Tacloban, City
COMPREHENSIVE EXAMINATION

Subject: ADVANCED PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATION

Name: JENNEFREN B. PUNDAVELA – MA.ED SOCIAL STUDIES

1. In your own understanding, discuss the philosophical foundation of education and

the Philippine Philosophical Orientation.
The Philippine Education System has undergone various modifications brought
by settlers who colonized our country. Its long years of exposure and contact with the
Spaniards, Americans, and the Japanese have created a spectrum of educational variations
and lines of emphasis (de Guzman, 2003). Remarkably, the Philippines’ education system,
both former and current, is significantly influenced by Dr. John Dewey’s philosophical
perspective.
Dewey’s influence on Philippine education started to get sharply visible when it
became independent (Papong, 2014). Student body organizations or councils were
established not only at an institutional level but as a national union. Dewey emphasized the
importance of students’ voices in the educative process. The presence and engagement of
students in learning are deemed essential.
Presently, the K-12 Basic Education Program substantiates a reform in the
country’s educational system. This program reflects Dewey’s pragmatist and cognitive
constructivist ideas. Inquiry-based learning and spiral approach are incorporated into the
present curriculum.

In a fast-pacing and ever-growing society, the educational system in the

Philippines should be kept up-to-date. Students must not only be educated on a factual or
conceptual level, but, the instruction must also tackle the social, political, and economic
aspects of the individual’s life. In this way, education is more practical and functional
(Damian, n.d.). Students will be able to associate learning to the real-world, thus, taking in
charge and being responsible for their learning.

The following are some posits under the Deweyan Principle that are utilized in the present
curriculum in the Philippines:

“The nature of the child is made the center of the educative process.”

I firmly believe, with great affirmation, that the main reason a school is established is
because of the learner more than anything else. Rousseau stresses that the child should be
respected, as he is with all his abilities and drawbacks, that in educating him, these should
be given due consideration and that all children cannot, therefore, be treated alike. Setting
aside the facilities, resources, strategies, and curriculum, the focus should be on the child.
Therefore, the students’ interests and needs should be taken into consideration. The purpose
of education will not be served if the learner does not involve themselves in the process.

“The theory of self-activity is made the center or basis of learning.”

Hands-on activities and experiences cultivate learning. It gives students first-hand

experiences and lifelong learning. Rousseau says,” Teach by doing whenever you can, and
only for fall back upon words when doing is out of the question. The child should take part
in various activities and learn naturally. It will help him in the satisfaction of creative
activity.” Heurism is demonstrated in today’s educational system, as the curriculum
integrates inquiry-based learning and vocational training. Students are allowed to do
experiments with apparatus that they made.

According to the provisions of the Constitution of the Philippines (1935), all schools shall
“aim to develop moral character, personal discipline, civic conscience, vocational efficiency
and to teach the duties of citizenship” These can all be attained through practicing
pragmatism, experimentalism, and cognitive constructivist ideas.
2. With the aid of schema, briefly discuss the following philosophical thoughts in
education and draw implications to classroom instructions and management.

A. Naturalism

Naturalism has given an impetus to new psychological methods in education.

Naturalism is a philosophical doctrine. It is opposed to idealism in its interpretation of
reality. Naturalism is concerned with “natural self” or “real self”. It contends that the
ultimate reality is matter, and not mind or spirit.

Naturalism as a philosophy of education has exercised a great influence on the

theory and practice of education. “It decries all external restraint in education and it
condemns all unnecessary formalities in education. Naturalism in education stands for
the doctrine of “follow nature” in education. It wants all education to be in strict
conformity with the nature of the child. It stands for complete freedom to be given to the
child in learning. He is to be left alone, absolutely free. Let him learn from the pages of
nature without interference from any quarter. He is to be thrown into Nature as an explorer
and discoverer. Naturalism emphasises free and spontaneous self-expression of the child.
Its watchword is “Back to Nature” as expounded by Rousseau and Gandhiji. Thus, the
whole of the child’s learning will come from his own experiences and their natural
consequences. His whole education will be according to the natural laws of human
development. Much of the Naturalistic movement finds its root in the pages of Rousseau.
He brought the child into the foreground of the educational arena and pleaded that
educational material should be the facts and phenomena of nature.

The naturalistic aims of education are reflected in its curriculum. The naturalists
strongly advocate inclusion of natural sciences — such as physics, chemistry, zoology,
botany — in the curriculum. As regards language and mathematics they opine that only
such knowledge of these subjects should be acquired as is essential for scientific studies.
They also want that the pupil should not be plunged into poetry and literature.

The naturalists not only emphasise the present but also the past and the future. They are in
favour of inclusion of history in the curriculum as it deals with the cultural heritage of the
race. History helps to understand the present in the light of the past and leads to the future.
Naturalism does not attach much importance to spiritualism or religion in the curriculum.
At the same time it does not include music and painting in the curriculum.

The naturalists differ in their opinion in respect of curriculum. Comenius wanted that all
subjects should be taught to all men. But Locke did not agree with this view, and said it is
not possible to teach all subjects to all. Hence only those subjects should be taught which
are necessary. Spencer advocates that only those subjects should be included in the
curriculum which minister to self-preservation as it is the first law of life.

He gives a very high place to science. He attaches no importance to cultural subjects. T. H.

Huxley does not agree with Spencer, for giving undue importance to science. He wants that
literary and cultural subjects be imparted to children. Rousseau pleaded negative education
for children and was not in favour of formal text-books. The naturalists, in general, contend
that the child’s present experiences, interests and activities should determine the choice of
studies.

In conclusion we can say that naturalism has secured freedom for the child and has
further succeeded in freeing the child from many a tyranny of rigidity, interference and
strict discipline. Self- expression, follow nature, auto-education, play-way, Pedocentricism,
sense-training, self- discipline and learning by doing are some of the main characteristics of
modern education.

B. Realism
The term ‘realism’, derived from the world ‘real’, finds its origin in Greek word:
‘Res ‘’ which means object. The realistic propagates that we see and experience around us
is the truth. The realists propagates the world as nature rather than supernatural. The
realistic believe that the physical universe is operated by natural laws. Aristotle (384-322
B.C.), a Greek philosopher is generally recognized as the father of realism. The purpose of
education was to prepare for complete living, the Realists believed. Education should equip
the learners with the knowledge and skills that are needed to understand and master his
physical environment so that he can live a happy and comfortable life.
The educational implications of Realism considers the child as a dynamic and
growing entity ready to face reality of life. The laws of nature control the child. The aim of
education is to prepare the child to face. Hence the realist suggest that the curriculum
should be broad based and include variety of subjects, especially science subjects. While
selecting the subjects, the learner’s background and social demand should be considered.
Realism suggests objective methods of teaching. Importance must be given to observation,
experimentation and activities. According to realism discipline is developed by controlling
environment.

C. Idealism
Idealism- it is oldest system of philosophy known to man. Its origin goes back to
ancient India in the east, and to Plato in the west. Its basic viewpoint stresses the human
spirit as the most important element in life. The human spirit is most elements in life, the
universe is essentially nonmaterial in its ultimate nature. Idealism is concerned with
supremacy of mind and self, and views man and universe in terms of spirit or mind. Matter
or objective may be the projection or creation of mind, but ultimately real is the idea behind
it. The physical world is ephemeral and can be changed through the ideas or imagination of
man. Plato, the greatest philosopher of all ages, claimed that the ultimate reality consists of
ideas. Plato and his teacher Socrates conceived ideas as the basis of their philosophy.
Socrates, an idealistic philosopher placed importance on question-answer and dialogue as
the method of acquiring information or gaining knowledge whereas Plato emphasized on
logical reasoning as the method of gaining knowledge.
Educational implications of idealism it considers student as an individuals with inner
potentials. Education should help the student to realize these potentials. Curriculum should
consist of those knowledge and experiences which help the student to attained
development. The teacher should impart essentials of knowledge and assist to develop
moral and aesthetic values in the child. As said earlier, idealism stresses more on the
spiritual development of the child.

D. Pragmatism
Pragmatism adopt a midway between idealism and naturalism. The word pragmatism
derived from Greek word “pragma” means action. Pragmatism is otherwise known as
instrumentalism or functionalism. Since emphasis was given to learning by doing and
learning by experience, it is also called experimentalism According to Ross, pragmatism is
essentially a human philosophy maintaining that man creates his own values in course of
activity, that reality is still in making and awaits its part of completion from the future. This
definition emphasis on creation through continuous activity and states that certain values
are essential for growth and development of individual.
Educational implication of pragmatism Pragmatism trend in education is known as
progressivism in education and the school based on programmatic ideas was known as
progressive school. Pragmatism considers the learner as growing biological and social
being ready to adjust to the environmental demands. The aim of education should be to
prepare the child to become an effective member of community. It should also try to
develop competencies in the child. Hence the curriculum should include those subjects and
experience which are suitable to the child’s interest and needs. The curriculum should be
develop an attitude of inquiry, facilitate artistic expression, encourage constructiveness and
sustain interest in the child. Deway advocates “learning by doing”, which encourages the
child to learn trough activities. Deway considers discipline as a function of the teaching-
learning situation. If the learning is made joyful and interesting, there is no need to use
external rewards and punishments. A pragmatic teacher helps in the ready-made forms ,
teacher should encourage the learner through active interaction with the learning situation .

E. Existentialism
The roots of existentialism can be traced as far back as the Sophists, the paid teachers
of ancient Greece specified in teaching morals. Although differences are found between
existentialism and phenomenology, the two have much in common. Phenomenology deals
with the phenomena of consciousness from the first-person point of view and studies the
experience of things as they present themselves to the observer. Existentialism, on the other
hand, examines the existence and the role the individual plays in terms of his or her
feelings, thoughts, and responsibilities. Although have in common and are compatible in
principle, hence many philosophers refer to themselves as existentialist-phenomenologist.
Sartre was identified as a prominent person of existentialism. As these philosophies have
been used in the philosophy of education, they have been so closely allied that some
advocates refer to their work as existentialist-phenomenology of education.
 In the education perspective, existentialist believes that most philosophies of the past
have asked out people to think deeply about thoughts and abstractions that had little or no
relationship to everyday life. Scholastic philosophy, in which thinkers debated such
questions as how many angels could sit on ahead of a pin. The answers to such
metaphysical question provided nothing except perhaps some psychological satisfaction at
winning a debate through argumentation. Existentialists believe that in their philosophy, the
individual is drawn in as a participant, ready to be filled with knowledge based on his ideas.
Sartre believes that “existence precedes essence” he added that if people have created ideas
and practices that are harmful, then they could also create ideas and practices that are
beneficial. Existentialist pose that an individual is always in transition, so that the moment
people believe they know themselves is probably the moment to begin the examination all
over again. They also believe that a good education emphasize individuality. It attempts to
assist each of us is seeing ourselves with our fears, frustrations, and hope.

For educators, existentialist want change in attitude about education. Instead of

seeing it as something a learner is filled with, measures against, or fitted into, they suggest
that learners first be looked as individuals and that they be allowed to take a positive role in
the shaping of their education and life. For the existentialist, no two children are alike. They
differ in background, personality traits, interests, and desires they have acquired. Also, they
wanted to see an end to the manipulation of the learners with teachers controlling learners
along predetermined behavioral path.

Existential theories are widely used in education. According to existentialists, a good

education emphasizes individuality. The first step in any education then is to understand
ourselves. Making existential methods in the classroom requires a balance in which both
teachers and learners as human beings preserve its identity. Existentialists believe that
every individual is unique and education must cater to the individual differences. Therefore,
the objective of education is to enable every individual to develop his unique qualities, to
harness his potentialities and cultivate his individualities.

In this philosophy, the role of a teacher is to initiates the act of education and
influences the lives of his learners throughout his own life. The teacher is very active and
welcomes challenges to his ideas from the learners. As Kneller quoted “ If there is anything
that the existentialist teacher can do for his learners, it is to bring them to a more critical
analysis and understanding of the meaning and purpose of existence, so that with time men
may become more than a mere repetitive creature perpetuating the bestial habits of his
similar ancestors”.

Asian Development Foundation College

GRADUATE SCHOOL
Tacloban, City
COMPREHENSIVE EXAMINATION

Subject: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS

Name: JENNEFREN B. PUNDAVELA – MA.ED SOCIAL STUDIES

The following are some of the selected statistical tools that are frequently utilized in
research and describe each statistical test with the explanation of their uses. Cite examples.

1. The Z-Test of One Sample Means

The one-sample Z test is used when we want to know whether our sample comes
from a particular population. For instance, we are doing research on data collected from
successive cohorts of students taking the Elementary Statistics class. We may want to know
if this particular sample of college students is similar to or different from college students in
general. The one-sample Z test is used only for tests of the sample mean. Thus, our
hypothesis tests whether the average of our sample (M) suggests that our students come
from a population with a know mean (m) or whether it comes from a different population.
The statistical hypotheses for one-sample Z tests take one of the following forms,
depending on whether your research hypothesis is directional or nondirectional. In the
equations below m1 refers to the population from which the study sample was drawn; m is
replaced by the actual value of the population mean. The name of the one-
sample Z test tells us the general research design of studies in which this statistic is selected
to test hypotheses. We use the one-sample Z test when we collect data on a single sample
drawn from a defined population. In this design, we have one group of subjects, collect data
on these subjects and compare our sample statistic (M) to the population parameter (m).
The population parameter tells us what to expect if our sample came from that population.
If our sample statistic is very different (beyond what we would expect from sampling error),
then our statistical test allows us to conclude that our sample came from a different
population. Again, in the one-sample Z test, we are comparing the mean (M) calculated on
a single set of scores (one sample) to a known population mean (m).
When reading the psychological literature, we can find many studies in which all of
these assumptions are violated. Random sampling is required for all statistical inference
because it is based on probability. Random samples are difficult to find, however, and
psychologists and researchers in other fields will use inferential statistics but discuss the
sampling limitations in the article. We learned in our scale of measurement tutorial that
psychologists will apply parametric statistics like the Z test on approximately interval scales
even though the tests require interval or ratio data. This is an accepted practice in
psychology and one that we use when we analyze our class data. Finally, the assumption of
normal distribution in the population is considered "robust". This means that the the statistic
has been shown to yield useful results even when the assumption is violated. The central
limit theorem tells us that even if the population distribution is unknown, we know that the
sampling distribution of the mean will be approximately normally distributed if the sample
size is large. This helps to contribute to the Z test being robust for violations of normal
distribution.

2. The t-Test Independent Sample Means

A t test is a statistical test that is used to compare the means of two groups. It is often
used in hypothesis testing to determine whether a process or treatment actually has an effect
on the population of interest, or whether two groups are different from one another.
t test exampleYou want to know whether the mean petal length of iris flowers differs
according to their species. You find two different species of irises growing in a garden and
measure 25 petals of each species. You can test the difference between these two groups
using a t test and null and alterative hypotheses.

 The null hypothesis (H0) is that the true difference between these group means is
zero.
  The alternate hypothesis (Ha) is that the true difference is different from zero.

A t test can only be used when comparing the means of two groups (a.k.a. pairwise
comparison). If you want to compare more than two groups, or if you want to do multiple
pairwise comparisons, use an ANOVA test or a post-hoc test.The t test is a parametric
test of difference, meaning that it makes the same assumptions about your data as other
parametric tests. The t test assumes your data:

1. are independent
2. are (approximately) normally distributed
3. have a similar amount of variance within each group being compared (a.k.a.
homogeneity of variance)

If your data do not fit these assumptions, you can try a nonparametric alternative to
the t test, such as the Wilcoxon Signed-Rank test for data with unequal variances.
The t test estimates the true difference between two group means using the ratio of
the difference in group means over the pooled standard error of both groups. You can
calculate it manually using a formula, or use statistical analysis software.

T test formula

The formula for the two-sample t test (a.k.a. the Student’s t-test) is shown below.

In this formula, t is the t value, x1 and x2 are the means of the two groups being
compared, s2 is the pooled standard error of the two groups, and n1 and n2 are the number of
observations in each of the groups. A larger t value shows that the difference between group
means is greater than the pooled standard error, indicating a more significant difference
between the groups. You can compare your calculated t value against the values in a critical
value chart (e.g., Student’s t table) to determine whether your t value is greater than what
would be expected by chance. If so, you can reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the
two groups are in fact different.
3. The t-Test Dependent Sample Means

The dependent samples t-test is used to compare the sample means from
two related groups. This means that the scores for both groups being compared come from
the same people. The purpose of this test is to determine if there is a change from one
measurement (group) to the other.
When reporting the results of the dependent-samples t-test, APA Style has very
specific requirements on what information should be included. Below is the key
information required for reporting the results of the. You want to replace the red text with
the appropriate values from your output.

t(degrees of freedom) = the t statistic, p = p value.

Example:
A dependent-samples t-test was run to determine if long-term recall improved with the
introduction of the Say it Again memorization technique. The results showed that the
average number of words recalled without this technique (M = 13.5, SD = 2.4)
was significantly less than the average number of words recalled with this technique (M =
16.2, SD = 2.7), (t(52) = 4.8, p < .001).

When reporting the p-value, there are two ways to approach it. One is when the
results are not significant. In that case, you want to report the p-value exactly: p = .24. The
other is when the results are significant. In this case, you can report the p-value as being
less than the level of significance: p < .05. The t statistic should be reported to two decimal
places without a 0 before the decimal point: .36 Degrees of freedom for this test are n - 1,
where "n" represents the number of pairs in the sample. n can be found in the SPSS output.

4. One-Way Analysis of Variance

The one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to determine whether there are
any statistically significant differences between the means of three or more independent
(unrelated) groups.
 The one-way ANOVA compares the means between the groups you are interested in
and determines whether any of those means are statistically significantly different from
each other. Specifically, it tests the null hypothesis:

where µ = group mean and k = number of groups. If, however, the one-way ANOVA
returns a statistically significant result, we accept the alternative hypothesis (H A), which is
that there are at least two group means that are statistically significantly different from each
other.

At this point, it is important to realize that the one-way ANOVA is an omnibus test statistic
and cannot tell you which specific groups were statistically significantly different from each
other, only that at least two groups were.

Use a one-way ANOVA when you have collected data about one categorical independent
variable and one quantitative dependent variable. The independent variable should have at
least three levels (i.e. at least three different groups or categories).

ANOVA tells you if the dependent variable changes according to the level of the
independent variable. For example:

 Your independent variable is social media use, and you assign groups
to low, medium, and high levels of social media use to find out if there is a difference
in hours of sleep per night.
 Your independent variable is brand of soda, and you collect data
on Coke, Pepsi, Sprite, and Fanta to find out if there is a difference in the price per
100ml.
 You independent variable is type of fertilizer, and you treat crop fields with
mixtures 1, 2 and 3 to find out if there is a difference in crop yield.

The null hypothesis (H0) of ANOVA is that there is no difference among group means. The
alternative hypothesis (Ha) is that at least one group differs significantly from the overall
mean of the dependent variable.

ANOVA determines whether the groups created by the levels of the independent variable
are statistically different by calculating whether the means of the treatment levels are
different from the overall mean of the dependent variable. If any of the group means is
significantly different from the overall mean, then the null hypothesis is rejected.

ANOVA uses the F test for statistical significance. This allows for comparison of multiple
means at once, because the error is calculated for the whole set of comparisons rather than
for each individual two-way comparison (which would happen with a t test).The F test
compares the variance in each group mean from the overall group variance. If the
variance within groups is smaller than the variance between groups, the F test will find a
higher F value, and therefore a higher likelihood that the difference observed is real and not
due to chance.

While you can perform an ANOVA by hand, it is difficult to do so with more than a few
observations. We will perform our analysis in the R statistical program because it is free,
powerful, and widely available. For a full walkthrough of this ANOVA example, see our
guide to performing ANOVA in R. The sample dataset from our imaginary crop yield
experiment contains data about:

 fertilizer type (type 1, 2, or 3)

 planting density (1 = low density, 2 = high density)
 planting location in the field (blocks 1, 2, 3, or 4)
 final crop yield (in bushels per acre).

This gives us enough information to run various different ANOVA tests and see which
model is the best fit for the data.

The ANOVA output provides an estimate of how much variation in the dependent variable
that can be explained by the independent variable.

 The first column lists the independent variable along with the model residuals (aka
the model error).
 The Df column displays the degrees of freedom for the independent variable
(calculated by taking the number of levels within the variable and subtracting 1), and
the degrees of freedom for the residuals (calculated by taking the total number of
observations minus 1, then subtracting the number of levels in each of the
independent variables).
  The Sum Sq column displays the sum of squares (a.k.a. the total variation) between
the group means and the overall mean explained by that variable. The sum of squares
for the fertilizer variable is 6.07, while the sum of squares of the residuals is 35.89.
 The Mean Sq column is the mean of the sum of squares, which is calculated by
dividing the sum of squares by the degrees of freedom.
 The F value column is the test statistic from the F test: the mean square of each
independent variable divided by the mean square of the residuals. The larger
the F value, the more likely it is that the variation associated with the independent
variable is real and not due to chance.
 The Pr(>F) column is the p value of the F statistic. This shows how likely it is that
the F value calculated from the test would have occurred if the null hypothesis of no
difference among group means were true.

ANOVA will tell you if there are differences among the levels of the independent
variable, but not which differences are significant.

When reporting the results of an ANOVA, include a brief description of the variables
you tested, the F value, degrees of freedom, and p values for each independent variable,
and explain what the results mean.

5. Two-Way Analysis of Variance

A two-way ANOVA is used to estimate how the mean of a quantitative

variable changes according to the levels of two categorical variables. Use a two-way
ANOVA when you want to know how two independent variables, in combination, affect a
dependent variable.

You can use a two-way ANOVA when you have collected data on a
quantitative dependent variable at multiple levels of two categorical independent variables.

A quantitative variable represents amounts or counts of things. It can be divided to find a

group mean.

Bushels per acre is a quantitative variable because it represents the amount of crop
produced. It can be divided to find the average bushels per acre.
A categorical variable represents types or categories of things. A level is an individual
category within the categorical variable.

Fertilizer types 1, 2, and 3 are levels within the categorical variable fertilizer type. Planting
densities 1 and 2 are levels within the categorical variable planting density. You should
have enough observations in your data set to be able to find the mean of the quantitative
dependent variable at each combination of levels of the independent variables. Both of your
independent variables should be categorical. If one of your independent variables is
categorical and one is quantitative, use an ANCOVA instead.

ANOVA tests for significance using the F test for statistical significance. The F test
is a groupwise comparison test, which means it compares the variance in each group mean
to the overall variance in the dependent variable.

If the variance within groups is smaller than the variance between groups, the F test will
find a higher F value, and therefore a higher likelihood that the difference observed is real
and not due to chance.

A two-way ANOVA with interaction tests three null hypotheses at the same time:

 There is no difference in group means at any level of the first independent variable.
 There is no difference in group means at any level of the second independent
variable.
 The effect of one independent variable does not depend on the effect of the other
independent variable (a.k.a. no interaction effect).

A two-way ANOVA without interaction (a.k.a. an additive two-way ANOVA) only

tests the first two of these hypotheses.

How to perform a two-way ANOVA

The dataset from our imaginary crop yield experiment includes observations of:

 Final crop yield (bushels per acre)

 Type of fertilizer used (fertilizer type 1, 2, or 3)
 Planting density (1=low density, 2=high density)
  Block in the field (1, 2, 3, 4).

The two-way ANOVA will test whether the independent variables (fertilizer type and
planting density) have an effect on the dependent variable (average crop yield). But there
are some other possible sources of variation in the data that we want to take into account.

We applied our experimental treatment in blocks, so we want to know if planting block

makes a difference to average crop yield. We also want to check if there is an interaction
effect between two independent variables – for example, it’s possible that planting density
affects the plants’ ability to take up fertilizer.

Because we have a few different possible relationships between our variables, we will
compare three models:

1. A two-way ANOVA without any interaction or blocking variable (a.k.a an additive

two-way ANOVA).
2. A two-way ANOVA with interaction but with no blocking variable.
3. A two-way ANOVA with interaction and with the blocking variable.

ANOVA will tell you which parameters are significant, but not which levels are
actually different from one another. To test this we can use a post-hoc test.

6. The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation

Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation Coefficient measures the degree of

correlation there may be between two variables. It is best used when results have already
been plotted on a scatter graph and there is an indication of a linear relationship between the
two factors. In order for Pearson’s Product Moment to be useful, both sets of data have to
be continuous and there should be no significant outliers (anomalies) in the manner in
which the data is distributed. Analysis of data using Pearson’s Product Moment gives a
numerical value (𝑟) between -1 and +1 to show the strength of any correlation.
The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (or Pearson correlation
coefficient, for short) is a measure of the strength of a linear association between two
variables and is denoted by r. Basically, a Pearson product-moment correlation attempts to
draw a line of best fit through the data of two variables, and the Pearson correlation
coefficient, r, indicates how far away all these data points are to this line of best fit (i.e.,
how well the data points fit this new model/line of best fit).

The Pearson correlation coefficient, r, can take a range of values from +1 to -1. A
value of 0 indicates that there is no association between the two variables. A value greater
than 0 indicates a positive association; that is, as the value of one variable increases, so does
the value of the other variable. A value less than 0 indicates a negative association; that is,
as the value of one variable increases, the value of the other variable decreases. The
stronger the association of the two variables, the closer the Pearson correlation
coefficient, r, will be to either +1 or -1 depending on whether the relationship is positive or
negative, respectively. Achieving a value of +1 or -1 means that all your data points are
included on the line of best fit – there are no data points that show any variation away from
this line. Values for r between +1 and -1 (for example, r = 0.8 or -0.4) indicate that there is
variation around the line of best fit. The closer the value of r to 0 the greater the variation
around the line of best fit.

The Pearson product-moment correlation does not take into consideration whether a
variable has been classified as a dependent or independent variable. It treats all variables
equally. For example, you might want to find out whether basketball performance is
correlated to a person's height. You might, therefore, plot a graph of performance against
height and calculate the Pearson correlation coefficient. Let’s say, for example, that r = .67.
That is, as height increases so does basketball performance. This makes sense. However, if
we plotted the variables the other way around and wanted to determine whether a person's
height was determined by their basketball performance (which makes no sense), we would
still get r = .67. This is because the Pearson correlation coefficient makes no account of any
theory behind why you chose the two variables to compare.

7. The Chi-Square Test

A chi-square test is a statistical test used to compare observed results with expected
results. The purpose of this test is to determine if a difference between observed data and
expected data is due to chance, or if it is due to a relationship between the variables you are
studying.
 The Chi Square statistic is commonly used for testing relationships between
categorical variables. The null hypothesis of the Chi-Square test is that no relationship
exists on the categorical variables in the population; they are independent.

The Chi-Square statistic is most commonly used to evaluate Tests of Independence

when using a crosstabulation (also known as a bivariate table). Crosstabulation presents the
distributions of two categorical variables simultaneously, with the intersections of the
categories of the variables appearing in the cells of the table. The Test of Independence
assesses whether an association exists between the two variables by comparing the
observed pattern of responses in the cells to the pattern that would be expected if the
variables were truly independent of each other. Calculating the Chi-Square statistic and
comparing it against a critical value from the Chi-Square distribution allows the researcher
to assess whether the observed cell counts are significantly different from the expected cell
counts.

8. The Chi-Square Goodness-of-fit Test

The Chi-square goodness of fit test is a statistical hypothesis test used to determine
whether a variable is likely to come from a specified distribution or not. It is often used to
evaluate whether sample data is representative of the full population.
The Chi-square goodness of fit test checks whether your sample data is likely to be
from a specific theoretical distribution. We have a set of data values, and an idea about how
the data values are distributed. The test gives us a way to decide if the data values have a
“good enough” fit to our idea, or if our idea is questionable.
For the goodness of fit test, we need one variable. We also need an idea, or
hypothesis, about how that variable is distributed. Here are a couple of examples:

 We have bags of candy with five flavors in each bag. The bags should contain an equal
number of pieces of each flavor. The idea we'd like to test is that the proportions of the five
flavors in each bag are the same.
 For a group of children’s sports teams, we want children with a lot of experience, some
experience and no experience shared evenly across the teams. Suppose we know that 20
percent of the players in the league have a lot of experience, 65 percent have some
 experience and 15 percent are new players with no experience. The idea we'd like to test is
that each team has the same proportion of children with a lot, some or no experience as the
league as a whole.
To apply the goodness of fit test to a data set we need:

 Data values that are a simple random sample from the full population.
 Categorical or nominal data. The Chi-square goodness of fit test is not appropriate for
continuous data.
 A data set that is large enough so that at least five values are expected in each of the
observed data categories.
 Asian Development Foundation College
GRADUATE SCHOOL
Tacloban, City
COMPREHENSIVE EXAMINATION

Subject: HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATION AND FILIPINO PERSONALITY

Name: JENNEFREN B. PUNDAVELA – MA.ED SOCIAL STUDIES

1. The human behavior in organization centers on the dynamic work environment,

organizational culture, communication systems, motivation and rewards, leadership and
empowerment, and individual/group behaviour.
In your own words discuss the following concepts highlighting the salient features of each
aspect:

A. Human Behaviour: Organizational Culture

Organisational behaviour is a study which involves examining and analysing the
human behaviour in an organisation. An organisation may be divided into top-
level(owners), middle level(management) and low level(employees). Organisational
behaviour studies the interaction within these levels and how the people at different levels
respond or behave in a situation.
The four aspects of organisational behaviour are people, structure, technology, and
the external environment. Understanding how these aspects interact with one another can
assist an organisation in improving its performance, and improvements can be made both
individually and collectively. While internal variables, such as the organisation's structure
and recruiting process, can be easily controlled, it may still be difficult for the organisation
to respond to external influences and changes in the economic climate.
Organisational behaviour describes how people interact with one another inside an
organisation, such as a business. Subsequently, these interactions influence the behaviour
and performance of the organisation. For businesses, organisational behaviour improves
productivity, streamlines efficiency, and sparks innovation. This tends to give firms a
competitive edge. A thorough understanding of organisational behaviour's machinery can
assist a manager in influencing a range of elements by pulling the appropriate levers.
Organisational behaviour principles can be used in various situations, such as developing
employee policies and designing the organisational structure. The study of organisational
behaviour will help managers make better judgments. It has numerous implications for the
company. The knowledge gained from studying organisational behaviour can be used by
top-level management to improve staff performance, decision-making, and even company
culture. For example, by offering the most motivating incentives and applying the most
effective means of motivation, an organisation can maximise staff performance. Employees
usually might be motivated to work harder and achieve more challenging goals if
transparent rewards are administered evenly. By changing the organisational influences on
these elements, managers can influence the level of risk-taking and innovation in employee
decision-making. In today's world, an organisation's primary goal is acquiring and retaining
outstanding personnel. Leaders must understand which Organizational Behaviour
techniques to deploy to create a desirable culture that encourages people to submit their
most exemplary ideas. As employees, we can use the Principles of Organisational
Behaviour to benefit our employers and advance through the leadership ranks.
An organisation may research to analyse the behaviour of its human resources under
various situations and use the same findings to improve the business culture of the
organisation. The Human Relations Professionals may use these findings to analyse the new
incumbents in the recruitment process. The Human Resource Professional may use a
questionnaire based on the results of the research to evaluate a candidate's skills and
personality during the hiring process. The study of organisational behaviour principles is
applied to make businesses operate more effectively. Attracting and retaining the
employees can be achieved by implementing the principles of the Study of organisational
Behaviour.
A sustainable future can be obtained through the application of the study of
Organisational Behaviour. Every organisation can frame its own recommended actions,
such as reorganising groups, modifying compensation structures, or changing performance
evaluation methods by applying the principles of the study of Organisational Behaviour.
The way people behave within an organisation, such as a business, is referred to as
organisational behaviour. As an outcome of these interactions, the organisation's behaviour
and performance are influenced. Organisational behaviour is utilised by businesses to
increase efficiency, productivity, and creativity in order to offer them a competitive
advantage.

B. Motivation and Rewards: Leadership and Empowerment

Motivated employees are the most important factor in the long-term success of any
business. Empowerment positively impacts motivation, and motivation leads to better
performance. Theses links are much more important for small businesses, where
employees are fewer and interactions with customers are typically face to face.
Empowerment and motivation are complex notions. Better understanding of them helps
small-business managers better harness their impacts on performance.

Empowerment refers to the employee's feeling of being effective, in control and

influential. Empowerment is an amalgam of four related feelings. Autonomy carries a
sense of freedom in making choices about how to work and results in the feeling that the
person is responsible for her choices. Confidence is the personal feeling of having the
ability to perform the job satisfactorily. Meaningfulness is the employee's feeling that the
duties of the job are valuable. Finally, impact is the feeling that tasks produce intended
results.

Empowerment improves employee commitment, creativity, productivity,

satisfaction and motivation. Effective motivation comes from within the individual.
Traditional rewards such as monetary compensation are not the best motivators.
Appreciation, meaningful work, a happy and flexible work environment and a feeling of
personal achievement are powerful motivators. Empowerment is a factor that enables
better performance through these mechanisms.

Strong leaders understand the mission, vision and goals of their organization. When
working in a supervisory capacity, they ensure that the individuals and teams reporting to
them are working on goals that are part of an overarching strategic plan. Effective leaders
plays a key role in the productivity of teams by ensuring that team members understand
their assignments and have the resources to achieve key performance indicators, or KPIs,
and goals within the set timeline. They work to build trust and positive relationships with
their teams and between team members. Important leadership skills include
communication, decisiveness and analytical thinking. According to the CEO Institute,
leaders today must also be resilient, emotionally intelligent and aware of trends on the
horizon. Teams respect and admire leaders who empower them and lend support without
micromanaging. In the absence of strong leadership and clear direction, teams are more
likely to experience confusion, frustration and low motivation. Consequently, teamwork
stalls out. Centralized organizations such as the military, delivery service companies and
factories perform best when lines of responsibility and authority are clear. Top-down
leadership eliminates confusion as to who is in charge and what tasks must be done.
Leadership-driven organizations ensure that individuals and teams have detailed
instructions and proper training to carry out their duties in a consistent and timely manner.

Morale is enhanced when company rules are unambiguous, expectations are understood
and promotional criteria is objective. The Indeed Career Guide suggests that small
businesses may benefit from a leadership-driven organizational structure because
decisions can be made faster when power is centralized instead of shared across the
organization.

Teams in the workplace are formed for many purposes: solving problems, inventing
new products, streamlining production and improving services, for
example. BrightHR reports that teamwork has been proven to increase productivity,
camaraderie, profitability and efficiency. Being assigned to a team confers a sense of
ownership, accountability and responsibility to colleagues and the organizations.
Teamwork is one of the best ways of harnessing the full potential of each employee.
Synergy happens when team members come together remotely or in person to brainstorm,
share differing perspectives, bounce around ideas and plan exciting new projects.
Assignments can be divided up according to each person’s interests, strengths and skill
set. Job satisfaction and company loyalty is strengthened when team members feel that
their input is valued and important to the overall success of their employer.

Building relationships with employees lets leaders uncover the intangible factors
that motivate their employees beyond just getting a pay check. According to a 2012 “Inc”
article, companies are finding that just offering tangible perks such as more money,
vacations or gym memberships is not as effective in motivating employees as creating an
overall culture that supports employees’ deeper drives.

C. Foundation of Personality, Personal Traits and the Moral and Spiritual Aspect of
Personality

The personality implies psychological and social character that an individual acquires
by hereditary biological endowment which provides him the basis for development and
social growth of environment within which he springs forth.
The term personality is used in various senses. Generally, it is used to indicate the
external outlook of an individual. In philosophy it means the internal quality. But in social
psychology the term personality indicates neither the external or outward pattern nor does it
indicate the internal quality. It means an integrated whole. The term ‘persona’ was used to
indicate the actions of an individual. In the modern world and psychology it has come to
indicate the sum total of an individual’s characteristics and qualities. Various thinkers,
social psychologists and others have defined personality in various ways. On the basis of
various definitions it can be said that personality is founded on certain structures. These are
(i), Physiological structure of the organism, (ii) Psychic structure of the organism and (iii)
Social and cultural structure. These structures contribute to the formation of personality.
Individual is born with certain physical and psychological traits or structures. The
physiological and psychological traits react to the social and cultural atmosphere.
Consequently, the personality is made up. Various structures that form the personality are
discussed below.
1. Physiological structure:

Physiological structure of an individual influences the development of personality to a large

extent. The foundation of this structure is laid in the mother’s womb. The physiological
structure is deeply influenced by certain internal as well as external agencies. Heredity as
well as social environment influence the development of the physiological structure.
Heredity contributes to intelligence and mental traits. These factors do influence the
development of personality, because they have a place in the society. Heredity imposes
several limitations and restrictions on the personality of an individual. Culture is very much
a gift of the heredity. Due to this culture, it is possible for an individual to adjust himself to
different situations. Besides biological inheritance, in social heredity there is a transmission
of personality characteristics from one generation to another through pattern of relationship.
The vehicle of transmission is not the germ plasm but a psychogenetic influence of parent
on child. Heredity may prove the raw material, out of which experience moulds the
personality.

2. Psychic Structure of the Personality:

The Psychic structure consists of (a) attitudes (b) traits, (c) sentiments (d) feelings and
emotions (e) values and ideals. The attitudes influence the psychic structure and latter on,
physiological structures. Traits are inherent as well as the acquired qualities of an
individual. Sentiments and emotions play a very vital role in the development of the
personality. Human behaviour is very much influenced by sentiments and emotions.
Emotions are short – lived while sentiments are permanent. Sentiments may be termed as
permanent emotions. Feeling is again more short-lived. It is the feeling that turns into an
emotion. Feeling and emotion play a vital role in the development of the personality of an
individual. Values and ideals also influence the development of personality to a large
extent. Almost all our behaviours are more or less guided by values and ideas.
3. Social and Cultural Structure:

Every society has a culture of its own and in the atmosphere of that socio cultural
background, the personality of individual develops in its own way. The attitudes of an
individual are largely influenced by cultural order. We find difference in the behaviour of
individuals due to sociocultural environment. That is why culture play an important role in
the development of personality. Besides the above structures, experience play in important
role in the formation of personality. Man is the child of experience. The experience are of
two types, one that the infant acquires in his group, for example family. The parents being
very intimate to the child make a deep impact of him. The child is fashioned in his home
after his parents. He picks up their patterns, manners and poise. The learning of social
norms form parents and other agents of socialisation has significant formative influence on
him. Another set of experience he goes through, is the result of his interaction with others in
the context of a social situation. Children brought up in the same family may not have
similar experience. The change of social environment in family, variation attitude of parents
towards the children, the temper of playmates, school environment create the differing
experience. The personality that one have acquired also play a part in determining the
impact of new experience.

Personality traits reflect people’s characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and

behaviours. Personality traits imply consistency and stability—someone who scores high on
a specific trait like Extraversion is expected to be sociable in different situations and over
time. Thus, trait psychology rests on the idea that people differ from one another in terms of
where they stand on a set of basic trait dimensions that persist over time and across
situations. The most widely used system of traits is called the Five-Factor Model.

This system includes five broad traits that can be remembered with the acronym
OCEAN: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism.
Each of the major traits from the Big Five can be divided into facets to give a more fine-
grained analysis of someone’s personality. In addition, some trait theorists argue that there
are other traits that cannot be completely captured by the Five-Factor Model. Critics of the
trait concept argue that people do not act consistently from one situation to the next and that
people are very influenced by situational forces. Thus, one major debate in the field
concerns the relative power of people’s traits versus the situations in which they find
themselves as predictors of their behaviour. Research that used the lexical approach showed
that many of the personality descriptors found in the dictionary do indeed overlap. In other
words, many of the words that we use to describe people are synonyms. Thus, if we want to
know what a person is like, we do not necessarily need to ask how sociable they are, how
friendly they are, and how gregarious they are. Instead, because sociable people tend to be
friendly and gregarious, we can summarize this personality dimension with a single term.
Someone who is sociable, friendly, and gregarious would typically be described as an
“Extravert.” Once we know she is an extravert, we can assume that she is sociable, friendly,
and gregarious. Statistical methods (specifically, a technique called factor analysis) helped
to determine whether a small number of dimensions underlie the diversity of words that
people like Allport and Odbert identified. The most widely accepted system to emerge from
this approach was “The Big Five” or “Five-Factor Model” (Goldberg, 1990; McCrae &
John, 1992; McCrae & Costa, 1987). The Big Five comprises five major traits shown in the
Figure 16.3 below. A way to remember these five is with the acronym OCEAN (O is
for Openness; C is for Conscientiousness; E is for Extraversion; A is for Agreeableness; N
is for Neuroticism).

Morality is synonymous to ethics, the study of what is right or wrong. The

moral aspects of personality has to do with a person's awareness of the difference between
right and wrong, while in the spiritual aspect is the person's consciousness of the
higher values in life.

The moral aspect of personality This aspect of personality has to do with the person’s
awareness of the difference between what is wrong or right. The spiritual aspects of
personality People are generally religious but they differ in what they worship and how the
worship. Physical Attributes of Personality External Attributes First impressions are
registered when people meet. The external attributes includes the following: a. Physical
health and hygiene b. Grooming c. Accessories d. Make up e. Posture f. Use of color
combination Physical health and hygiene Physical hygiene is the maintence of personal
cleanliness and sanitation of the body. a. Brain- provides the brain with good food, enough
sleep, fresh air, exercise, relaxation, and positive outlook.
Living a moral life is synonymous with spirituality. So, in a broad sense, when I talk about morality, I am
defining spirituality. Spirituality has everything to do with morality.

Morality is everything that spirituality is. Being moral allows us to live honestly and purely in a world that
doesn’t always take notice. Keeping morality close to us in the hub of everyday life, serves to remind us
that morality and spirituality can pave the way for us to be happy, content and at peace.

Being moral and spiritual helps us to stay grounded in a world that is less than perfect, morally and
spiritually. It is something we should all practice. Morality and spirituality, if continually practiced, will
make us better people.

As long as we know right from wrong and have a conscience, we may follow a moral compass. Without
basic rules surrounding morality, there will always be chaos in our homes and in our lives.

We’re not all instinctively moral, but we can choose to be moral. It is all a question of how we choose to
relate and behave towards other people and in society. We should want to care about others and
ourselves. We should want to have empathy, compassion and tolerance. We should want to follow and
incorporate moral tolerance.

We need to strive to understand how our conscience plays its part in our moral compass. If the conscience
alerts us to something that it knows is wrong, we should choose to change our behaviour. It is our
conscience that challenges us to change how we see other people and how moral we will be.

D. Strengths and Weaknesses of the Filipino Character/Personality

Building the Filipino people involves everyone. Our leaders cannot do it for us. We
must look at ourselves, both objectively and understandingly, as we try to remove our
weaknesses and develop our strengths. To be better, understanding ourselves is the first step.
Once we have learned to appreciate and value our being Filipinos, building our nation,
achieving goals of peace and social justice will come next.

Filipinos have a very strong and resilient character. This was developed by the
hardships and challenges we have faced throughout our history. Foreign powers have
conquered our lands, but never defeated our spirit. Among our positive traits are:
Pakikipagkapwa-Tao (regard for others). Many of the strong pointers are also the sources of
weakness .Also It is said that too much of anything is bad for us. We have to learn to balance
our positive traits because too much of them also cause negativity. The positives and
weaknesses of the Filipino have their own causes in many types such as: the home
environment, the social environment, culture and their language, their history, educational
system, their religion, economic environment, the political environment, mass media, and
leadership and role models. Goals. The Filipino should develop: sense of patriotism and
national pride--a genuine sensitiveness, love, their appreciation, and concern to the
Philippines and the things Filipino; a sense of the common good--the ability to seek beyond
selfish in terms of interests, in the sense of justice and a sense of outrage at its violation; a
sense of integrity an aversion toward corruption in the society and an avoidance of the
practice in one 's daily living; the importance and habits of patience and hardworking; and the
value and habits of self-reflection and analysis, the making of spiritual values as the centre of
humanity and an emphasis upon essence rather than on Ideology.

We need a ideology that can show all our sources for the assigned task of lifting
national morale, pride and productivity. History. We have to write and teach the true history;
the history books must be rewritten from our perspective. Languages. We ought to use
Filipino in our cultural and intellectual life. Education. We must push for the Filipinization of
the entire educational system. We must have value formation in the school curriculum and
teach pride in being a Filipino. Trade and Industry. We should support the Filipino products
and services by, for example, promoting a "Sariling Atin" day when everybody would wear
and use Filipino clothes and products only.

Asian Development Foundation College

GRADUATE SCHOOL
Tacloban, City
COMPREHENSIVE EXAMINATION

Subject: PHILIPPINE ECONOMY AND GOVERNMENT

Name: JENNEFREN B. PUNDAVELA – MA.ED SOCIAL STUDIES

1. In your own understanding, discuss the following Philippine economy concepts and
draw implications to classroom teaching and management.

A. Economic Resources and Basic Economic Problems of Society

 The fundamental problem in economics is the issue with the scarcity of resources but
unlimited wants. Economics has also pointed out that a man's needs cannot be fulfilled. The
more our needs are fulfilled, the more wants we develop with time. By definition, scarcity
implies a limited quantity of resources. As a result of scarcity, there is constant opportunity
cost. Opportunity cost means that if you use your resources to consume a particular good,
you cannot consume any other good with the given resource. Therefore, economists are
concerned with dealing with the optimum allocation of resources in society to make the
usage of these resources efficient as well as practical.
Economic resources are scarce. Faced with this scarcity, we must choose how to
allocate our resources. Economics is the study of how societies choose to do that.
Microeconomics focuses on how individuals, households, and firms make those decisions.
Things that are inputs to production of goods and services. There are four economic
resources: land, labor, capital, and technology. Technology is sometimes referred to as
entrepreneurship. Scarcity is why economics exist: we wouldn't have to worry about how
scarce resources are allocated if those resources were unlimited. It should be emphasized
that economics is primarily concerned with the scarcity of resources. In the wake of the
recent global economic crisis, countries need to structure and manage school systems
efficiently to maximise limited resources. This chapter considers how policies related to the
governance of school systems and the learning environment in individual schools are
associated with performance in PISA and equity at the country/economy and school levels.
The impact of the recent economic crisis on education budgets has only just begun to be
observed; but it is evident that, in the context of the crisis, countries need to structure and
manage school systems efficiently to maximise limited resources. However, as this volume
shows, when it comes to education, money isn’t everything. Performance in mathematics,
reading and science is less related to a country’s/economy’s income or expenditure on
education per student than to how those educational resources are allocated, and to the
policies, practices and learning environments that determine the conditions in which
students can work to achieve their full potential. PISA shows that students tend to perform
better in schools that provide an environment conducive to learning; it also shows that
socio-economically disadvantaged students are less likely to be in orderly classrooms than
advantaged students. However, even after accounting for the socio-economic status of
schools and students, schools with less incidence of student truancy or better disciplinary
climate tend to perform better. In other words, students perform better in schools with a
better school climate, partly because such schools tend to have more students from
advantaged backgrounds who generally perform well, partly because this favourable socio-
economic characteristic of students reinforces a climate conducive to learning, and partly
for reasons unrelated to socio-economic factors. To the extent that improved disciplinary
climate can be considered a pre-condition for improved student performance, these inter-
relationships highlight how important it is to attract the most talented teachers into the most
challenging classrooms, and to ensure that children from all socio-economic backgrounds
are learning in a positive disciplinary climate. Assessments and information systems,
already in place in most countries ad economies, can be used to identify individual schools
that need special assistance. Poland (Box IV.2.1), Mexico (Box II.2.4) and Colombia (Box
IV.4.3), for example, have improved the information infrastructure of their education
systems so that they can better identify and support struggling schools. The analyses in this
volume show that schools with more socio-economically disadvantaged students tend to
have lowerquality resources than schools with more advantaged students. Fairness in
resource allocation is not only important for equity in education, but it is also related to the
performance of the education system as a whole. The results show that school systems with
high student performance in mathematics tend to allocate resources more equitably between
advantaged and disadvantaged schools. In these systems, there are smaller differences
between higher-performing and lower-performing schools in principals’ reports on teacher
shortage, the adequacy of educational resources and physical infrastructure, and smaller
differences in average mathematics learning time between schools with more advantaged
and those with more disadvantaged students. PISA 2012 results, like those of earlier PISA
assessments, show that, in general, school systems that cater to different students’ needs by
separating students into different institutions, grade levels and classes, known as
stratification, have not succeeded in producing superior overall results, and in some cases
they have lower-than-average and more inequitable performance. For example, cross-
country/economy analysis shows that in the systems where more students repeat a grade,
the impact of students’ socio-economic status on their performance is stronger. Students in
schools where no ability grouping is practiced also scored eight points higher in
mathematics in 2012 compared to their counterparts in 2003, while students in schools
where ability grouping is practiced in some or all classes had lower scores in PISA 2012
than their counterparts in PISA 2003. In highly stratified systems, there may be more
incentives for schools to select the best students, and fewer incentives to support difficult
students if there is an option of transferring them to other schools. In contrast, in
comprehensive systems, schools must find ways of working with students from across the
performance spectrum. These different incentive systems may help explain the greater level
of equity achieved in systems that use stratification less. School systems that continue to
differentiate among students in these ways need to create appropriate incentives to ensure
that some students are not “discarded” by the system. Since education policies and
practices, resources invested in education, the learning environment, socio-economic status,
the demographic profile of schools and education outcomes are all interrelated, a cohesive
and systematic approach is needed. In addition, since school systems change over time,
intentionally or not, in response to external factors, efforts to improve school systems
should be continuous. Korea (Box I.4.1), Turkey (Box I.2.5), Colombia (Box IV.4.3),
Estonia (Box I.5.1) and Japan (Box III.3.1), among others, have established strategic
development plans. These frameworks anticipate challenges (e.g. demographic changes)
and provide guidance for coherent policies and programmes to be implemented at different
levels of education. In most cases, they are flexible enough to allow for revisions and to be
adapted to local contexts. What PISA findings tell policy makers, in the end, is that while
there are several features that are shared among high-performing systems, among systems
with greater equity or among high-performing schools, no one policy or practice spells
success.

B. Applied Economics in Relation to Philippine Economic Problems

Applied economics applies the conclusions drawn from economic theories and
empirical studies to real-world situations with the desired aim of informing economic
decisions and predicting possible outcomes. The purpose of applied economics is to
improve the quality of practice in business, public policy, and daily life by thinking
rigorously about costs and benefits, incentives, and human behavior. Applied economics
can involve the use of case studies and econometrics, which is the application of real-world
data to statistical models and comparing the results against the theories being tested.

Applied economics is the application of economic theory to determine the likely

outcomes associated with various possible courses of action in the real world. By better
understanding the likely consequences of choices made by individuals, businesses, and
policy makers, we can help them make better choices. If economics is the science of
studying how people use various, limited means available to them to achieve given ends,
then applied economics is the tool to help choose the best means to reach those ends. As a
result, applied economics can lead to "to do" lists for steps that can be taken to increase the
probability of positive outcomes in real-world events. The use of applied economics may
first involve exploring economic theories to develop questions about a circumstance or
situation and then draw upon data resources and other frames of reference to form a
plausible answer to that question. The idea is to establish a hypothetical outcome based on
the specific ongoing circumstances, drawn from the known implications of general
economic laws and models. Applied economics can illustrate the potential outcomes of
financial choices made by individuals. For example, if a consumer desires to own a luxury
good but has limited financial resources, an assessment of the cost and long-term impact
such a purchase would have on assets can compare them to the expected benefit of the
good. This can help determine if such an expense is worthwhile. Beyond finances,
understanding the meaning of the economic theories of rational choice, game theory, or the
findings of behavioral economics and evolutionary economics can help a person make
better decisions and plan for success in their personal life and even relationships. For
example, a person who wants to quit smoking might recognize that they are prone to
hyperbolic discounting and might choose to employ precommitment strategies to support
their long-term preference to quit over more powerful short-term preferences to smoke. Or
a group of friends sharing a large bowl of popcorn might explicitly or implicitly agree to
limits or shares on how much popcorn each will take in order to avoid a tragedy of the
commons situation. Applied economics can also help businesses make better decisions.
Understanding the implications of economic laws of supply and demand combined with
past sales data and marketing research regarding their target market can help a business
with pricing and production decisions. Awareness of economic leading indicators and their
relationship to a firm's industry and markets can help with operational planning and
business strategy. Understanding economic ideas such as principal-agent
problems, transaction costs, and the theory of the firm can help businesses design better
compensation schemes, contracts, and corporate strategies. Applied economics is an
invaluable tool for public policy makers. Many economists are employed to predict both
the macro- and microeconomic consequences of various policy proposals or to evaluate the
effects of ongoing policy. Applied macroeconomic modeling is routinely used to project
changes in unemployment, economic growth, and inflation at the national, regional, and
state level. Understanding the way the economic incentives and compensating behaviors
created by public policy impact real-world trends in things like job growth, migration, and
crime rates is critical to implementing effective policy and avoiding unintended
consequences. For example, understanding what the application of the laws of supply and
demand imply about the effects of price floors, along with case studies and empirical
research, can inform better policy regarding minimum wage laws.

C. Demand and Supply in Relation to the Prices of Basic Commodities and Market
Equilibrium.

The law of supply and demand is an economic theory that explains how supply and
demand are related to each other and how that relationship affects the price of goods and
services. It's a fundamental economic principle that when supply exceeds demand for a
good or service, prices fall. When demand exceeds supply, prices tend to rise.
There is an inverse relationship between the supply and prices of goods and services
when demand is unchanged. If there is an increase in supply for goods and services while
demand remains the same, prices tend to fall to a lower equilibrium price and a
higher equilibrium quantity of goods and services. If there is a decrease in supply of goods
and services while demand remains the same, prices tend to rise to a higher equilibrium
price and a lower quantity of goods and services. The same inverse relationship holds for
the demand for goods and services. However, when demand increases and supply remains
the same, the higher demand leads to a higher equilibrium price and vice versa.
Increased prices typically result in lower demand, and demand increases generally
lead to increased supply. However, the supply of different products responds to demand
differently, with some products' demand being less sensitive to prices than others.
Economists describe this sensitivity as price elasticity of demand; products with pricing
sensitive to demand are said to be price elastic. Inelastic pricing indicates a weak price
influence on demand. The law of demand still applies, but pricing is less forceful and
therefore has a weaker impact on supply. Price elasticity of a product may be caused by the
presence of more affordable alternatives in the market, or it may mean the product is
considered nonessential by consumers. Rising prices will reduce demand if consumers are
able to find substitutions, but have less of an impact on demand when alternatives are not
available. Health care services, for example, have few substitutions, and demand remains
strong even when prices increase. While the laws of supply and demand act as a general
guide to free markets, they are not the sole factors that affect conditions such as pricing
and availability. These principles are merely spokes of a much larger wheel and, while
extremely influential, they assume certain things: that consumers are fully educated on a
product, and that there are no regulatory barriers in getting that product to them. Supply
and demand also do not affect markets nearly as much when a monopoly exists. The U.S.
government has passed laws to try to prevent a monopoly system, but there are still
examples that show how a monopoly can negate supply and demand principles.For
example, movie houses typically do not allow patrons to bring outside food and beverages
into the theater. This gives that business a temporary monopoly on food services, which is
why popcorn and other concessions are so much more expensive than they would be
outside of the theater. Traditional supply and demand theories rely on a competitive
business environment, trusting the market to correct itself. While we've mainly been
discussing consumer goods, the law of supply and demand affects more abstract things as
well, including a nation's monetary policy. This happens through the adjustment of interest
rates. Interest rates are the cost of money: They are the preferred tool for central banks to
expand or decrease the money supply. When interest rates are lower, more people are
borrowing money. This expands the money supply; there is more money circulating in
the economy, which translates to more hiring, increased economic activity, and spending,
and a tailwind for asset prices. Raising interest rates leads people to take their money out
of the economy to put in the bank, taking advantage of an increase in the risk-free rate of
return; it also often discourages borrowing and activities or purchases that require
financing. This tends to decrease economic activity and put a damper on asset prices.

In the United States, the Federal Reserve increases the money supply when it wants
to stimulate the economy, prevent deflation, boost asset prices, and increase employment.
When it wants to reduce inflationary pressures, it raises interest rates and decreases the
money supply. Basically, when it anticipates a recession, it begins to lower interest rates,
and it raises rates when the economy is overheating.

The law of supply and demand is also reflected in how changes in the money supply affect
asset prices. Cutting interest rates increases the money supply. However, the amount of
assets in the economy remains the same but demand for these assets increases, driving up
prices. More dollars are chasing a fixed amount of assets. Decreasing the money supply
works in the same way. Assets remain fixed, but the number of dollars in circulation
decreases, putting downward pressure on prices, as fewer dollars are chasing these assets.

D. Supply, Demand and Philippine Economic Problem

Despite the efforts of the government to save Filipinos from the claws of poverty,
many poor and even non-poor households remain vulnerable (Mina and Imai 2016). To
support these households, the Philippine government implements a number of social
protection programs targeted to improve their economic and social footing and lessen their
exposure to risks. This Economic Issue of the Day looks at the Philippine social protection
and the framework being used to guide its implementation. It also discusses some of the
studies that review the current state of social protection in the country.
According to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, social security or
protection is a fundamental human right and a crucial tool to uphold the dignity of
individuals. The 1987 Philippine Constitution also echoes the state’s responsibility to
protect the welfare of its citizens. Its article on social justice and human rights mandates the
Congress to "give highest priority to the enactment of measures that protect and enhance the
right of all the people to human dignity, reduce social, economic, and political inequalities,
and remove cultural inequities by equitably diffusing wealth and political power for the
common good". In 2007, the Philippine government, through its cabinet-level interagency
Social Development Committee (SDC), adopted an official definition of social protection.
According to the SDC Resolution No. 1, Series of 2007, social protection constitutes
programs and policies that seek to (1) reduce poverty and vulnerability to risks and (2)
enhance the social status and rights of the marginalized. To achieve these aims, it (1)
promotes and protects livelihood and employment, (2) protects against hazards and sudden
loss of income, and (3) improves people’s capacity to manage risks. In 2012, the SDC
embraced the Social Protection Operational Framework as its basis for implementing social
protection programs and other policies related to social protection. The said framework also
identified the (1) life cycle and individual risks, such as hunger and malnutrition; (2)
economic risks, such as unemployment; (3) environmental risks, such as floods and
typhoons; and (4) governance risks, such as corruption, as some of various issues that the
social protection programs need to address. These interventions are government measures
that enhance employment opportunities in the country and advance Filipino workers' rights
and welfare (Cabral 2008). Among these interventions are skills development and training,
labor and trade policies, and agricultural support. Their main goal is to address the risks of
underemployment, unemployment, and loss of income in the country. One of these
interventions is the AlkanSSSya program of the Social Security System, wherein the
government provides the informal and poor workers, such as farmers, fisherfolk, and
drivers, an affordable and convenient way to save part of their daily income for their social
security contributions. The said microsaving scheme also covers job order workers from
state-run institutions excluded from the mandatory coverage of the Government Service
Insurance System. According to Conchada (2016), the program is an effective method to
empower the poor as she found that the beneficiaries of the program have higher annual
income than nonbeneficiaries. Aside from AlkanSSSya, Orbeta and Abrigo (2013) also
found the scholarship programs of the Technical Education and Skills Development
Authority have also yielded significant benefits for their target recipients. Their study, for
instance, revealed that the beneficiaries of the Private Education Student Financial
Assistance (PESFA) have better employment opportunities than nonscholars. Social
insurance These are measures installed to address the risks associated with disability, work-
related injury, old age, and crop disasters (Cabral 2008). Among these interventions are
public retirement and pension plans, as well as health and crop insurances, such as the
Agricultural Insurance Program (AIP) of the Philippine Crop Insurance Corporation
(PCIC). Social welfare These measures are preventive and protective in nature, and support
the minimum basic needs of the poor and marginalized (Cabral 2008). Among the issues
that they address are food insecurity, hunger and poor nutrition, poor quality of education,
land and housing insecurity, and poor sanitation. Currently, the government implements the
Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program (4Ps) as one of its social welfare measures. It is a
conditional cash transfer program that helps increase the household budget for basic
services, such as health and education. In a study, Orbeta and Paqueo (2016) found that 4Ps
is an effective measure to keep Filipino children in school and improve human capital
formation in the country. They even noted that the abolition of the program may have
damaging unintended consequences on the present and future welfare of Filipino children.
Social safety nets These are urgent mechanisms that address the impacts of socioeconomic
shocks, such as environmental degradation, disasters, and armed conflicts, on poor and
other vulnerable groups (Cabral 2008). According to Reyes (2013), these are “short-term
stop-gap measures such as cash transfers, food for work, and emergency employment
programs”. These include unconditional cash transfers, feeding programs, price and food
subsidies, and emergency employments and loans.
As stated earlier, the government currently implements various social protection
programs, such as AlkanSSSya and 4Ps, which are found to be effective in saving Filipino
households from falling into or further into poverty. But not all social protection programs
share the same story. In terms of social insurance for the agriculture sector, for instance,
Virola (2017) found that the AIP still suffers from low penetration rate, with less than 5
percent of the rice farmers availing its services. The PCIC has also yet to extend its
coverage to underserved regions, such as Bicol, which are prone to typhoons and flooding.
Meanwhile, the country’s National Health Insurance Program for the poor suffers from
leakage issues. In his study, Cabalfin (2017) revealed that aside from the poor, the program
also benefits the nonpoor sector. Even the 4Ps has its own share of leakage issues. While it
has indeed helped improve Filipino children’s access to education, Reyes et al. (2015)
noted that it has a leakage rate of 29 percent. This means roughly 3 in every 10
beneficiaries of the said program are not poor and do not even deserve to enjoy its benefits.
One possible reason behind this leakage is the fact that the program uses outdated data in
targeting its beneficiaries.
Indeed, much is still there to be fixed in the country’s current social protection
measures. However, the good performance of programs such as AlkanSSSya, PESFA, and
4Ps in terms of improving the situation of their beneficiaries should serve as an inspiration
to the government to continue promoting social protection as a tool to uplift the lives of the
poor and the vulnerable. Nonetheless, the government should consider strengthening the
programs’ targeting rules given that many of them suffer from leakage. It should also invest
in monitoring and evaluation to ensure that these interventions are meeting their objectives.
Recent events in the country, such as the 2017 Sarangani earthquake, the 2017 Visayas and
Mindanao flooding, and the 2013 Super Typhoon Haiyan, also underscore the need for the
adoption of innovative measures in the country, such as adaptive social protection (ASP)
programs. According to Dacuycuy and Baje (2017), ASP is a relatively new concept that
intersects social protection, climate change adaptation, and disaster risk reduction measures
to strengthen the poverty reduction efforts of the government.

2. With the aid of schema, briefly discuss the following basic concepts of Politics and
Governance.

A. Philippine Politics and Governance

 Politics in the Philippines are governed by a three-branch system of government. The
country is a democracy, with a president who is directly elected by the people and serves as
both the head of state and the head of government. The president serves as the leader of the
executive branch and is a powerful political figure. A president may only hold office for
one six-year term. The bicameral Congress, which consists of the smaller Senate, which is
elected at-large across the country, and the larger House of Legislators, which is mostly
made up of members chosen from specific geographic districts, is the body that carries out
legislative duties. The judiciary is overseen by the Supreme Court of the Philippines, which
has extensive review jurisdiction over judgments issued by other governmental and
administrative institutions.
The legal system, which covers both civil and criminal law, has been impacted by the
prior rule of both Spain and the United States. Spanish control was mostly supported by
local intermediaries, which resulted in an elite-dominated system. The United States took
sovereignty of the whole archipelago following the Spanish–American war, suppressing a
rebellion that occurred at the end of Spanish administration, Control by the United States
resulted in democracy and institutions that were fashioned after the American political
system. Martial law's implementation hampered this. National politics were ruled by a two-
party system when the country attained independence in 1946 and changes brought about
by the restoration of democracy are what led to the multi-party system that exists today.
There have been various levels of left-wing insurgencies since independence, as well as a
continuous Islamic Insurgency Elections are held every three years, although the president,
vice-president, and Senators are elected for six-year terms. Results are determined
through plurality voting, including plurality-at-large for elections (such as for the Senate)
with multiple winners. A mixed-member proportional representation system is used to elect
a minority of the House of Representatives. Local government units have some revenue-
generating powers, under a code intended to decentralize power away from the national
government. Administrative structures at local levels are designed to foster civil
society participation. Politics is dominated by a powerful elite, with dynastic
politics common at both the local and national levels. Political parties are weak, with
elections instead dominated by individual and familial personalities. Political positions
provide extensive opportunities for patronage, and clientelism and electoral fraud are
common. Corruption is considered widespread, while state institutions are relatively weak.
Politics has been heavily influenced at times by the Catholic Church, the Philippine
military, and the United States. Despite pessimism about the potential for political change,
democracy maintains strong public support, and voter turnout is high.

B. State and Society

The Philippines is the third largest English-speaking country in the world and is
comprised of more than 7,600 islands. Most of the population lives on 11 main islands, of
which Luzon and Mindanao are the largest. About 28 percent of the country’s land is
covered with forests.

Two of the most important concepts in any discussion of liberty are state and society.
But it is often far from clear what any given person means by those terms. Part of the
confusion stems from the fact that the definitions can shift dramatically depending upon the
theoretical approach of the speaker. Virtually all individualists agree that there is some
distinction to be drawn between a state and a society. But exactly where the line should be
drawn has been the subject of active debate, at least since the writings of the seventeenth-
century English classical liberal John Locke.

In the Philippines, family life is highly treasured, and households often include
extended family. The average rural family has about three children, while urban families
tend to be smaller. The main responsibility of most children is to complete their education,
but some children are also expected to work for their family.

After children marry, many decide to continue living with their parents. Children are
usually disciplined by both their mother and father, but a mother’s advice is especially
taken seriously. As parents age, it is the responsibility of their adult children to care for
them. Many women work outside the home, sometimes even overseas.
 The German sociologist Franz Oppenheimer spearheaded an analysis of these key
terms in his classic work, The State (1914). Oppenheimer defined the state as “that
summation of privileges and dominating positions which are brought into being by extra-
economic power.” He defined society as “the totality of concepts of all purely natural
relations and institutions between man and man.” 1 He contrasted what he termed “the
political means” with “the economic means” of acquiring wealth or power. The state uses
the political means-in other words, force—to plunder and exploit society, which uses the
economic means—in other words, cooperation. Thus, for Oppenheimer, the state was the
enemy of society.
The discussion of individual freedom returns inevitably to how the key concepts of
state, society, and government are being defined. And in pursuing those definitions, one
fact becomes quickly apparent. They are more than a matter of personal style, contrary to
Oppenheimer: they involve deep ideological and historical disagreements with equally
profound implications.

The state is an abstraction, and care must be taken not to make something overly
concrete of it. The same can be said for society. The analytic approach traditionally adopted
by classical liberals is called methodological individualism. This approach claims that only
individuals exist, and that institutions-such as the family, church, and state-all result from
and can be analyzed in terms of individuals interacting with each other in particular ways.
Society is the shorthand for the sum of all voluntary, or natural, institutions.

The Philippines has a rich history combining Asian, European, and American
influences. The Philippines is a collectivist society, in which the needs of the family are
prioritized over the needs of the individual. Filipinos value social harmony and maintaining
smooth relationships, which means they may often avoid expressing their true opinions or
delivering unwanted news. Many Filipinos celebrate traditional festivities known as barrio
fiestas (district festivals) to commemorate the feast days of patron saints.

Asian Development Foundation College

 GRADUATE SCHOOL
Tacloban, City
COMPREHENSIVE EXAMINATION

Subject: PHILIPPINE SOCIETY AND CULTURE

Name: JENNEFREN B. PUNDAVELA – MA.ED SOCIAL STUDIES

1. In your own understanding, discuss the following concept of society as defined by

Komblum and Robertson.

A society is a group of interacting individuals sharing the same territory and

participating in a culture.” This definition of ‘a society is quite rearer to the definition of
‘community explained in the following pages. Thus, a society is different from society in
general; ‘a society is any organisation that enables people to carry on a common life.
Sociology is a discipline that belongs to what conventionally is called the social
science. The discipline plays a leading role in the social sciences. The term sociology
literally means the science of society; for the term itself in its direct sense denotes that.
Sociology as an academic discipline arose in the first half of 19th century (in 1837, to
mention the exact year) as a special science dedicated to unravel the fundamental laws
governing the societal phenomena and human social relationship with primary interest in
analyzing the problems and societies of the modern, western world. It has, thus,
conventionally been accepted to associate sociology with the study of the modern,
industrialized societies of western world.
It is concrete, having physical reality and is an aggregate of persons while society is
abstract and is something more than an aggregate of individuals and the sum of individuals.
It refers to the whole constellation of associations that characterise a people. When we talk
about Indian society, French society, or American society, we generally have the idea of ‘a
society’ in our mind.
“A society consists of individuals belonging to groups which may vary in size.”
Anthony Giddens (2000) states; “A society is a group of people who live in a particular
territory, are subject to a common system of political authority, and are aware of having a
distinct identity from other groups around them.”
This definition is a mixture of characteristics of a community and a nation-state. From this
view, some societies, like those of hunters and gatherers are very small; others are very
Iarge involving millions of people such as modern Indian society.

2. Explain the components of social structure namely:

Social life is composed of many levels of building blocks, from the very micro to the
very macro. These building blocks combine to form the social structure. As Chapter 1
“Sociology and the Sociological Perspective” explained, social structure refers to the social
patterns through which a society is organized and can be horizontal or vertical. To
recall, horizontal social structure refers to the social relationships and the social and
physical characteristics of communities to which individuals belong, while vertical social
structure, more commonly called social inequality, refers to ways in which a society or
group ranks people in a hierarchy. This chapter’s discussion of social structure focuses
primarily on horizontal social structure, while Chapter 8 “Social
Stratification” through Chapter 12 “Aging and the Elderly”, as well as much material in
other chapters, examine dimensions of social inequality. The (horizontal) social structure
comprises several components, to which we now turn, starting with the most micro and
ending with the most macro. Our discussion of social interaction in the second half of this
chapter incorporates several of these components.

2.1 Statues

Status has many meanings in the dictionary and also within sociology, but for now
we will define it as the position that someone occupies in society. This position is often a
job title, but many other types of positions exist: student, parent, sibling, relative, friend,
and so forth. It should be clear that status as used in this way conveys nothing about the
prestige of the position, to use a common synonym for status. A physician’s job is a status
with much prestige, but a shoeshiner’s job is a status with no prestige.

Any one individual often occupies several different statuses at the same time, and
someone can simultaneously be a banker, Girl Scout troop leader, mother, school board
member, volunteer at a homeless shelter, and spouse. Sociologists usually speak of three
types of statuses. The first type is ascribed status, which is the status that someone is born
with and has no control over. There are relatively few ascribed statuses; the most common
ones are our biological sex, race, parents’ social class and religious affiliation, and
biological relationships (child, grandchild, sibling, and so forth). The second kind of status
is called achieved status, which, as the name implies, is a status you achieve, at some point
after birth, sometimes through your own efforts and sometimes because good or bad luck
befalls you. The status of student is an achieved status, as is the status of restaurant server
or romantic partner, to cite just two of the many achieved statuses that exist. Two things
about achieved statuses should be kept in mind. First, our ascribed statuses, and in
particular our sex, race and ethnicity, and social class, often affect our ability to acquire and
maintain many achieved statuses (such as college graduate). Second, achieved statuses can
be viewed positively or negatively. Our society usually views achieved statuses such as
physician, professor, or college student positively, but it certainly views achieved statuses
such as burglar, prostitute, and pimp negatively. The third type of status is called a master
status. This is a status that is so important that it overrides other statuses you may hold. In
terms of people’s reactions, master statuses can be either positive or negative for an
individual depending on the particular master status they hold. Barack Obama now holds
the positive master status of president of the United States: his status as president overrides
all the other statuses he holds (husband, father, and so forth), and millions of Americans
respect him, whether or not they voted for him or now favor his policies, because of this
status. Many other positive master statuses exist in the political and entertainment worlds
and in other spheres of life. Some master statuses have negative consequences. To recall the
medical student and nursing home news story that began this chapter, a physical disability
often becomes such a master status. If you are bound to a wheelchair, for example, this fact
becomes more important than the other statuses you have and may prompt people to
perceive and interact with you negatively. In particular, they perceive you more in terms of
your master status (someone bound to a wheelchair) than as the “person beneath” the
master status, to cite Matt’s words. For similar reasons, gender, race, and sexual orientation
may also be considered master statuses, as these statuses often subject women, people of
color, and gays and lesbians, respectively, to discrimination and other problems, no matter
what other statuses they may have.
 Whatever status we occupy, certain objects signify any particular status. These
objects are called status symbols. In popular terms, status symbol usually means something
like a Rolls-Royce or BMW that shows off someone’s wealth or success, and many status
symbols of this type exist. But sociologists use the term more generally than that.

2.2 Roles
Whatever its type, every status is accompanied by a role, which is the behavior
expected of someone—and in fact everyone—with a certain status. You and most other
people reading this book are students. Despite all the other differences among you, you
have at least this one status in common. As such, there is a role expected of you as a student
(at least by your professors); this role includes coming to class regularly, doing all the
reading assigned from this textbook, and studying the best you can for exams. Roles for
given statuses existed long before we were born, and they will continue long after we are no
longer alive. A major dimension of socialization is learning the roles our society has and
then behaving in the way a particular role demands.
Because roles are the behavior expected of people in various statuses, they help us
interact because we are familiar with the roles in the first place, a point to which the second
half of this chapter returns. Suppose you are shopping in a department store. Your status is
a shopper, and the role expected of you as a shopper—and of all shoppers—involves
looking quietly at various items in the store, taking the ones you want to purchase to a
checkout line, and paying for them. The person who takes your money is occupying another
status in the store that we often call a cashier. The role expected of that cashier—and of all
cashiers not only in that store but in every other store—is to accept your payment in a
businesslike way and put your items in a bag. Because shoppers and cashiers all have these
mutual expectations, their social interaction is possible.

2.3 Groups

Groups and organizations are the next component of social structure.

Because Chapter 6 “Groups and Organizations” discusses groups and organizations
extensively, here we will simply define them and say one or two things about them.
 A social group (hereafter just group) consists of two or more people who regularly
interact on the basis of mutual expectations and who share a common identity. To
paraphrase John Donne, the 17th-century English poet, no one is an island; almost all
people are members of many groups, including families, groups of friends, and groups of
coworkers in a workplace. Sociology is sometimes called the study of group life, and it is
difficult to imagine a modern society without many types of groups and a small, traditional
society without at least some groups.
In terms of size, emotional bonding, and other characteristics, many types of groups
exist, as Chapter 6 “Groups and Organizations” explains. But one of the most important
types is the formal organization (also just organization), which is a large group that follows
explicit rules and procedures to achieve specific goals and tasks. For better and for worse,
organizations are an essential feature of modern societies. Our banks, our hospitals, our
schools, and so many other examples are all organizations, even if they differ from one
another in many respects. In terms of their goals and other characteristics, several types of
organizations exist, as Chapter 6 “Groups and Organizations” will again discuss.

2.4 Social Institutions

Yet another component of social structure is the social institution, or patterns of

beliefs and behavior that help a society meet its basic needs. Modern society is filled with
many social institutions that all help society meet its needs and achieve other goals and thus
have a profound impact not only on the society as a whole but also on virtually every
individual in a society. Examples of social institutions include the family, the economy, the
polity (government), education, religion, and medicine. Chapter 13 “Work and the
Economy” through Chapter 18 “Health and Medicine” examine each of these social
institutions separately.

As those chapters will show, these social institutions all help the United States meet its
basic needs, but they also have failings that prevent the United States from meeting all its
needs. A particular problem is social inequality, to recall the vertical dimension of social
structure, as our social institutions often fail many people because of their social class, race,
ethnicity, gender, or all four. These chapters will also indicate that American society could
better fulfill its needs if it followed certain practices and policies of other democracies that
often help their societies “work” better than our own.

The largest component of social structure is, of course, society itself. Chapter 1
“Sociology and the Sociological Perspective” defined society as a group of people who live
within a defined territory and who share a culture. Societies certainly differ in many ways;
some are larger in population and some are smaller, some are modern and some are less
modern. Since the origins of sociology during the 19th century, sociologists have tried to
understand how and why modern, industrial society developed. Part of this understanding
involves determining the differences between industrial societies and traditional ones.

One of the key differences between traditional and industrial societies is the emphasis
placed on the community versus the emphasis placed on the individual. In traditional
societies, community feeling and group commitment are usually the cornerstones of social
life. In contrast, industrial society is more individualistic and impersonal. Whereas the
people in traditional societies have close daily ties, those in industrial societies have many
relationships in which one person barely knows the other person. Commitment to the group
and community become less important in industrial societies, and individualism becomes
more important.

3. What are the distinctions between and among the following;

3.1 Folkways

Folkway, the learned behaviour, shared by a social group, that provides a traditional
mode of conduct.
According to the American sociologist William Graham Sumner, who coined the
term, folkways are social conventions that are not considered to be of moral significance by
members of the group (e.g., customary behaviour for use of the telephone). The folkways of
groups, like the habits of individuals, originate in the frequent repetition of acts that prove
successful for satisfying basic human needs. These acts become uniform and are widely
accepted. Folkways operate primarily at an unconscious level and persist because they are
expedient. They tend to group themselves around major social concerns, such as sex,
forming social institutions (e.g., the family). Sumner believed that folkways
from diverse areas of life tended to become consistent with each other, creating definite
patterns. Tradition, habit, and religious sanctions tend to strengthen folkways as time
passes, making them more and more arbitrary, positive, and compelling. Some folkways
become mores (borrowed from the Latin word for customs by Sumner) when they
become ethical principles, the behaviours considered essential to the welfare of the society.
Mores are more coercive than folkways: relatively mild disapproval follows an
infringement of a folkway; severe disapproval or punishment follows the breaking of
mores. Polygamy violates the mores of American society; failure to wait one’s turn in line
is a breach of folkways.

Sumner saw folkways and mores as essentially conservative and doubted the ability
of members of the society to change them consciously. The small variations introduced by
individuals in their observance, however, allows for some change, according to Sumner.

3.2 Mores
Mores (pronounced “more-rays”) are preferred and socially sanctioned ways of
behaving in any given society. These are stronger forms of norms, in which more
fundamental habits of behavior are involved.
Mores are the traditional customs and codes of behavior that are typically followed in
a place or in a group, but are not codified by law. In other words, mores are the unwritten
rules of social behavior, backed by morality (Ritzer, 2007). The term mores was coined by
the sociologist William Graham Sumner in his work Folkways: A Study of the Sociological
Importance of Usages, Manners, Customs, Mores, and Morals (1906). In this work, Sumner
defined mores as “the folkways of a people which tend to enforce themselves by social
approval and disapproval”. Mores arise when groups live together long enough to develop
shared understandings about how members should behave. They can be based on customs
(traditional ways of doing things), religion, or peer pressure.

Mores are the regulators of social life. They represent the morality and character of a
group or community, and are considered to be absolutely right. By typing morality with
behavior, mores strongly influence the behavior of individuals in a community.
 These mores can reflect what is right and proper, such as not smoking in public
places as well as behavior that is sanctioned and usually illegal, such as polygamy.

Mores are passed down from generation to generation, and while they can change
over time, they tend to be very stable. In this way, mores tend to be more persistent than
folkways.

3.3 Laws
Sociology of law relates to consideration of legal structures (i.e., the legal system),
legal procedure (how law is formed), and the role of law in societal transformation. As per
sociology of law, it is crucial to examine how the law affects race, class, gender, and other
socially significant values, underlining that:
A society needs the law because it establishes a standard of behaviour for its
members. It was also created to maintain the balance between the three organs of
government and to give all individuals adequate instructions and order regarding their
behaviour. It maintains society's operations. Without law, there would be anarchy.
Modernization and societal change are facilitated by the law. It serves as a sign of societal
complexity and the integration issues that come with it. Social change refers to desired
changes in social institutions, social processes, and social organisation. When we examine
the role of law in relation to social change more closely, we can distinguish between the
direct and indirect components of that involvement: Through its direct influence on society,
law has a significant indirect impact on social transformation. On the other hand, law has a
direct connection to social change since it often interacts with fundamental social structures
in an indirect way. Law and sociology are related in such a way that one cannot exist
without other. Sociology and society are closely intertwined, and each society has its own
set of laws in this regard. Laws are thus a fundamental component of civilization.
Sociology aids in ability of law to better comprehend society for easier regulation and law-
making. The law also plays a crucial role in regulating society. If there was no law, then
society would be nothing less than a jungle. Laws were created because people require
rules and regulations to keep them on track. These laws are made and established by
society as a whole, or they are created by elected governments. Sociology covers
everything, from the idea's conception through its execution to its effects on society. Legal
sociology, which focuses on the study of law as a social phenomenon, cannot fully
understand this phenomenon without drawing on the research from all other branches of
sociology, including family, rural, urban, educational, political, and economic sociology.
On the other hand, the knowledge gained in legal sociology contributes to the advancement
of knowledge in other branches of sociology in particular and the Social Sciences in
general.

From the foregoing, it can be inferred that legal sociology is a subfield of sociology that
focuses on the study of a specific aspect of life, namely the legal, in order to better
comprehend this effort on the one hand and increase our understanding of social life as a
whole on the other.

Law is a set of rules and regulations that, if practicable, are applied through social
institutions to regulate human behaviours. It influences politics, economics, and society in
a variety of ways and acts as a social mediator of interpersonal relationships. Criminal law
provides a way by which the state can bring the culprit to justice if the act is declared
illegal by legislation. The formation of laws, the defence of human rights, and the choice of
political representatives are all governed by constitutional law. The legal response to a
specific social or technological issue is thus in and of itself a significant social action that
has the potential to either worsen or ameliorate the issue at hand and contribute to its
resolution.

Likewise, it may be concluded that the Sociology of Law has a lengthy history of
devoted practitioners and supporters. It is a field of study that aims to go beyond legal
conventions and push back against preconceived notions about how society and the law
interact and relate to one another across all domains. In order for the discipline to continue
to question conventional interpretations of socio-legal concerns, it is crucial that further
learning and analysis be done in an effort to formalise the discipline's definitions, values,
and constraints.

3.4 Values
 In sociology, values are the beliefs that we have about what is important, both to us
and to society as a whole. They can be implicit or explicit (stated directly). Values help us
to decide what is right or wrong, good or bad.
Values comprise culturally constructed goals, presented as legitimate objects for
attainment to a diverse array of individuals in a society. Such goals are accorded varying
degrees of significance based on their relevance to a particular culture’s most cherished
ideals. These values are communicated to individuals, commencing at a tender age, as
dreams worth pursuing.
Social values are the beliefs, attitudes, and opinions about what is important, both to
us and to society as a whole. A value, therefore, is a belief (right or wrong) about the way
something should be. Social values can be categorized according to their source, which can
be materialistic or idealistic; positive or negative, dominant or variant, innate or acquired,
or a number of other categories. Every value that individuals hold has a number of
associated ideas called norms. Perspectives as far ranging as functionalism, Marxism, and
feminism have created different lenses through which sociologists view the function of
social values. Some values are very personal to us as individuals, whilst others are much
more widely-held by large groups of people. In this case, values become morals – things
that we consider to be of such absolute and fundamental importance that we believe
everyone should hold such ideas as a personal value. There is an ethical dimension to the
concept of values, in that beliefs about goodness are often attached to them. In functionalist
sociology, values have a central place, as they are thought to be crucial in forging social
solidarity amongst disparate individuals. ome common social values in Western societies
include freedom, equality, individualism, democracy, and respect for others. However,
these values are not shared by all cultures. For example, in some traditional societies,
collectivism (valuing the needs of the group over the needs of the individual) may be more
important than individualism (Boudon, 2017).

Sociologists often study how social values change over time. For example, in the
past, many Western societies valued men over women and white people over racial
minorities. However, these values have changed in many countries over time, as women
and minority groups have fought for equality. In short, the values we hold are general
behavioural guidelines. They tell us what we believe is right or wrong, for example, but that
do not tell us how we should behave appropriately in any given social situation. This is the
part played by norms in the overall structure of our social behaviour.

The Graphical method is the presentation of data in the form of a graph or diagram.
 Graph – is a geometrical representation of a set of data. It helps visualize certain properties and
characteristics of the data at a glance.
1. LINE GRAPH – The line graph shows the relationship between two or more sets of quantities.
This type of graph is appropriate for a variable that varies with time. The line graphs involves
plotting the data on the rectangular coordinate system. The point intersection is the origin.
Usually, the time component is plotted along the x-axis, while the corresponding observation is
plotted along the y-axis. These axes are marked off with equal spaces.

Here are the guidelines to follow in constructing line graphs.

1. The title of the graph must be descriptive and clearly stated.
2. The X and Y axis should be sealed and labelled with variable they represent.
3. Sources and footnotes should be provided when necessary.
4. The zero point should be known. Equals should be scaled for the units they represent.
5. The graphs should not be loaded with too many curves.
6. The axis may show a broken line to indicate that at some point in the scale are unnecessary or
have been compressed because they do not have corresponding values in the data.

2. BAR GRAPH – The Bar graph consists of vertical or horizontal bars of equal widths. The
lengths of the bars represent the magnitudes of the quantities being compared. This type of
graph is most appropriate for comparing data taken at a particular time.

Here are the guidelines in the construction of bar graphs.

1. The title of the graph should be clearly stated.
2. Note the smallest and largest numbers in the given data. Select a unit of length such that the
longest bar will occupy around two-thirds of the page for the graph.
3. The length of the bars must be proportional to the numbers they represent.
 4. If a space is placed between bars, they should be of uniform width of a bar.
5. All designations or notations on the vertical and horizontal axis must be indicated.
6. Show the zero point in the scale are irrelevant. Numbers may be omitted by breaking the scale.

3. PIE CHART or CIRCLE GRAPH – it is appropriate in comparing the part with the whole.
The whole may be designated as 100% and represents the whole pie. Fifty percent (50%) is
equivalent to half of the pie, 25% is one-fourth of the pie and so on.

A variation of the circle graph

wherein a rectangle takes the place
of the circle and divided
proportionally.

4. PICTOGRAPH –

4. PICTOGRAPH – In this graph, actual or facsimiles of the objects under the study are used to
represent values. Each figure is considered a unit represents a definite number. The pictograph is
generally used to compare the sizes of items or objects among countries, institutions, agencies and
the like.

Below are the guidelines in constructing pictographs.

1. The symbol used must be self-explanatory. If the data are about televisions, then the pictures of
televisions may be drawn; if the data are about rice, then the pictures of sacks of rice may be used.
2. Use legends to represent the number of units in a picture.
3. Some pictographs may show only approximate values.
4. Fractional parts are represented by parts of the figure.

SYNTHESIS:
Graphical method is used to present numerical data collected. The graphical method
presents
data in the form of a graph or diagram. The types of graph are the line graph, bar graph, pie chart or
circle graph and the pictograph.

REFERRENCES:
 https://www.google.com/search?
q=pictograph&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwj81vqvu4r7AhUpxIsBH Vb0CaUQ2-

https://www.google.com/search?
q=pie+chart+examples+with+data&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwj35
Zeru4r7AhXaLqYKHaOkDM0Q2-

https://www.google.com/search?
q=bar+graph+examples+with+data&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwib
6O3es4r7AhVOTZQKHR64BfQQ2-

Educational Statistics Module