GREEN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

1.1. CLEAN DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM

History and Objectives of the Mechanism:

Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is an economic instrument for inducing initiatives to meet
the challenges faced by the impending threat of climate change. It is a mechanism for promoting
technology transfer and investment from developed countries to the developing countries for
projects to reduce the emissions of Greenhouse Gases (GHGs). The mechanism allows the
governments or private parties of developed countries to make investment for emission reduction
projects in developing countries and, in turn, get the benefit in terms of “Certified Emission
Reduction (CER)” which could be credited against their national emission reduction targets.

The concept of CDM owes its origin to the Kyoto Protocol (1997) under the UN Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) mooted at the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (Earth Summit) in 1992. The Convention on Climate Change and
the follow-up initiatives were prompted by the increasing evidence of global warming triggered
by anthropogenic emissions of Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) which include Carbon Dioxide, Nitrous
Oxide, Methane, Halogenated Hydrocarbon and Tropospheric Ozone. According to an assessment,
doubling of carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere or an equivalent increase of a mixture
of greenhouse gases can cause 1.5 to 4.5oC rise in global temperature with associated impacts such
as sea level rise,
Floods and droughts.

Purpose

The purpose of the CDM is to promote clean development in developing countries, i.e., the "non-
Annex I" countries (countries that aren't listed in Annex I of the Framework Convention). The
CDM is one of the Protocol's "project-based" mechanisms in that the CDM is designed to promote
projects that reduce emissions. The CDM is based on the idea of emission reduction "production".
These reductions are "produced" and then subtracted against a hypothetical "baseline" of
emissions. The emissions baseline are the emissions that are predicted to occur in the absence of a
particular CDM project. CDM projects are "credited" against this baseline, in the sense that
developing countries gain credit for producing these emission cuts. The CDM is one of the
"flexibility mechanisms" that is defined in the Kyoto Protocol. The flexibility mechanisms are
designed to allow Annex B countries to meet their emission reduction commitments with reduced
impact on their economies (IPCC, 2007).The flexibility mechanisms were introduced to the Kyoto
Protocol by the US government.

For participation in CDM, all countries are required to meet the following prerequisites:
◻ Ratification of the Kyoto Protocol;
◻ Establishment of a National CDM Authority; and

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 ◻ Willingness for voluntary participation in CDM.

In addition to the aforesaid pre-requisites, the developed countries should also comply
with the following requirements as stipulated in the Protocol:
◻ National System for the estimation of GHG emissions;
◻ National registry and annual inventory;
◻ Accounting system for sale and purchase of emission reductions; and
◻ Establishment of assigned amount as per emission limitation and reduction
Commitment to reduce their overall GHG emission by at least 5 per cent below 1990
levels in the first commitment period of 2008-2012.

The eligibility criteria for the CDM projects include the following:
◻ The projects must be approved by all parties involved;
◻ The projects should promote sustainable development in host countries;
◻ The projects should result in real, measurable and long term benefits towards
climate change mitigation; and
◻ The emission reduction should be additional to what would have otherwise
occurred without the projects.

Institutional structure
The institutional structure created for implementation of CDM includes three new
entities:
◻ Executive Board;
◻ Designated National Authority; and
◻ Designated Operational Entity.

Sequence of the CDM project cycle: actors and activities

Stage Actors Activities

1. Project Proponent Project design

2. Host Country Designated National Project approval
Authority (DNA)
3. Designated Operational Entity Validation of the project
(DOE) design document

4. CDM Executive Board (EB) Registration of the project

5. Project Proponent Project Implementation and
Monitoring
6. Designated Operation Entity (DOE) Verification andcertification of emission
reduction from the project.
7. CDM Executive Board (EB) Issuance of Certified Emission
Reductions (CERs)

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) Project Cycle

The Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol defines a series of steps necessary to
develop certified emissions reductions (CERs):

1. Project Design
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 2. Project Validation
3. Host Country Approval
4. Registration with the CDM Executive Board
5. Implementation and Monitoring
6. Verification/Certification and Issuance of CERs
7. Sale of CERs

1. ProjectDesign
The first step starts with a determination of whether the project concept would qualify as a CDM
project, including screening against project criteria, estimating the magnitude of emissions
reductions, and preparing a Project Design Document (PDD) to meet certain specifications. The
PDD must address the following key issues:

• Establishing the "baseline" for the project, which represents the anthropogenic emissions
that would occur in the absence of the proposed project activity? The current flaring of gas
may be an important consideration in establishing this baseline.
• Demonstrating "additionality," which in essence is a demonstration that the proposed
project is not "business as usual." While this criterion has proved to be controversial on
some projects, a series of guidelines is now available for making the additionality
demonstration. and there is precedent for landfill gas recovery projects of the type
envisioned.
• A monitoring methodology that effectively addresses gas flow and composition.

It is also critical to provide a basis for legal ownership of the project activity, i.e. the rights to the
gas generated at landfill or wastewater treatment plant.

2. ProjectValidation
Validation is the process by which the PDD is independently evaluated by a "designated operation
entity" (DOE) against the requirements of the CDM. The DOE must be a third party, separate and
apart from the project developer and preparer of the PDD. Information submitted to the DOE
should include comments by the local stakeholders and a summary of how due account was taken
of any such comments, as well as an analysis of any environmental impact of the project's activity.

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Based on its review, the DOE issues a validation report and opinion as to the adequacy of the PDD.
The project developer/PDD consultant must respond to queries and comments to the satisfaction
of the DOE for the final validation report to be issued.

3. Host Country Approval

Upon validation of the proposed project by the DOE, the following documentation must be
submitted to the designated national authority (DNA) for host country approval:
1. The validation report.
2. The PDD, including a description of how the project will contribute to sustainable
development.
3. If required by local law, an approved environmental impact assessment.
4. A written commitment to deliver an annual report on the results of monitoring,
certification, and issuance of CERs.
Once the DNA requirements have been satisfied, a Letter of Approval is issued for the project.

4. RegistrationwiththeCDMExecutiveBoard
Following the issuance of the Letter of Approval, a request for registration is submitted to the
CDM Executive Board in the form of the validation report, including the PDD, the written approval
of the DNA and an explanation of how this takes into account any comments received. The CDM
Executive Board reviews the proposal and may invite public comment or ask for additional
information/details before rejecting or accepting the proposal, which becomes a public document
once submitted to the CDM Executive Board. Registration is a formal acceptance by the CDM
Executive Board of a validated project as a CDM project activity and is the official recognition of
the project feasibility to generate CER.

5. ImplementationandMonitoring
Once the project has been validated, detailed engineering activities can be undertaken in parallel
with the CDM approval process. Typically, construction would not occur until after CDM
Executive Board approval. Monitoring of emissions reductions, as specified in the PDD
monitoring plan, would then be implemented. In order to calculate the emissions reductions, the
emissions of the project activity have to be subtracted from the reference scenario or Baseline
outlined in the PDD.

6. Verification/Certification and issuance of CERs

Verification is required by a DOE, separate and apart from the preparer of the PDD and the DOE
responsible for project validation, in order to demonstrate that actual emissions reductions are
consistent with the PDD. A certification report is required on an annual basis to quantify the
actual emissions reductions achieved during that period. The second DOE conducts on-site
inspections, reviews monitoring results, and provides a verification report to the CDM Executive
Board. The certification constitutes a request to the CDM Executive Board for issuance of CERs
equal to the verified amount of reductions from the project. This issuance should be considered
final 15 days after the day of receipt of the request for issuance, unless issues are raised by the
CDM Executive Board or other parties involved. The requisite amount of CERs is then deposited
in the registry account of the project developer.

7. Sale of CERs
The process of negotiating the sale of the CERs can usually start as the PDD is being finalized. A
Term Sheet spelling out the terms of the agreement is initially prepared and later used for

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drafting the so-called Emissions Reductions Purchase Agreement (ERPA). These agreements
define the amount of CERs to be transferred, the purchase price, the time period of delivery, and
other relevant conditions. ENVIRON is experienced in developing these agreements and
working with the buyers in the emissions reductions marketplace, e.g., World Bank’s Prototype
Carbon Fund, tenders by national governments, brokers, and private sector buyer

Benefits and beneficiaries of the CDM

The CDM has the potential of multi-faceted benefits and multiple beneficiaries

Benefits
• Global reduction of greenhouse gases.
• Lesser cost of climate change mitigation.
• Additional benefits through reduction of other pollutants besides GHGs.
• Opening a market for carbon investment.
• Additional financial resources and alternative technologies.
• Initiatives for adaptation to climate change impacts.
• Focus on sustainable development.
• Scope for cooperation at various levels (national, sub-regional,
Regional and global).
Beneficiaries
• Developed countries.
• Countries with economy in transition.
• Developing countries.
• Small inland countries.
• Public sector.
• Private sector.

4.2 CARBON FOOTPRINT

INTRODUCTION:

‘Carbon footprint’ measures the total greenhouse gas emissions caused directly and indirectly by
a person, organization, event or product.

The footprint considers all six of the Kyoto Protocol greenhouse gases: Carbon dioxide (CO2),
Methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide (N2O), Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and
Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6).

A carbon footprint is measured in tones of carbon dioxide equivalent (tCO2e). The carbon dioxide
equivalent (CO2e) allows the different greenhouse gases to be compared on a like-for- like basis
relative to one unit of CO2. CO2e is calculated by multiplying the emissions of each of the six
greenhouse gases by its 100 year global warming potential (GWP).

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The main types of carbon footprint for organizations are:

A) ORGANISATIONAL CARBON FOOTPRINT

Emissions from all the activities across the organization, including buildings’ energy use,
industrial processes and company vehicles.

An organizational or business carbon footprint measures the direct and indirect greenhouse
gas emissions arising from all of an organization’s activities. A good place to get an estimation
of your business carbon footprint is our carbon footprint indicator. Read more about
organizational carbon footprints below.

• Types of emissions
• Why calculate
• How to calculate - organizational carbon footprints
• How we can help

The Greenhouse Gas Protocol* standard is commonly used to categorize an organization’s

emissions into 3 groups or ‘scopes’:

• Scope 1 - Direct emissions

Direct emissions resulting from activities within the organization’s control. Includes on-
site fuel combustion, manufacturing and process emissions, refrigerant losses and
company vehicles.
• Scope 2 - Indirect emissions: electricity and heat
Indirect emissions from electricity, heat or steam purchased and used by the organization.
• Scope 3 - Indirect emissions: other
Any other indirect emissions from sources not directly controlled by the organization.
Examples include: employee business travel, outsourced transportation, waste disposal,
water usage and employee commuting.

Under the Greenhouse Gas Protocol, an organization must include scope 1 and 2 emissions within
its carbon footprint. There is broad discretion about which scope 3 emissions should be included
in a business carbon footprint - for example; organizations often include waste disposed to landfill
and employee business travel from scope 3.

If you have your energy usage details, use our carbon footprint calculator to calculate your
organizational carbon footprint.

* The Greenhouse Gas Protocol: A Corporate Accounting and Reporting Standard, revised
edition. World Business Council for Sustainable Development and World Resources Institute.

The 2 main reasons for calculating an organizational carbon footprint are that it will help you to:

• Manage and reduce emissions

Reducing your business carbon footprint often results in cost savings. Analyzing your
organization’s carbon footprint will help you to identify and prioritize areas for potential
reduction.

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 • Reporting
More and more organizations want to be able to demonstrate their carbon footprint for
reasons of:
o Mandatory reporting requirements
Climate change legislation such as the Carbon Reduction Commitment Energy
Efficiency Scheme (CRC) or EU Emissions Trading Scheme require such
reporting, for example.
o Corporate social responsibility (CSR)
Showing that you are behaving in a responsible and ethical way is becoming ever
more important
o Responding to requests
Partners, customers and investors are increasingly interested in carbon emissions
data. There are also carbon reporting initiatives such as the Carbon Disclosure
Project.

Steps:

The basic 6 steps required to calculate a carbon footprint for an organization are as follows:

1. Establishment of the assessment boundaries:

• Organizational
• Operational
• Greenhouse gases
2. Collection of data.
3. Calculation of emissions using appropriate emissions factors
4. Convert usage into CO2 equivalent
5. Verifying the results (optional)
6. Reporting the carbon footprint

1. Method definition
You need to have a consistent method to get accurate results – especially if you are going to rely
on lots of different people to collect and interpret data.
Good sources of standards include:

• Greenhouse Gas Protocol

Free set of commonly used standards
• International Organization for Standardization, ISO 14064
Builds on many of the concepts introduced by the GHG Protocol

2. Establishment of the assessment boundaries:

You will need to define:

• Organizational boundaries
What parts of the organization are included? This can be complex for large organizations
with many subsidiaries, joint ventures or leased assets.
• Operational boundaries
All scope 1 and scope 2 emissions should be included, but the organization can choose
which scope 3 emissions to include.

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When choosing a boundary try to take account of how your organization works, other reporting
periods, legislative requirements, and the practicalities of data collection.

3. Collate data
It is important to collect data as thoroughly and accurately as possible. The main sources of data
are usually:

• Gas and electricity – meter readings or bills (kWh)

• Other fuels – usage in liters, kWh, MJ, liters
• Transport – usage by fuel type (if this is not possible estimate it based on the mileage of
the vehicles and fuel economy assumptions)

4. ConvertusageintoCO2equivalent
The carbon footprint is measured in tones CO2 equivalent (tCO2e). This is calculated by
converting the data you have collected. You should always use conversions from credible sources,
see our conversion factor tables. It is important that you identify any data gaps and list the
assumptions you have made in calculating the footprint.

5. Verifyingtheresults(optional)
To add credibility, it makes sense for a third party to verify your carbon footprint. The Carbon
Trust Standard is one such company that can do this – as well as helping you to measure, reduce,
and communicate your carbon footprint.

6. Reportingthecarbonfootprint
Make sure you carbon footprint is presented clearly and honestly. This means providing complete
information about each of the steps above, including methods, footprint boundaries, data quality
and assumptions. Also - try to keep a consistent approach over different years, explaining any
changes in reporting or business structure that might impact the footprint.

B) PRODUCT CARBON FOOTPRINT

Emissions over the whole life of a product or service, from the extraction of raw materials and
manufacturing right through to its use and final reuse, recycling or disposal.

A product carbon footprint measures the greenhouse gas emissions at each stage of the product’s
life.

A product carbon footprint measures the greenhouse gas emissions at each stage of the product’s
life. This includes:

• Extraction, production and transportation of raw materials

• Manufacture or service provision
• Distribution
• End-use
• Disposal/recycling

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At each stage greenhouse gas emissions can result from such sources as: energy use, transportation
fuel refrigerant losses from air conditioning units and waste. In the case of a “service product” the
life-cycle stages are defined across the duration of the service.

Measuring a product’s carbon footprint offers a number of benefits, including:

• Attracting customers
Customers are becoming increasingly aware of the environmental impact of the goods
and services they use. Working with the Carbon Trust Foot printing Companyor
demonstrating a lower footprint than competitor products can deliver competitive
advantage.
• Brand identity
Reporting product carbon footprints shows that an organization takes its social
responsibility seriously.
• Leadership
Reporting your products’ carbon footprints will support your corporate responsibility
programme and enhance your reputation.
• Cost savings
Identifying areas where greenhouse gas emissions can be reduced often results in cost
savings - in terms of transport energy, waste and packaging for example.
• Emissions savings
Looking at the whole supply chain could help you identify savings.

The basic steps required to calculate a carbon footprint for a product are as follows:
1. Analyze the materials and supply chain processes.
2. Build a supply chain map for the product.
3. Define the assessment boundaries (including the selection of greenhouse gases
and the emissions sources which will be included).
4. Data collection
5. Calculation of emissions using appropriate emissions factors.

1. The primary footprint is a measure of our direct emissions of CO2 from the burning of fossil
fuels including domestic energy consumption and transportation (e.g. car and plane). We have
direct control of these.

2. The secondary footprint is a measure of the indirect CO2 emissions from the whole lifecycle
of products we use - those associated with their manufacture and eventual breakdown. To put it
very simply – the more we buy the more emissions will be caused on our behalf.

Product Carbon Footprints are commonly expressed either as ‘cradle to gate’ footprints, or
‘cradle to grave’ depending on the life-cycle stages included.

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4.3 CARBON CREDIT

INTRODUCTION

Carbon credits are a tradable permit scheme. It is a simple, non-compulsory way to counteract the
greenhouse gasses that contribute to climate change and global warming. Carbon credits create a
market for reducing greenhouse emissions by giving a monetary value to the cost of polluting the
air. The Carbon Credit is this new currency and each carbon credit represents one tonne of carbon
dioxide either removed from the atmosphere or saved from being emitted. Carbon credits are also
called emission permit. Carbon credit is in the Environment and Pollution Control subject. Carbon
credits are certificates awarded to countries that are successful in reducing emissions of greenhouse
gases.

GENERATIONOFCARBONCREDITS

Carbon credits are generated as the result of an additional carbon project. Carbon credits can be
created in many ways but there are two broad types:
1. Sequestration (capturing or retaining carbon dioxide from the atmosphere) such as
afforestation and reforestation activities.
2. Carbon Dioxide Saving Projects such as use of renewable energies
These credits need to be authentic, scientifically based and Verification is essential.
Carbon credit trading is an innovative method of controlling emissions using the free market.

NEEDFORCARBONCREDITS

Over millions of years, our planet has managed to regulate concentrations of greenhouse gases
through sources (emitters) and sinks (reservoirs). Carbon (in the form of CO2 and methane) is
emitted by volcanoes, by rotting vegetation, by burning of fossil fuels and other organic matter.
But CO2 is absorbed, by trees, forests or by some natural phenomenon like photosynthesis and
also oceas to some extent.

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TYPES OF CARBON CREDIT

There are two main markets for carbon credits:

A) Compliance Market credits
B) Verified Market credits (VERs)

VALUE OF CARBON CREDITS

Carbon credits create a market for reducing greenhouse gases emissions by giving a monetary
value to the cost of polluting the air such as carbon emitted by burning of fossil fuels. This
means that carbon becomes a cost of business and is seen like other inputs such as raw materials
or labor.

Carbon credits are measured in tonnes of carbon dioxide.

1 credit = 1 tonne of CO2.
Each carbon credit represents one metric ton of C02 either removed from the atmosphere or
saved from being emitted. The carbon credit market creates a monetary value for carbon credits
and allows the credits to be traded.
For each tonne of carbon dioxide that is saved or sequestered carbon credit producers may sell
one carbon credit.

4.4 CARBON SEQUESTRATION or CARBON CAPTURE AND STROAGE or

SCRUBBING OF CO2

Carbon sequestration is the capture of carbon dioxide (CO2) and may refer specifically to:

• "The process of removing carbon from the atmosphere and depositing it in a reservoir."
When carried out deliberately, this may also be referred to as carbon dioxide removal,
which is a form of geoengineering.

• The process of carbon capture and storage, where carbon dioxide is removed from flue
gases, such as on power stations, before being stored in underground reservoirs.

• Natural biogeochemical cycling of carbon between the atmosphere and reservoirs, such
as by chemical weathering of rocks.

Carbon sequestration describes long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to
either mitigate or defer global warming and avoid dangerous climate change. It has been
proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases, which
are released by burning fossil fuels.

Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological, chemical or
physical processes. Some anthropogenic sequestration techniques exploit these natural processes,
while some use entirely artificial processes.

Carbon dioxide may be captured as a pure by-product in processes related to petroleum refining
or from flue gases from power generation.CO2 sequestration includes the storage part of carbon
capture and storage, which refers to large-scale, permanent artificial capture and sequestration of

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industrially produced CO2 using subsurface salineaquifers, reservoirs, ocean water, aging oil
fields, or other carbon sinks.

STEPS :
A) Capturing or Scrubbing
B) Transporation
C) Sequestration or Storage

A) CAPTURING or SCRUBBING OF CO2:

TECHNOLOGIES:
Broadly, three different types of technologies for scrubbing of CO2 exist:
1. post-combustion,
2. pre-combustion, and
3. oxyfuel combustion
4. Chemical looping
1. Post-Combustion: In post combustion capture, the CO2 is removed after combustion of the
fossil fuel — this is the scheme that would be applied to fossil-fuel burning power plants. Here,
carbon dioxide is captured from flue gases at power stations or other large point sources. The
technology is well understood and is currently used in other industrial applications, although not
at the same scale as might be required in a commercial scale power station.

2. Pre-Combustion : The technology for pre-combustion is widely applied in fertilizer, chemical,

gaseous fuel (H2, CH4), and power production. In these cases, the fossil fuel is partially oxidized,
for instance in a gasifier. The resulting syngas (CO and H2O) is shifted into CO2 and more H2. The
resulting CO2 can be captured from a relatively pure exhaust stream. The H2 can now be used as
fuel; the carbon dioxide is removed before combustion takes place. There are several advantages
and disadvantages when compared to conventional post combustion carbon dioxide capture. The
CO2 is removed after combustion of fossil fuels, but before the flue gas is expanded to atmospheric
pressure. This scheme is applied to new fossil fuel burning power plants, or to existing plants
where re-powering is an option. The capture before expansion, i.e. from pressurized gas, is
standard in almost all industrial CO2 capture processes, at the same scale as will be required for
utility power plants.

3. Oxy-Fuel Combustion: In oxy-fuel combustion the fuel is burned in oxygen instead of air. To
limit the resulting flame temperatures to levels common during conventional combustion, cooled
flue gas is re-circulated and injected into the combustion chamber. The flue gas consists of mainly
carbon dioxide and water vapor, the latter of which is condensed through cooling. The result is an
almost pure carbon dioxide stream that can be transported to the sequestration site and stored.
Power plant processes based on oxy fuel combustion are sometimes referred to as "zero emission"
cycles, because the CO2 stored is not a fraction removed from the flue gas stream (as in the cases
of pre- and post-combustion capture) but the flue gas stream itself. A certain fraction of the CO2
generated during combustion will inevitably end up in the condensed water. To warrant the label
"zero emission" the water would thus have to be treated or disposed of appropriately. The technique
is promising, but the initial air separation step demands a lot of energy.

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4. Chemical looping combustion (ClC): Chemical looping uses a metal oxide as a solid oxygen
carrier. Metal oxide particles react with a solid, liquid or gaseous fuel in a fluidized bed combustor,
producing solid metal particles and a mixture of carbon dioxide and water vapor. The water vapor
is condensed, leaving pure carbon dioxide which can then be sequestered. The solid metal particles
are circulated to another fluidized bed where they react with air, producing heat and regenerating
metal oxide particles that are re circulated to the fluidized bed combustor.

5. Calcium looping: A variant of chemical looping is calcium looping, which uses the alternating
carbonation and then calcinations of a calcium oxide based carrier as a means of capturing CO2.

B) TRANSPORT:
After capture, the CO2 would have to be transported to suitable storage sites. This is done by
pipeline, which is generally the cheapest form of transport. In 2008, there were approximately
5,800 km of CO2 pipelines in the United States, used to transport CO2 to oil production fields
where it is then injected into older fields to extract oil. The injection of CO2 to produce oil is
generally called Enhanced Oil Recovery or EOR.
In addition, there are several pilot programs in various stages to test the long-term storage of CO2
in non-oil producing geologic formations.
A COA conveyor belt system or ship could also be utilized for transport. These methods are
currently used for transporting CO2 for other applications.

C) SEQUESTRATION or STORAGE:
Various forms have been conceived for permanent storage of CO2. These forms include gaseous
storage in various deep geological formations (including saline formations and exhausted gas
fields), liquid storage in the ocean, and solid storage by reaction of CO2 with metal oxides to
produce stable carbonates.

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i) GEOLOGICAL STORAGE: Also known as geo-sequestration, this method involves injecting
carbon dioxide, generally in supercritical form, directly into underground geological formations.
Oil fields, gas fields, saline formations, unmineable coal seams, and saline-filled basalt formations
have been suggested as storage sites. Various physical (e.g., highly impermeable cap rock) and
geochemical trapping mechanisms would prevent the CO2 from escaping to the surface.
Enhanced oil recovery:CO2 is sometimes injected into declining oil fields to increase oil
recovery. This option is attractive because the geology of hydrocarbon reservoirs is generally well
understood and storage costs may be partly offset by the sale of additional oil that is recovered.
Disadvantages of old oil fields are their geographic distribution and their limited capacity, as well
as the fact that subsequent burning of the additional oil so recovered will offset much or all of the
reduction in CO2 emissions.
Unmineable coal seams can be used to store CO2 because the CO2 molecules attach to the surface
of coal. The technical feasibility, however, depends on the permeability of the coal bed. In the
process of absorption the coal releases previously absorbed methane, and the methane can be
recovered (enhanced coal bed methane recovery). The sale of the methane can be used to offset a
portion of the cost of the CO2 storage. Burning the resultant methane, however, would produce
CO2, which would negate some of the benefit of sequestering the original CO2.

II) OCEAN STORAGE:

Another proposed form of carbon storage is in the oceans. Several concepts have been proposed:
• 'Dissolution' injects CO2 by ship or pipeline into the ocean water column at depths of 1000
– 3000 m, forming an upward-plume, and the CO2 subsequently dissolves in seawater.
• Through 'lake' deposits, by injecting CO2 directly into the sea at depths greater than 3000
m, where high-pressure liquefies CO2, making it denser than water, and forms a downward-
plume that may accumulate on the sea floor as a 'lake', and is expected to delay dissolution
of CO2 into the ocean and atmosphere, possibly for millennia.
• Use a chemical reaction to combine CO2 with a carbonate mineral (such as limestone) to
form bicarbonate(s), for example: CO2 + CaCO3 + H2O → Ca(HCO3)2(aq). However, the
aqueous bicarbonate solution must not be allowed to dry out, or else the reaction will
reverse.
• Store the CO2 in solid clathrate hydrates already existing on the ocean floor,[23][24] or
growing more solid clathrate.
The environmental effects of oceanic storage are generally negative, and poorly understood. Large
concentrations of CO2 could kill ocean organisms, but another problem is that dissolved CO2
would eventually equilibrate with the atmosphere, so the storage would not be permanent.In
addition, as part of the CO2 reacts with the water to form carbonic acid, H2CO3, the acidity of the
ocean water increases.
The bicarbonate approach would reduce the pH effects and enhance the retention of CO 2 in the
ocean, but this would also increase the costs and other environmental effects.

III) MINERAL STORAGE:

In this process, CO2 is exothermically reacted with available metal oxides, which in turn produces
stable carbonates. This process occurs naturally over many years and is responsible for a great
amount of surface limestone. The reaction rate can be made faster, for example by

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reacting at higher temperatures and/or pressures, or by pre-treatment of the minerals, although this
method can require additional energy.
Carbon sequestration by reacting naturally occurring Mg and Ca containing minerals with CO2 to
form carbonates has many unique advantages. Most notable is the fact that carbonates have a lower
energy state than CO2, which is why mineral carbonation is thermodynamically favorable and
occurs naturally (e.g., the weathering of rock over geologic time periods). Secondly, the raw
materials such as magnesium based minerals are abundant. Finally, the produced carbonates are
unarguably stable and thus re-release of CO2 into the atmosphere is not an issue. However,
conventional carbonation pathways are slow under ambient temperatures and pressures. The
significant challenge being addressed by this effort is to identify an industrially and
environmentally viable carbonation route that will allow mineral sequestration to be implemented
with acceptable economics

4.5 POLLUTER PAYS PRINCIPLE

The polluter pays principle (PPP) is a basic economic idea that firms or consumers should pay for
the cost of the negative externality they create. The polluter pays principle usually refers to
environmental costs, but it could be extended to any external cost.

In a purely free market, you would only face your private costs. However, for goods with negative
externalities, there are additional external costs, e.g. damage to the environment. This means the
social cost of some goods are greater than the private cost.

The polluter pays principle is simply the idea that we should pay the total social cost including the
environmental costs. This requires some authority or government agency to calculate our external
costs and make sure that we pay the full social cost. A simple example, is a tax on petrol. When
consuming petrol, we create pollution. The tax means the price we pay more closely reflects the
social cost.

The polluter pays principle is a way of ‘internalizing the externality’. It makes the firm / consumer
pay the total social cost, rather than just the private cost. (Social cost = private cost+ external cost)

The polluter pays principle is an important basis of international law. In 1972, the OECD
(Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development)wrote Guiding Principles concerning
International Economic Aspects of Environmental Policies, stating:

“ The polluter should bear the expenses of carrying out the above-mentioned measures decided by
public authorities to ensure that the environment is in an acceptable state.”

The polluter pays principle was incorporated into the 1992 Rio summit the declaration stated:

“National authorities should endeavor to promote the internalization of environmental costs and
the use of economic instruments, taking into account the approach that the polluter should, in
principle, bear the cost of pollution, with due regard to the public interest and without distorting
international trade and investment.”

15
Difficulties of implementing polluter pays principle

• It can be difficult to measure how much pollution is produced, e.g. firms may try to hide
the extent of their pollution.
• It can be difficult to impose regulations or tax on firms from other countries. For example,
when we contribute to global warming, the problem effects everyone around the world, but
it can be difficult to create international agreements to impose penalties on those polluting.
• Pollution havens. These are countries which have weaker environmental legislation and
firms can escape taxes and regulations on pollution by shifting production to those
countries.
• Some costs are unexpected and occur after the event. e.g. in building nuclear power plant.
• Administration costs of collecting information and implementing tax. For example, a few
drunks late at night may make a lot of noise and disturb the neighbourhood, but it would
be impractical to impose a tax on those who make noise after a hard-days night.
Administration costs have prevented the extension of congestion charge to smaller cities
like Manchester – even though in principle it would make economic sense to have a charge
for those who cause the external cost of congestion.

4.6 GREEN BUILDING or GREEN CONSTRUCTION OR SUSTAINABLE BUILDING

"A green building is one which uses less water, optimizes energy efficiency, conserves
natural resources, generates less waste and provides healthier spaces for occupants, as
compared to a conventional building."

Green construction or sustainable building refers to a structure and using process that is
environmentally responsible and resource-efficient throughout a building's life-cycle: from siting
to design, construction, operation, maintenance, renovation, and demolition.

Objectives:
Efficiently using energy, water, and other resources
Protecting occupant health and improving employee productivity
Reducing waste, pollution and environmental degradation

Buildings can be rated for their environmentally sustainable construction. One such rating
system is the LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design).
This building rating system was developed by the U.S. Green Building Council (GBC)
The other rating systems are BREEAM (Building Research Establishment's Environmental
Assessment method -United Kingdom)and CASBEE (Comprehensive Assessment System for
Building Environmental Efficiency-Japan) help consumers determine a structure’s level of
environmental performance.

What is LEED?

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Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) is a rating system devised by the United
States Green Building Council (USGBC) to evaluate the environmental performance of a building
and encourage market transformation towards sustainable design.

The system is credit-based, allowing projects to earn points for environmentally friendly actions
taken during construction and use of a building.

What types of buildings can use LEED?

LEED certification is available for all building types including new construction and major
renovation; existing buildings; commercial interiors; core and shell; schools and homes. LEED
systems for neighborhood development, retail and healthcare are currently pilot testing. To date,
there is over 4.5 billion square feet of construction space involved with the LEED system.

How does LEED work?

LEED is a point based system where building projects earn LEED points for satisfying specific
green building criteria. Within each of the seven LEED credit categories, projects must satisfy
particular prerequisites and earn points.

The rating system addresses six major areas:

1. Sustainable sites;
2. Water efficiency;
3. Energy and atmosphere;
4. Materials and resources;
5. Indoor environmental quality; and
6. Innovation and design process.

LEED certification levels:

four progressive levels according to the following scale:
Certified 40–49 points
Silver 50–59 points
Gold 60–79 points
Platinum 80 points and above

In 2004, the European Commission initiated the Green Building Program (GBP). This program
aims at improving the energy efficiency and expanding the integration of renewable energies in
non-residential buildings in Europe on a voluntary basis.

Green building materials offer specific benefits to the building owner and building occupants:
• Reduced maintenance/replacement costs over the life of the building.
• Energy conservation.
• Improved occupant health and productivity.
• Lower costs associated with changing space configurations.
• Greater design flexibility.

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Green building material/product selection criteria
1. Resource efficiency
2. Indoor air quality
3. Energy efficiency
4. Water conservation
5. Affordability
1. Resource Efficiency can be accomplished by utilizing materials that meet the following
criteria:
• Recycled Content: Products with identifiable recycled content, including postindustrial
content with a preference for postconsumer content.
• Natural, plentiful or renewable: Materials harvested from sustainably managed sources
and preferably have an independent certification (e.g., certified wood) and are certified by
an independent third party.
• Resource efficient manufacturing process: Products manufactured with resource-
efficient processes including reducing energy consumption, minimizing waste (recycled,
recyclable and or source reduced product packaging), and reducing greenhouse gases.
• Locally available: Building materials, components, and systems found locally or
regionally saving energy and resources in transportation to the project site.
• Reusable or recyclable: Select materials that can be easily dismantled and reused or
recycled at the end of their useful life.
• Recycled or recyclable product packaging: Products enclosed in recycled content or
recyclable packaging.
• Durable: Materials that are longer lasting or are comparable to conventional products with
long life expectancies.

2. Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) is enhanced by utilizing materials that meet the following criteria:

• Low or non-toxic: Materials that emit few or no carcinogens, reproductive toxicants, or

irritants as demonstrated by the manufacturer through appropriate testing.
• Minimal chemical emissions: Products that have minimal emissions of Volatile Organic
Compounds (VOCs). Products that also maximize resource and energy efficiency while
reducing chemical emissions.
• Low-VOC assembly: Materials installed with minimal VOC-producing compounds, or
no-VOC mechanical attachment methods and minimal hazards.
• Moistureresistant:Products and systems that resist moisture or inhibit the growth of
biological contaminants in buildings.
• Healthfully maintained: Materials, components, and systems that require only simple,
non-toxic, or low-VOC methods of cleaning.
• Systems or equipment: Products that promote healthy IAQ by identifying indoor air
pollutants or enhancing the air quality.

3. Energy Efficiency can be maximized by utilizing materials and systems that meet the
following criteria:
• Materials, components, and systems that help reduce energy consumption in buildings
and facilities.
4. Water Conservation can be obtained by utilizing materials and systems that meet the
following criteria:

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 • Products and systems that help reduce water consumption in buildings and conserve
water in landscaped areas.

5. Affordability can be considered when building product life-cycle costs are comparable to
conventional materials or as a whole, are within a project-defined percentage of the overall budget.

BENEFITS OF GREEN BUILDING

Buildings have an enormous impact on the environment, human health, and the economy. The
successful adoption of green building strategies can maximize both the economic and
environmental performance of buildings.

1. Environmental benefits 2.Economic benefits 3.Social benefits

1. Environmental benefits:

▪ Enhance and protect biodiversity and ecosystems

▪ Improve air and water quality
▪ Reduce waste streams
▪ Conserve and restore natural resources

2. Economic benefits:
▪ Reduce operating costs
▪ Create, expand, and shape markets for green product and services
▪ Improve occupant productivity
▪ Optimize life-cycle economic performance

3. Social benefits:
▪ Enhance occupant comfort and health
▪ Heighten aesthetic qualities
▪ Minimize strain on local infrastructure
▪ Improve overall quality of life

4.7 GREEN COMPUTING ORGREEN IT OR ICT SUSTAINABILITY

Definition :"the study and practice of designing, manufacturing, using, and disposing of
computers, servers, and associated subsystems—such as monitors, printers, storage devices, and
networking and communications systems — efficiently and effectively with minimal or no impact
on the environment”

Introduction:
The primary objective of such a program is to account for the triple bottom line (or "People,
Planet, Profit").
The term "green computing" was probably coined shortly after the Energy Star program began.

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The goals are similar to green chemistry namely to reduce the use of hazardous materials;
maximize energy efficiency during the product's lifetime; and promote recyclability or
biodegradability of defunct products and factory waste.
The Green Electronics Council offers the Electronic Products Environmental Assessment Tool
(EPEAT) to assist in the purchase of "green" computing systems.
Climate Savers Computing Initiative (CSCI) is an effort to reduce the electric power
consumption of PCs in active and inactive states. The name stems from the World Wildlife Fund's
Climate Savers program, which was launched in 1999. The WWF is also a member of the
Computing Initiative.

In 1992, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency launched Energy Star, a voluntary labeling
program that is designed to promote and recognize energy-efficiency in monitors, climate control
equipment, and other technologies. This resulted in the widespread adoption of sleep mode among
consumer electronics. Concurrently, the Swedish organization TCO Development launched the
TCO Certification program to promote low magnetic and electrical emissions from CRT-based
computer displays; this program was later expanded to include criteria on energy consumption,
ergonomics, and the use of hazardous materials in construction

So why should a company promote green, or energy efficient computing?

• Climate Change: First and foremost, conclusive research shows that CO2 and other
emissions are causing global climate and environmental damage
• Savings: Green computing can lead to serious cost savings over time.
• Reliability of Power: Energy efficient systems helps ensure healthy power systems. Also,
more companies are generating more of their own electricity, which further motivates them
to keep power consumption low.
• Computing Power Consumption has Reached a Critical Point: Data centers have run out of
usable power and cooling due to high densities.
Here are some steps that can be taken:
• Power-down the CPU and all peripherals during extended periods of inactivity.
• Try to do computer-related tasks during contiguous, intensive blocks of time, leaving
hardware off at other times.
• Power-up and power-down energy-intensive peripherals such as laser printers according
to need.
• Use liquid-crystal-display (LCD) monitors rather than cathode-ray-tube (CRT) monitors.
• Use notebook computers rather than desktop computers whenever possible.
• Use the power-management features to turn off hard drives and displays after several
minutes of inactivity.
• Minimize the use of paper and properly recycle waste paper.
• Dispose of e-waste according to federal, state and local regulations.
• Employ alternative energy sources for computing workstations, servers, networks and
data centers.

Approaches to green computing

1. Virtualization
Computer virtualization is the process of running two or more logical computer systems on one
set of physical hardware. The concept originated with the mainframe operating systems of the

20
1960s, but was commercialized for x86-compatible computers only in the 1990s. With
virtualization, a system administrator could combine several physical systems into virtual
machines on one single, powerful system, thereby unplugging the original hardware and reducing
power and cooling consumption.

Eg:Intel Corporation and AMD

2. Power management
The Advanced Configuration and Power Interface (ACPI), an open industry standard, allows an
operating system to directly control the power saving aspects of its underlying hardware. This
allows a system to automatically turn off components such as monitors and hard drives after set
periods of inactivity. In addition, a system may hibernate, where most components (including the
CPU and the system RAM) are turned off. ACPI is a successor to an earlier Intel-Microsoft
standard called Advanced Power Management, which allows a computer's BIOS to control power
management functions.
Some programs allow the user to manually adjust the voltages supplied to the CPU, which reduces
both the amount of heat produced and electricity consumed. This process is called under volting.
Some CPUs can automatically under volt the processor depending on the workload.

3. Low performance computers

As of 2007, several personal computer vendors (e.g., Everex, Linutop, Systemax, Zonbu and
OLPC) ship dedicated low-power PCs. These systems provide minimal hardware peripherals and
low performance processors, which makes them impractical for applications that require a lot of
processing power such as computer gaming and video production. A low power PCs is usually
much smaller than traditional desktop. The limited capacity for upgrades, low performance and
proprietary may lead to shorter life spans and greater difficulty in repair. Older laptops may
provide similar performance with low power consumption. Reusing second-hand laptops may be
an even more energy and material efficient alternative to such systems.

Routers, such as those compatible with the Linksys WRT54G, may be adapted for use in low
power applications using replacement firmware.

4. More efficient components

4.1 : Power supply: Desktop computer power supplies (PSUs) are generally 70–75% efficient,
dissipating the remaining energy as heat.
4.2 : Storage: Smaller form factor (e.g. 2.5 inch) hard disk drives often consume less power
than physically larger drives.
4.3 : Display :LCD monitors typically use a cold-cathode fluorescent bulb to provide light for
the display. Some newer displays use an array of light-emitting diodes(LEDs)
in place of the fluorescent bulb, which reduces the amount of electricity used
by the display.

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5. Materials recycling
Recycling computing equipment can keep harmful materials such as lead, mercury, and hexavalent
chromium out of landfills, but often computers gathered through recycling drives are shipped to
developing countries where environmental standards are less strict.
Eg: printer cartridges, paper, and batteries

4.8 NANOTECHNOLOGY

Definition
The systematic manipulation of matter on the length scale 1-100 nm to produce useful new
engineered structures, materials, or devices.
Nanotechnology (NT) can be defined as the creation and use of materials, devices and
systems in a size range of molecular and atomic scale (Nano-scale1).
As it deals with the manipulation of molecules it is also termed as molecular manufacturing.
The prefix, “Nano” of Nanotechnology describes a scale nanometer.

Nanometre
A nanometre is thousand millionth of a metre (1 nm = 10-9 m). Some practical examples for
knowing the nanometre scale are as follows:
It is comparable to
• 1/80.000 of the diameter of a human hair (Institute of Nanotechnology, 2002) or
• 1/10.000 times the size of a bacteria (Drexler, 1986, p.11) or
• 1000 times smaller than the present micro-metre devices or
• 10 times the diameter of a hydrogen atom.
An early promoter of the industrial applications of NT, Albert Franks, defined it as 'that
area of science and technology where dimensions and tolerances in the range of 0.1nm
to 100 nm play a critical role'

Challenging Environmental Issues

• Legacy Pollutants
– Chlorinated Solvents
– PCBs, PAHs, Chlorinated Pesticides (e.g.DDT)
– Lead, cadmium, chromium
• Emerging Contaminants
– Pharmaceuticals & Personal Care Products
– Newer pesticides
– Engineered Nanoparticles & their byproducts?
• Common water constituents
– Salinity, hardnes

Potential Applications of Nanotechnology

Most environmental applications of nanotechnology fall into three categories:
(i) Remediation and Mitigation
(ii) Pollution Prevention
(iii) Sensors for environmental agents
(iv) Green nanotech

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Possible applications of Nano Materials
1. As reactants eg: Nano Zero Valent Iron, Nano Silver
2. As catalysts eg: Nano TiO2, Nano CeO2
3. As adsorbents eg: Carbon Nano tubes (CNTs), Mag-PCMAs
4. As sensors eg: CNTs (Carbon nano tubes)

Remediation and Mitigation:

Contamination of subsurface soil and groundwater by organic and inorganic contaminants is an

extensive and vexing environmental problem that stands to benefit from nanotechnology.
Nanotechnology offers the ability to effectively enable contaminant treatment in situ and ex-situ.
The process begins with the injection of nanoparticles into a contaminated aquifer via an injection
well. The nanoparticles are then transported to the source of contamination by the groundwater
flow where they then degrade the contaminant. Nanoparticles can sequester (via adsorption or
complexation), immobilizing them, or they can degrade the contaminants to less harmful
compounds. Contaminant transformations are typically redox reactions. When the nanoparticle is
the oxidant or reductant, it is considered reactive.

Generating less pollution during the manufacture of materials. One example of this is how
researchers have demonstrated that the use of silver nanoclusters as catalysts can significantly
reduce the polluting byproducts generated in the process used to manufacture propylene oxide.
Propylene oxide is used to produce common materials such as plastics, paint, detergents and brake
fluid.

Producing solar cells that generate electricity at a competitive cost. Researchers have
demonstrated that an array of silicon nanowires embedded in a polymer results in low cost but high
efficiency solar cells. This, or other efforts using nanotechnology to improve solar cells, may result
in solar cells that generate electricity as cost effectively as coal or oil.

Increasing the electricity generated by windmills. Epoxy containing carbon nanotubes is being
used to make windmill blades. The resulting blades are stronger and lower weight and therefore
the amount of electricity generated by each windmill is greater.

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Cleaning up of organic chemicals polluting groundwater. Researchers have shown that iron
nano particles can be effective in cleaning up organic solvents that are polluting groundwater. The
nano particles disperse throughout the body of water and decompose the organic solvent in place
this method can be more effective and cost significantly less than treatment methods that require
the water to be pumped out of the ground.
Capturing carbon-dioxide in power plant exhaust. Researchers are developing nanostructers
membrane designed to capture carbondioxide in the exhaust stacks of power plants instead of
releasing it into the air.
Clearing volatile organic compounds (VOC) from air. Researchers have demonstrated a
catalyst that breaks down VOCs at room temperatue. The catalyst is composed of porous
manganese oxide in which gold nano particles can be embedded.
Reducing the cost of fuel cells: changing the space of platinum atoms used in a fuel cell increases
the catalytic ability of the platinum. This allows the fuel cell to function with about 80%, less
platinum significantly reducing the cost of fuel cell.
Storing hydrogen for fuel cell powered cars: Using grapheme layers to increase the binding
energy of hydrogen to the graphene surface in a fuel tank results in higher amount of hydrogen
storage and a lighter weight fuel tank. This could help in the development of practical hydrogen
fueled cars.

4.9 ISO 14000

The ISO is a specialized international organization whose members are the national standards
bodies of 111 countries.
• All standards developed by ISO are voluntary
• ISO 14000 is a series of international standards on environmental management.
• "ISO 14000" is the first international attempt to standardize environmental management
practices around the world.
• ISO 14000 will help integrate the environmental management systems of companies that trade
with each other in all corners of the world.

Scope and Status of ISO 14000

Organization Standards that can be used to implement and evaluate the environmental
management system (EMS) within an organization. Included are:
– the ISO 14000 series of EMS standards;
– the ISO 14010 series of environmental auditing standards; and
– the ISO 14030 series of standards for environmental performance evaluation.
Product Standards that can be used to evaluate environmental impacts from products and
processes. Included in this subgroup are:
– the ISO 14020 series of environmental labeling standards;
– the ISO 14040 series of life-cycle analysis standards; and
– the ISO 14060 series of product standards.

Environmental Labeling
– Type I programs are referred to as "practitioner “programs which are product or product
category based, similar to the Environmental Choice Program or Germany's BlueAngel Program.

24
 – Type II programs are based on common terms and definitions which can be used for self-
declared claims.
– Type III programs are based on a "report card “concept, much like existing nutrition labels.

4.10 ROLE OF IT IN THE ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH

Technology has played a key role in the development of human society. Modern technologies such
as information technology have changed the human lifestyle. Development of sophisticated
instruments like computers, satellites, telecommunication instruments etc have resulted in total
revolution in almost all spheres of life.

The important role of information technology in environment and human health are as follows:

1. Remote sensing: Remote Sensing according to Campbell(1987) is the science of deriving

information about the earth’s land water areas form images acquired at a distance. It relies upon
measurement of electromagnetic energy reflected or emitted from the features of interest.
Regardless of the orientation of the various definitions of Remote Sensing, the acquisition of
images of earth surface features, using sensors, through the electromagnetic spectrum, the
synoptic view advantage and Remote Sensing’s ability to provide data for scientific
technological and sustainable management and monitoring of the environment offer a
convergence.
The Electro-magnetic spectrum (EMS) is the physical basis for Remote Sensing. It is an abstract
idea and diagram of forms of electromagnetic energy for illuminating earth surface features. The
source of energy is divided according to wavelengths.

Steps:
Briefly stated, the process of Remote Sensing involves
1) Making observation using sensors (camera, scanners, radiometers, radar, and lasers) mounted
on platforms (ground, aircraft, satellites, balloons) which may be at considerable height from the
earth surface.
2) Then, recording the observations on a suitable medium (photographic films and magnetic tapes)
or transmitting/down linking the data to a ground receiving station where the data are corrected for
geometric and radiometric distortions.
3) Output products can be provided in computer compatible tapes (CC T) for users that made
requests for the data. Remote sensing serves as a tool for environmental resources (biotic, abiotic
and cultural) assessment and monitoring. Remote sensing has some fundamental advantages that
make it a veritable tool in environmental monitoring and management and impact studies.

2. GIS (GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM)

GIS and Environmental Impacts Assessment:

Tomlin (199O) defines a GIS as ‘a configuration of computer hardware and software specially
designed for the acquisition, maintenance and use of cartographic data’.
GIS as a powerful set of tools for collecting, storing and retrieving at will, transforming and
displaying spatial data from the real world.
The point of note is that a GIS is a computer-assisted system for the acquisition, storage, analysis
and display of geographically are spatially referenced data. GIS is indeed a new application-

25
based field that has lend itself to varieties of human endeavors ranging from business, facility
management to environmental management and resource application areas. Eedy (1995) has
described GIS as a veritable tool in environmental assessment because it:
• Stores large multidisciplinary datasets.
• Identify complex interrelationship between environmental characteristics.
• Evaluate changes over time.
• Can be systematically updated and used for more than one project.
• Serve as a dataset for a variety of mathematical models.
• Store and mampulate3D in addition to 2D files.
• Serve the interests of the general public as well as technical analyst.

Capabilities of GIS:
GIS also have the capability for site impact prediction (SIP), wider area prediction (WAP),
cumulative effect analysis (CEA), and environmental audits and for generating trend analysis
within an environment.
Rodriquez -Bachiller (1995) commenting on its application in ETA studies submits that it is a
veritable tool for generating terrain maps for slope and drainage analysis, land resources
information system for land management, soil information system, geo scientific modeling of
geological formations, disaster planning related to geographically localized catastrophe
monitoring development, contamination and pollution monitoring, flood studies, linking of
environmental database and constructing global database for environmental modeling.

Erickson (1994) suggested 4 four ways of using GIS for EIA. These are:
• Overlay method: This involves overlaying of different layers of interest of the study area
to achieve the needed result.
• Checklist method: This is the listing of environmental components, attributes and
processes categorized under different groups.
• Matrix method: This is the relating of specific project activities to specific types of
impacts.
• Network method: This defines a network of possible impacts that may be triggered by
project activities. It involves project actions, direct and indirect impacts.

Use of GIS in EIA

1 .In Project definition: During project identification and definition, the project proponent
conducts feasibility studies and defines the usefulness of the study. GIS can be very well used for
defining the project by showing the location of the project and its need can be established
with respect to other geographical identities like source of raw material, market for selling, source
of labourer, climatic conditions favorable for the project etc.
2. In evaluating environmental and visual impacts:
Using GIS various types of visual impacts can be evaluated like, how a road will look like? How
much portion of the road will be visible from a particular point? By using DEM we can calculate
and visualize the impact on ground levels either in filling or cutting and area of quarries etc
(Oterholm, 1999).
3 .In scoping system: GIS can serve as a basis for scoping of environmental effects. Once the
basic databases are available, a GIS based system may provide better-targeted guidelines for EIS.
A centralized institutional scoping structure, where by EIS guidelines are issued by a single entity,
is found to be important for the operation of such a system as it can enjoy the Economies

26
of scale and scope involved in setting up and operating a GIS system for scoping purpose (Haklay
et al., 1998).
4. In impact significance determination: A spatial impact assessment methodology based on the
assumption that the importance of environmental impact is dependent, among other things, on the
spatial distribution of the effects and of the affected environment. For each environmental
component like- air, water, biological resources etc., impact indices are calculated based on the
spatial distribution of impacts (Antunes et al., 2001). The fact that GIS is not used in practice to
the extent that it could be used in principle may also be the due to a number of limitations of GIS
like:
Ø Availability of digital data
Ø Cost of start up
Ø System maintenance
Ø Database construction
Ø Availability of hardware and software

3. National management Information system (NIMS) - database for research and development

4. Environmental Information system (ENVIS): It was been created by MoEF in India for
generating network of database for pollution control, clean technologies etc.
Database: Database is the collection of inter-related data on various subjects in computerized
form which can be retrieved whenever required. Now the data regarding birth and death rates,
immunization and sanitation programs can be maintained more accurately than before in
computers at health centers. Database is also available about the diseases like malaria, fluorosis,
AIDS etc. The Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India has taken up the task
of compiling a database on various environmental issues like wildlife, forests cover, wasteland
etc.

3. Human health: Information technology also plays a key role in human health. It helps the
doctors to monitor the health of people of that area. The information regarding outbreak of
epidemic diseases from remote areas can be sent more quickly to the district administration to
take corrective measures. Now, patients can seek help of a super specialist doctor placed at far
off distance. Many hospitals now, take on-line help of experts to provide better treatment and
services to their patients. This has become possible only because of advancement of IT in the
recent times.

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 UNIT-V

ENVIRONMENTAL EHICS, ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

ASSESMENT AND ROLE OF NGOs

5.1 ENVIRONMENTAL EHICS

Excessive rise in population, rampant industrialization and rapid growth in industrial sectors has
led to a great deterioration of Indian environment. However, Environmental management is now
accepted as a major guiding factor for National Development in India. Over the last few decades
there has been a progressive & strengthening of official involvement in environmental
management with increased scientific technical, administrative and legislative back up at the
central and state levels.

ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS

Following is a list of major Environmental Acts and Rules applicable in India.

• The Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act 1974 (as amended upto 1998).
• The Water (Prevention &control of Pollution) cess Act, 1977 (as amended by Amendment Act
1991).
• The Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act 1981 as amended by Amendment Act 1986
• Environment (Protection) Act 1986.
• Hazardous Waste (Management & Handling) Rules 1989.
• The Public Liability Insurance Act 1991.
• Environment Protection Amendment Rule 1983.
• Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemicals (Amendment) Rules 1984.
• The Factories Act 1984.
• The Forest Conservation Act 1980.
• The Notification on Environment Impact Assessment 1994.
Besides this there are a large number of RULES and AMENDEMENTS and a plethora of
STATE LAWS. Only Major acts are briefly discussed here.

5.1.1 THE ENVIRONMENT (PROTECTION) ACT (EPA)

An Act to provide for the protection and improvement of environment and for matters connected
there with:
Whereas the decisions were taken at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment
held at Stockholm in June, 1972, in which India participated, to take appropriate steps for the
protection and improvement of human environment
The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 not only has important constitutionals implications but
also an international background.
This Act may be called the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. It extends to the whole of India.

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Powers and Functions of the Boards
(i) Co-ordination of actions by the State Governments, officers and other authorities--
(a) Under this Act, or the rules made there under, or
(b) Under any other law for the time being in force which is relatable to the objects of this
Act;
(ii) Planning and execution of a nation-wide programme for the prevention, control and
abatement of environmental pollution;
(iii) Laying down standards for the quality of environment in its various aspects;
(iv) Laying down standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants from various
sources whatsoever:
Provided that different standards for emission or discharge may be laid down under this clause
from different sources having regard to the quality or composition of the emission or discharge of
environmental pollutants from such sources;
(v) Restriction of areas in which any industries, operations or processes or class of industries,
operations or processes shall not be carried out or shall be carried out subject to certain
safeguards;
(vi) Laying down procedures and safeguards for the prevention of accidents which may cause
environmental pollution and remedial measures for such accidents;
(vii) Laying down procedures and safeguards for the handling of hazardous substances;
(viii) Examination of such manufacturing processes, materials and substances as are likely to
cause environmental pollution;
(ix) Carrying out and sponsoring investigations and research relating to problems of
environmental pollution;
(x) Inspection of any premises, plant, equipment, machinery, manufacturing or other processes,
materials or substances and giving, by order, of such directions to such authorities, officers
or persons as it may consider necessary to take steps for the prevention, control and
abatement of environmental pollution;
(xi) Establishment or recognition of environmental laboratories and institutes to carry out the
functions entrusted to such environmental laboratories and institutes under this Act;
(xii) collection and dissemination of information in respect of matters relating to environmental
pollution;
(xiii) Preparation of manuals, codes or guides relating to the prevention, control and abatement
of environmental pollution;
(xiv) Such other matters as the Central Government deems necessary or expedient for the
purpose of securing the effective implementation of the provisions of this Act.

Appointment of officers and their Powers and Functions

Without prejudice to the provisions , the Central Government may appoint officers with such
designation as it thinks fit for the purposes of this Act and may entrust to them such of the powers
and functions under this Act as it may deem fit.

Power to give directions

Notwithstanding anything contained in any other law but subject to the provisions of this Act, the
Central Government may, in the exercise of its powers and performance of its functions under this
Act, issue directions in writing to any person, officer or any authority and such person, officer or
authority shall be bound to comply with such directions.3
Explanation--For the avoidance of doubts, it is hereby declared that the power to issue directions
under this section includes the power to direct--

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 (a) the closure, prohibition or regulation of any industry, operation or process; or
(b) stoppage or regulation of the supply of electricity or water or any other service.

RULES TO REGULATE ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

(1) The Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, make rules in respect of
all or any of the matters referred
(2) In particular, and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing power, such rules may
provide for all or any of the following matters, namely:--
(a) the standards of quality of air, water or soil for various areas and purposes;
(b) the maximum allowable limits of concentration of various environmental pollutants
(including noise) for different areas;
(c) the procedures and safeguards for the handling of hazardous substances;
(d) the prohibition and restrictions on the handling of hazardous substances in different
areas;
(e) the prohibition and restriction on the location of industries and the carrying on
process and operations in different areas;
(f) the procedures and safeguards for the prevention of accidents which may cause
environmental pollution and for providing for remedial measures for such accidents.

Prevention, Control and Abatement of Environmental Pollution

Persons carrying on industry operation, etc., not to allow emission or discharge of environmental
pollutants in excess of the standards
Persons handling hazardous substances to comply with procedural safeguards
Furnishing of information to authorities and agencies in certain cases.

Environmental Laboratories

(1) The Central Government15 may, by notification in the Official Gazette,--

(a) establish one or more environmental laboratories;
(b) recognize one or more laboratories or institutes as environmental laboratories to carry
out the functions entrusted to an environmental laboratory under this Act.
(2) The Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, make rules specifying--
(a) the functions of the environmental laboratory;
(b) the procedure for the submission to the said laboratory of samples of air, water, soil
or other substance for analysis or tests, the form of the laboratory report thereon
and the fees payable for such report;
(c) such other matters as may be necessary or expedient to enable that laboratory to
carry out its functions.

Penalty for Contravention of the Provisions of the Act and the Rules, orders and directions

(1) Whoever fails to comply with or contravenes any of the provisions of this Act, or the rules
made or orders or directions issued there under, shall, in respect of each such failure or
contravention, be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to five years with
fine which may extend to one lakh rupees, or with both, and in case the failure or contravention
continues, with additional fine which may extend to five thousand rupees for every day during

30
which such failure or contravention continues after the conviction for the first such failure or
contravention.

(2) If the failure or contravention continues beyond a period of one year after the date of
conviction, the offender shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to
seven years

5.1.2 THE AIR (PREVENTION & CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT

It is also a comprehensive legislation with more than fifty sections. It makes provisions, inter alia,
for Central and State Boards, power to declare pollution control areas, restrictions on certain
industrial units, authority of the Boards to limit emission of air pollutants, power of entry,
inspection, taking samples and analysis, penalties, offences by companies and Government and
cognizance of offences etc.

The Act specifically empowers State Government to designate air pollution areas and to prescribe
the type of fuel to be used in these designated areas. According to this Act, no person can operate
certain types of industries including the asbestos, cement, fertilizer and petroleum industries
without consent of the State Board. The Board can predicate its consent upon the fulfillment of
certain conditions. The Air Act apparently adopts an industry wide “best available technology”
requirement. As in the Water Act, courts may hear complaints under the Act only at the instigation
of, or with the sanction of, the State Board.
The Government passed this Act in 1981 to clean up our air by controlling pollution. It states that
sources of air pollution such as industry, vehicles, power plants, etc., are not permitted to release
particulate matter, lead, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) or other toxic substances beyond a prescribed level. To ensure this, Pollution
Control Boards (PCBs) have been set up by Government to measure pollution levels in the
atmosphere and at certain sources by testing the air. This is measured in parts per million or in
milligrams or micrograms per cubic meter. The particulate matter and gases that are released by
industry and by cars, buses and two wheelers is measured by using air-sampling equipment.
However, the most important aspect is for people themselves to appreciate the dangers of air
pollution and reduce their own potential as polluters by seeing that their own vehicles or the
industry they work in reduces levels of emissions. This Act is created to take appropriate steps for
the preservation of the natural resources of the Earth which among other things includes the
preservation of high quality air and ensures controlling the level of air pollution.
The main objectives of the Act are as follows:
(a) To provide for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution.
(b) To provide for the establishment of central and State Boards with a view to implement the
Act.
(C) To confer on the Boards the powers to implement the provisions of the Act and assign to the
Boards functions relating to pollution
Air pollution is more acute in heavily industrialized and urbanized areas, which are also densely
populated. The presence of pollution beyond certain Limits due to various pollutants discharged
through industrial emission is monitored by the PCBs set up in every state.

Powers and Functions of the Boards

Central Pollution Board: The main function of the Central Board is to implement legislation
created to improve the quality of air and to prevent and control air pollution in the country. The

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Board advises the Central Government on matters concerning the improvement of air quality and
also coordinates activities, provides technical assistance and guidance to State Boards and lays
down standards for the quality of air. It collects and disseminates information in respect of matters
relating to air pollution and performs functions as prescribed in the Act.

State Pollution Control Boards: The State Boards have the power to advise the State Government
on any matter concerning the prevention and control of air pollution. They have the right to inspect
at all reasonable times any control equipment, industrial plant, or manufacturing process and give
orders to take the necessary steps to control pollution.

They are expected to inspect air pollution control areas at intervals or whenever necessary. They
are empowered to provide standards for emissions to be laid down for different industrial plants
with regard to quantity and composition of emission of air pollutants into the atmosphere. A State
Board may establish or recognize a laboratory to perform this function. The State Governments
have been given powers to declare air pollution control areas after consulting with the State Board
and also give instructions to ensure standards of emission from automobiles and restriction on use
of certain industrial plants.

Penalties: The persons managing industry are to be penalized if they produce emissions of air
pollutants in excess of the standards laid down by the State Board. The Board also makes
applications to the court for restraining persons causing air pollution. Whoever contravenes any of
the provision of the Act or any order or direction issued is punishable with imprisonment for a term
which may extend to three months or with a fine of Rs 10,000 or with both, and in case of
continuing offence with an additional fine which may extend to Rs 5,000 for every day during
which such contravention continues after conviction for the first contravention.

5.1.3 THE WATER (PREVENTION & CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT

The government formulated this act in 1974 to prevent the pollution of water by industrial,
agricultural and household wastewater that can contaminate our water sources.

Wastewaters with high levels of pollutants that enter wetlands, rivers, lakes, wells as well as the
sea are serious health hazards. Controlling the point sources by monitoring the levels of different
pollutants is one way to prevent pollution, by punishing the polluter. Individuals can also do several
things to reduce water pollution such as using biodegradable chemicals for household use,
reducing the use of pesticides in gardens, and identifying polluting sources at work places and in
industrial units where oil are or other petroleum products and heavy metals are used. Excessive
organic matter, sediments and infecting organism from hospital wastes can also pollute our water.
Citizen needs to develop a watchdog force to inform authorities to appropriate actions against
different types of water pollution. However, preventing pollution is better than trying to cure the
problems it has created, or punishing offenders.

The main objectives of the Water Act are to provide for prevention, control and abatement of water
pollution and the maintenance or restoration n of the wholesomeness of water. It is designed to
assess pollution levels and punish polluters. The Central Government and State Government have
set up PCBs to monitor water pollution.

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The Water Act 1974 with certain amendments in 1978 is an extensive legislation with more than
sixty sections for the prevention and control of water pollution. Among other things, the Act
provides for constitution of central and State Boards for preventing water pollution, power to take
water samples and their analysis, discharge of sewage or trade effluents, appeals, revision,
minimum and maximum penalties, publication of names of offenders, offences by companies and
Government departments, cognizance of offences, water laboratories, analysis etc. Prevention and
control of water pollution is achieved through a permit or ‘consent administration’ procedure.
Discharge of effluents is permitted by obtaining the consent of the State Water Board, subject to
any condition they specify. Any person who fails to comply with a directive of the State cannot,
however, entertain in suit under this Act unless the suit is brought by, or with the sanction of the
State Board.

WATER POLLUTION CESS ACT 1977

According to this Act, anyone consuming water has to pay certain amount of cess depending on
1. Whether the industry is using water for industrial cooling, spraying in mine pits or boilers feed,
2. For domestic purposes,
3. in processing, whereby water gets polluted and pollutants are easily biodegradable, and
4. in processing whereby water gets polluted and the pollutants are not easily bio-degradable and
are toxic. Those industries that had installed a suitable treatment plant for the treatment of
industrial effluents can get a rebate of 70 per cent on the cess payable.

5.1.4 WILD LIFE PROTECTION ACT

The Act is adopted by all states in India except J&K, which has its own Act
The act is aimed to protect and preserve wild life. Wild life refers to all animals and plants that are
not domesticated. India has rich wild life heritage; it has 350 species of mammals, 1200 species of
birds and about 20,000 known species of insects. Some of them are listed as ‘endangered species’
in the Wild life (Protection) Act. The Act envisages national parks and wild life sanctuaries as
protected areas to conserve wild life. Wild life populations are regularly monitored and
management strategies formulated to protect them.
The Act covers the rights and non-rights of forest dwellers too,- it provides restricted grazing in
sanctuaries but prohibits in national parks. It also prohibits the collection of non-timber forest
produce which might not harm the system. The rights of forest dwellers recognized by the Forest
policy of 1988 are taken away by the Amended Wild life Act of 1991.
The act, a landmark in the history of wildlife legislation in our country by which wildlife was
transferred from State list to concurrent list in 1976, thus giving power to the Central Government
to enact the legislation. In India, nearly 134 animal species have been regarded as threatened. A
National Wildlife action plan has been prepared whose objective is to establish a network of
scientifically managed areas such as national parks, sanctuaries and biosphere reserves, to cover
representative and viable samples of all significant bio-geographic subdivisions within the
country.

The major activities and provisions in the act can be summed up as follows:
1. It defines the wildlife related terminology.
2. It provides for the appointment of wildlife advisory board, wildlife warden, their powers,
duties etc

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3. Under the Act, comprehensive listing of endangered wildlife species was done for the first
time and prohibition of hunting of the endangered species was mentioned
4. Protection to some endangered plants like Beddome cycad, Blue Vanda, Ladies Sliper Orchid,
Pitcher plant etc. is also provided under the Act.
5. The act provides for setting up of National Parks, Wild life Sanctuaries etc.
6. The Act provides for the constitution of Central Zoo Authority.
7. There is provision for trade and commerce in some wildlife species with license for sale,
possession, transfer etc.
8. The Act imposes a ban on the trade or commerce in scheduled animals.
9. It provides for legal powers to officers and punishment of offenders.
10. It provides for captive breeding programme for endangered species. Several conservation
projects for individual endangered species like lion (1972), tiger (1973), crocodile (1974),
and brown antlered deer (1981) were started under this Act.

5.1.5 FOREST CONSERVATION ACT

The Indian Forest Act of 1927 consolidated all the previous laws regarding forests that were passed
before the 1920s. The Act gave the Government and Forest Department the power to create
Reserved Forests, and the right to use Reserved Forests for Government use alone.
It also created Protected Forests, in which the use of resources by local people was controlled.
Some forests were to be controlled by the village community, and these were called village Forests.
The Act remained in force till the 1980s when it was realized that protecting forests for timber
production alone was not acceptable. The other values of protecting the services that forests
provide and its valuable assets such as biodiversity began to overshadow the importance of their
revenue earnings from timber.
This led to the Forest Conservation Act of 1980 and its amendment 1988. India’s first Forest Policy
was enunciated in 1952. Between 1952 and 1988, the extent of deforestation was so great that it
became essential to formulate a new policy on forests and their utilization. The earlier forest
policies had focused only on revenue generation. In the 1980’s it became clear that forests must
be protected for their other functions such as the maintenance of soil and water regimes centered
around ecological concerns. It also provided for the use of goods and services of the forest for its
local inhabitants.
The new policy framework made conversion of forests into other uses much less possible.
Conservation of the forests as a natural heritage finds a place in the new policy, which includes
the preservation of its biological diversity and genetic resources. It also values meeting the needs
of local people for food, fuel wood, fodder and Non Timber Forest Produce or NTFPs. It gives
priority to maintaining environmental stability and ecological balances. It expressly states that the
network of Protected Areas should be strengthened and extended.

The Forest Conservation Act of 1980 was enacted to control deforestation, It ensured that
forestlands could not be de-reserved without prior approval of the Central Government, This was
created as some states had begun to dereserve the Reserved Forests for non-forest use. These states
had regularized encroachments and resettled ‘project Affected people’ from development projects
such as dams in these de-reserved areas. The need for a new legislation became urgent. The Act
made it possible to retain a greater control over the frightening level of deforestation in the country
and specified penalties for offenders.

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Penalties for offences in Reserved Forests:
• No person is allowed to make clearing or ser fire to a reserved forest. Cattle are not permitted to
trespass into the reserved forest, cutting, collecting of timber, bark or leaves, quarrying or
collecting any forest products is punishable with imprisonment for a term of six months or with a
fine which may extended to Rs 500 or both.
Penalties for offences in protected Forests:
• A person who commits any of the following offences like cutting of trees, stripping the bark or
leaves of trees, set fire to such forests or permits cattle to damage any tree, shall be punishable
with imprisonment for a term which may extended to six months or with a fine which any extended
to Rs 500 or both.
• Any forest officer even without an order from the magistrate or a warrant can arrest any person
against whom a reasonable suspicion exists.

5.1.6 ISSUES INVOLVED IN THE ENFORCEMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL

LEGISLATION-PUBLIC AWARENESS

It is necessary to create awareness about the norms and projected environmental restrictions under
which organization may have environmental regulations and legislations rests with a number of
different agencies. Central government is responsible for enforcement of various environmental
legislation for less polluting small scale industries. There is an urgent need to use a range of
measures to complement regulations.

It should be a must for all potential polluters to apply permission to operate, discharge or emit any
pollutants. In addition there should be a greater monitoring. The technique of environmental
assessment is applied to ensure that the significance of potential environmental impacts of
proposed projects are critically examined during the planning process. Another way of increasing
awareness on environmental protection is the introduction of voluntary scheme under which
companies which would meet certain standard of environmental property of their products.

The various expectations in different types of pollution are as follows:

1. Water Pollution:

Under the water resource act of the country it should be criminal offence to cause or knowingly
permit the entry in to controlled water of any poisonous, noxious or polluting matter or any other
solid matter, trade or sewage effluent without the consent. Accidental spillage or discharge of
such materials should be treated as an offence.

2. Air Pollution:

The legal responsibility about air pollution may be found in terms of the environmental
protection act, covering two complementary systems of air pollution (1) the most potentially
polluting activities. The major sources of air pollution are (a) Emission from industrial sources
(b) Emission from motors vehicles, (c) Emission from other sources.

Thus, to prevent air pollution, rules and regulations are required to be framed.

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3. Wastes Disposal:

They may be regulatory bodies for waste disposal, waste collection. These should also be directives
relating to waste on the disposal of waste oil, the disposal of polychlorinated biphenyl, and
polychlorinated phenyls.

After the united Nation's Conference on Human Environment in 1972 the Environmental
legislation got a fresh impieties Indian first systematic approach in dealing with the environmental
issues started from water Act of 1974. This Act was amended in 1988 and a new section 33 A was
introduced which empowers state boards to issue directives to any person to close any industry
and to stop or regulate supply of water and electricity. Because of the continuing environmental
degradation and the Bhopal gas tragedy in 1974 the central government enacted fresh legislation
for adopting more strict environmental policies.

Environmental Protection Act 1986 is one of the most significant legislation to protect the
environment. Under Article 48A, the addition was made to the directive principles of state policy
as the state shall endeavors to protect and improve the environment and safeguard the forests and
wildlife of the country. Article 51A (g| imposes high responsibility on every citizen to protect the
environment and improve natural resources, including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife.

Every citizen has a choice of few records to mitigate pollution. These are (1) a common law and
action (2) a writ petition for completing the agency to enforce the law and (3) a citizen suit.

An upcoming industry must submit No Objection Certificate in respect of pollution before it starts
the implementation process. In case of a large project, it should submit Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) and Environmental Management Plan (EMP) to the Govt. of India for final
clearance of the project.

Recently Supreme Court of India emphasized on the need to strengthen some institutional
machinery to enforce antipollution law across the state. Supreme Court has further suggested that
Government should set up special courts exclusively to deal with cases relating to violation of
environmental laws. Supreme Court has also suggested that chemical industries should be treated
separately. In 1996, Supreme Court has ordered Union Government and local authorities to keep
clean the historical places on a regular basis.

AWARENES:

It is evident that the growing number of poor people, in developing countries due to the rapid
population growth complex with economic constraints contributes to the degradation of
environment and the renewable to the degradation of environment and the renewable sources like
water, forests, and extinction of various species on which the man depends.

For these, greater awareness is needed. Due care is necessary to harness the natural resources, so
that the quality of the environment does not deteriorate. It is unfortunate to note that degradation
of environment continues inspire of environmental legislations and standardization. One of the
reasons for this is improper implementation of the various environmental laws and standards.
The most important reason may lack of awareness and understanding the implicate
environmental degradation.

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5.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

Definition of Impact: An impact can be defined as any change in physical, chemical, biological,
cultural or socio-economic environmental system as a result of activities relating to a project or
adverse effects caused by industrial, infrastructural projects or by the release of a substance into
the environment.

Definition of Impact Assessment: Impact assessment is the process of identifying the future
consequences (bad results) of a proposed project. Impact Assessment ensures that projects,
programs and policies are economically viable, socially equitable and environmentally sustainable.

Definition of Environmental Impact Assessment: The United Nations of Environmental

Programme (UNEP ) defined that EIA is a tool used to identify the environmental and economic
impacts of a project prior to decision making regarding the project planning, design, adverse
impacts, etc.. For all proposed and development projects, whether Government or Private, the
Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) requires an Environmental impact assessment
report related to the following parameters:
The report must define what impact it would have on water; soil and air including flora and
fauna. Affect on the lives of local people.
To ensure that no way harm the environment on a short term or long term basis.

Why is EIA important?

By identifying potential alternatives and adverse impacts, Nations can better achieve goals for
sustainable development; avoid adverse environmental; social and cultural impacts; reduces cost,
provides better plan for infrastructure etc...

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPACTS:
Environment impacts arising from any development projects fall into three categories:
(i) Direct impacts
(ii) Indirect impacts and
(iii) Cumulative impacts.
According to their nature, these three groups reveal:
Positive and negative impacts
Reversible and irreversible impacts
Light, moderate and severe impacts
Local and widespread impacts
Short – term and long – term impacts
For eg to construct a major project:
Direct impacts are related to:
(a) Aesthetics in the area (understanding of beautiful things);
(b) Traffic at nearby junctions,
(c) Removal of natural vegetation;
(d) Interference with natural water ways;
(e) Additional housing or commercial shops to support employees.

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SIGNIFICANCE OF EFFECTS:
Significant effects are likely to occur where valuable resources are subject to impacts of severity.
EIA is recognized by adopting the five levels of significance as described in the draft to good
practice and procedures. These five levels of significances are::
Severe: Sites of national importance and unique resources ( to exist in only one place ) if lost,
cannot be replaced or relocated.
Major: These effects are to be important considerations at a regional or district scale during
the decision making process..
Moderate: These effects at a local scale are likely to be key decision making issues.
Minor: These effects may be raised as local issues but are unimportant in the decision making
process.
Neutral: No effect, not significant.

5.2.1 BASELINE DATA ACQUISITION

Baseline information is important reference point for conducting EIA. The term "baseline" refers
to the collection of background information on the biophysical, social and economic settings
proposed project area. An Environmental Baseline Study (EBS) is an investigation conducted to
establish the level of contaminants in the project areas and to assess the extent of contamination.
The information needed to conduct an EBS can be acquired from the available sources:

Baseline data are collected for two main purposes:

• To provide a description of the status and trends of environmental factors (e.g., air pollutant
concentrations) against which predicted changes can be compared and evaluated in terms
of importance, and
• To provide a means of detecting actual change by monitoring once a project has been
initiated
Land features include topography; climatology ( temperature, rainfall )
Geology & Hydrogeology (Lithology of rock formations, drainage pattern, ground water table)
Air environment (study of SPM, SOx; NOx )
Noise environment
Water Environment (PH; TDS; F; dissolved Oxygen; BOD etc..)
Soil quality Soil analysis reflect the presence of nutrients like N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn and Al
Flora and Fauna of the proposed area
Socio economic study include Population density; Literacy rate; Category of workers viz.,
cultivators, agriculture laborers, etc); Medical facilities; Main sources of availability of water
viz., rivers, canals, hand pumps, taps etc..

5.2.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT PROCESS

Following are the steps involved in a systematic EIA of a highway project:

1. Project definition: The importance and need of the project is defined here and its relation
with regional and national developmental activity is mentioned in this section.

2. Screening: Screening is done as per the statutory notification. Screening criteria are based
upon:
Ø Scales of investment;
Ø Type of development; and
Ø Location of development
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3. Scoping: Scoping is a process of detailing the terms of reference of EIA. It is done by the
consultant in consultation with the project proponent and guidance, if needed, from Impact
Assessment Agency. Quantifiable impacts will be assessed based on magnitude, prevalence,
frequency and duration and non-quantifiable impacts (such as aesthetic or recreational value).
Significance is commonly determined through the socioeconomic criteria. After that the areas,
where the project could have significant impact are identified and the baseline status of these will
be monitored and then the likely changes in these on account of the construction and operation of
the proposed project will be predicted.

4. Baseline information: Baseline data describes the existing environmental status of the
identified study area. The site-specific primary data is monitored for the identified parameters and
supplemented by secondary data if available.

5. Impact prediction: Impact prediction is a way of mapping the environmental consequences of

the significant aspects of the project and its alternative. Environmental impact can never be
predicted with absolute certainty and this is all the more reason to consider all possible factors and
take all possible precautions for reducing the degree of uncertainty.

6. Evaluation of impacts and alternative criteria: For the project possible alternatives are
identified and environmental attributes are compared. These alternatives cover both project
location and process technologies. Alternatives consider .no project. also. Alternatives are
then ranked for selection of the best environmental option for optimum economic benefits to the
community at large.

7. Management plan: This section of the EIA will describe about the mitigation measures to
reduce the harmful effects of the proposed project. Particularly, it will also contain the provision
for rehabilitation of the people affected and displaced by the project.

8. Public participation: Law requires that the public must be informed and consulted on a
proposed development after the completion of EIA report. Public participation can be assured by:
i. Consulting the public directly affected by the proposed project and the voluntary groups like
NGOs or pressure groups having a concern with a specific aspect of the environment.
ii. Conducting direct interviews with the sample from public or by sending questionnaire to the
people from public.
iii. Publishing the summary of EIA report for objections and suggestions from people.

9. Decision making: Decision making process involves the consultation between the project
proponent (assisted by a consultant) and the assessment authority (assisted by an expert group if
necessary). The final decision on acceptance, rejection or clearance is arrived at through a number
of steps including evaluation of EIA and environmental management plan.

10. Monitoring Plan: Monitoring should be done both during construction and operation phases
of a project. Monitoring will enable the regulatory agency to review the validity of predictions and
the conditions of implementation of the Environmental Management Plan.

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5.2.3 METHODS FOR IMPACT IDENTIFICATION

INTRODUCTION:

A logical and systematic approach needs to be taken to impact identification. The aim is to take
account of all of the important environmental/project impacts and interactions, making sure that
indirect and cumulative effects, which may be potentially significant, are not inadvertently omitted.

PROCESS:

This process begins during screening and continues through scoping, which identifies the key
issues and classifies them into impact categories for further study. In the next phase, the likely
impacts are analyzed in greater detail in accordance with terms of reference specifically established
for this purpose. Over time, a number of EIA methodologies and tools have been developed for
use in impact identification.

METHODS:

The most common formal methods used for impact identification are:

• Checklists; • matrices; • networks;

• Overlays and geographic information systems (GIS);

A) Checklists
Checklists annotate the environmental features or factors that need to be addressed when
identifying the impacts of projects and activities. They can vary in complexity and purpose, from
a simple checklist to a structured methodology or system that also assigns significance by scaling
and weighting the impacts (such as the Battelle Environmental Evaluation System). Both simple
and descriptive checklists can be improved and adapted to suit local conditions as experience with
their use is gained.
Checklists provide a systematized means of identifying impacts. They also have been developed
for application to particular types of projects and categories of impacts (such as dams or road
building). Sectoral checklists often are useful when proponents specialize in one particular area of
development.

B) Matrices
A matrix is a grid-like table that is used to identify the interaction between project activities, which
are displayed along one axis, and environmental characteristics, which are displayed along the
other axis. Using the table, environment-activity interactions can be noted in the appropriate cells
or intersecting points in the grid. ‘Entries’ are made in the cells to highlight impact severity or
other features related to the nature of the impact, for instance:
• Ticks or symbols can identify impact type (such as direct, indirect, cumulative) pictorially;
• Numbers or a range of dot sizes can indicate scale; or
• Descriptive comments can be made.

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C) Networks
Networks illustrate the cause-effect relationship of project activities and environmental
characteristics. They are, therefore, particularly useful in identifying and depicting secondary
impacts (indirect, cumulative, etc).
Simplified networks, used in conjunction with other methods, help to ensure that important second-
order impacts are not omitted from the investigation.
More detailed networks are visually complicated, time-consuming and difficult to produce unless
a computer programme is used for the task.
However, they can be a useful aid for establishing ‘impact hypotheses’ and other structured
science-based approaches to EIA.

D) Overlays and geographic information systems

Overlays can be used to map impacts spatially and display them pictorially. The original overlay
technique, popularized by McHarg, is an environmental suitability analysis in which data on
topographic features, ecological values and resource constraints are mapped onto individual
transparencies and then aggregated into a composite representation of potential impacts. This
approach is useful for comparing site and planning alternatives, for routing linear developments to
avoid environmentally sensitive areas and for landscape and habitat zoning at the regional level.
Disadvantages: lack of precision in differentiating the likelihood and magnitude of impacts and
relating them to project actions. A modern version of the overlay method is the computer- based
geographical information system (GIS). In simple terms, a GIS stores, retrieves, manipulates and
displays environmental data in a spatial format. A set of maps or overlays of a given area provide
different types of information and scales of resolution. The use of GIS for EIA purposes is not as
widespread as commonly imagined. The main drawbacks are the lack of appropriate data and the
expense of creating a usable system. However, the potential application of GIS to EIA is widely
acknowledged and its use is expected to increase in the future, particularly to address cumulative
effects.

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5.2.4 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLAN (EMP)

Preparation of environmental management plan is required for formulation, implementation and

monitoring of environmental protection measures during and after commissioning of projects. The
plans should indicate the details as to how various measures have been or are proposed to be taken
including cost components as may be required. Cost of measures for environmental safeguards
should be treated as an integral component of the project cost and environmental aspects should
be taken into account at various stages of the projects:

• Conceptualization: preliminary environmental assessment

• Planning: detailed studies of environmental impacts and design of safeguards
• Execution: implementation of environmental safety measures
• Operation: monitoring of effectiveness of built-in safeguards

The management plans should be necessarily based on considerations of resource conservation

and pollution abatement, some of which are:

• Liquid Effluents
• Air Pollution
• Solid Wastes
• Noise and Vibration
• Occupational Safety and Health
• Prevention, maintenance and operation of Environment Control Systems
• House-Keeping
• Human Settlements
• Transport Systems
• Recovery - reuse of waste products
• Vegetal Cover
• Disaster Planning
• Environment Management Cell

1. Liquid Effluents
o Effluents from the industrial plants should be treated well to the standards as
prescribed by the Central/State Water Pollution Control Boards.
o Soil permeability studies should be made prior to effluents being discharged into
holding tanks or impoundments and steps taken to prevent percolation and ground
water contamination.
o Special precautions should be taken regarding flight patterns of birds in the area.
Effluents containing toxic compounds, oil and grease have been known to cause
extensive death of migratory birds. Location of plants should be prohibited in such
type of sensitive areas.
o Deep well burial of toxic effluents should not be resorted to as it can result in re-
surfacing and ground water contamination. Re-surfacing has been known to cause
extensive damage to crop and livestock’s.
o In all cases, efforts should be made for re-use of water and its conservation.
2. Air Pollution
o The emission levels of pollutants from the different stacks, should conform to the
pollution control standards prescribed by Central or State Boards.

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 o Adequate control equipment should be installed for minimizing the emission of
pollutants from the various stacks.
o In-plant control measures should be taken to contain the fugitive emissions.
o Infrastructural facilities should be provided for monitoring the stack emissions and
measuring the ambient air quality including micro-meteorological data(wherever
required) in the area.
o Proper stack height as prescribed by the Central/State Pollution Control Boards
should be provided for better dispersion of pollutants over a wider area to minimize
the effect of pollution.
o Community buildings and townships should be built up-wind of plant with one-
half to one kilometer greenbelt in addition to physiographical barrier.
3. Solid Wastes
o The site for waste disposal should be checked to verify permeability so that no
contaminants percolate into the ground water or river/lake.
o Waste disposal areas should be planned down-wind of villages and townships.
o Reactive materials should be disposed of by immobilizing the reactive materials
with suitable additives.
o The pattern of filling disposal site should be planned to create better landscape and
be approved by appropriate agency and the appropriately pretreated solid wastes
should be disposed according to the approved plan.
o Intensive programs of tree plantation on disposal areas should be undertaken.
4. Noise and Vibration
Adequate measures should be taken for control of noise and vibrations in the industry.
5. Occupational Safety and Health
Proper precautionary measures for adopting occupational safety and health standards
should be taken.
6. Prevention, maintenance and operation of Environment Control Systems
o Adequate safety precautions should be taken during preventive maintenance and
shut down of the control systems.
o A system of inter-locking with the production equipment should be implemented
where highly toxic compounds are involved.
7. House - Keeping
Proper house-keeping and cleanliness should be maintained both inside and outside of the
industry.
8. Human Settlements
o Residential colonies should be located away from the solid and liquid waste
dumping areas. Meteorological and environmental conditions should be studied
properly before selecting the site for residential areas in order to avoid air pollution
problems.
o Persons, who are displaced or have lost agricultural lands as a result of locating the
industries in the area, should be properly rehabilitated.
9. Transport Systems
o Proper parking places should be provided for the trucks and other vehicles by the
industries to avoid any congestion or blocking of roads.
o Sitting of industries on the highways should be avoided as it may add to more road
accidents because of substantial increase in the movements of heavy vehicles and
unauthorized shops and settlements coming up around the industrial complex.

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 o Spillage of chemicals/substances on roads inside the plant may lead to accidents.
Proper road safety signs both inside and outside the plant should be displayed for
avoiding road accidents.
10. Recovery - reuse of waste products
Efforts should be made to recycle or recover the waste materials to the extent possible.
The treated liquid effluents can be conveniently and safely used for irrigation of lands,
plants and fields for growing non-edible crops.
11. Vegetal Cover
Industries should plant trees and ensure vegetal cover in their premises. This is
particularly advisable for those industries having more than 10 acres of land.
12. Disaster Planning
Proper disaster planning should be done to meet any emergency situation arising due to
fire, explosion, sudden leakage of gas etc. Firefighting equipment and other safety
appliances should be kept ready for use during disaster/emergency situation including
natural calamities like earthquake/flood.
13. Environment Management Cell
Each industry should identify within its setup a Department/Section/Cell with trained
personnel to take up the model responsibility of environmental management as required
for planning and implementation of the projects

5.2.5 ROLE OF NGOs IN THE PROTECTION OF ENVIRONMENT

The protection of environment is a pressing issue. Every person, organization and Institution has
an obligation and duty to protect it. Environmental protection encompasses Not only pollution but
also sustainable development and conservation of natural resources and the ecosystem. Today, the
necessity of environmental awareness and enforcement is more demanding and urgent than ever
before.

NGOs are simply agencies or groups, which are different from government bodies. However,
NGOs are distinctive in containing a voluntary component and also because they do not operate
for profit. Over the past quarter of a century and especially during the past few decades there has
been a rapid growth in the numbers of NGOs involved in the development, in the number of
people working for NGOs and in the amount of money that flows into these voluntary agencies
working in the activities such as –Disaster management and relief, development, public health,
rehabilitation, environment protection etc. However, this paper focuses on the role played by
NGOs particularly in the protection of environment

The emergence of NGOs represents an organized response by civil society especially in those
areas in which the state has either failed to reach or done so in adequately. The importance of
public awareness and NGOs involvement in environmental protection is acknowledged
worldwide. NGO’s have been taking a number of steps to promote discussion and debate about
environmental issues, outside the broad spheres of popular media and the educational system.

NGOs can make the following Contributions:

• Conducting education and citizen awareness programmes in the field of environment
• Fact – finding and analysis
• Filing public interest litigations
• Innovation and experimenting in areas which are difficult for government agencies to

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 make changes in
• Providing expertise and policy analysis
• Providing factual and reliable information with a network of professional expert staff
• Remaining independent while passing relevant information to the public and
governmental bodies
• Solidarity and support to environmental defenders
• Working in collaboration with the government for capacity building and promotion of
community participation in environmental awareness and protection and
• Working out at the grass root level and reaching far – flung areas with or without the
government invitation.

Achievements of environmental NGOs with special reference to

WWF (India), Teri and Clean- India

1. WWF (India) is engaged in a multitude of activities for protection and conservation of the
environment in the Indian context. Climate change and energy conservation are among the chief
areas of concern for the organization. The forest and biodiversity conservation division strives to
promote and enhance conservation of forest ecosystems in the country through a participatory
approach involving key stakeholders. Through its environment education programme, it aims at
strengthening individual and institutional capacity in nature conservation and environmental
protection through widespread education and awareness.
Intimately involved in the conservation of tigers in India since the late 1960s, WWF’s significant
efforts culminated in the launch of Project Tiger in 1973. It seeks to conserve and protect the
biodiversity of maritime life and resources by sensitizing the people at large.
The pollution of the river waters and the imminent threat to aquatic life is a cause of great concern.
WWF (India) has stepped in on a number of occasions to launch campaigns for securing their
habitat, like ‘Save the River Dolphin’ project. WWF believes that if you secure an animal’s habitat,
you secure its right to live

2. CLEAN-INDIA
Deeply concerned with the deteriorating environmental situation in the country, Development
Alternatives initiated the CLEAN-India (Community Led Environment Action Network)
programme with five schools in the national capital in 1996. Today, CLEAN Delhi has about forty
schools regularly involved in monitoring water and air quality in over 150 locations spread across
Delhi. Over 2000 children have been directly trained on environmental assessment and
improvement activities. They keep vigil, assess environmental quality, plead, cajole and lead the
community in monitoring environment. Action programmes like solid waste management,
plantation drives, energy conservation, paper recycling, etc. to improve local environmental
conditions have also been initiated by schools, resident welfare associations, business and
industrial associations as well as individual households.
Campaigns against the use of polybags, firecrackers during Diwali and toxic (chemicalbased)
colours during Holi and for saving the city’s ‘Green Treasure’ are also carried out.
The experience in Delhi indicates that when environment assessment is community based,
it mobilises the community to review the local environmental conditions and take requisite
measures, without waiting for undue external support.
Encouraged by the Delhi experience, NGOs from different towns have operationalised the
CLEAN-India programme. The present CLEAN-India Centers are:

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Delhi, Shillong, Faizabad, Ladakh, Bangalore, Berinag (Kumaon Hills), Jhansi, Sagar, Bilaspur,
Lalitpur, Madurai and Thiruvananthapuram. Almost 100 NGOs from across the country have
expressed their interest to initiate the programme in their respective towns.

3. TERI (INDIA)
Tata Energy Research Institute (TERI) was formally established in 1974 with the purpose of
tackling and dealing with the immense and acute problems that mankind is likely to be faced with
in the years ahead:
On account of the gradual depletion of the earth’s finite energy resources which are largely non-
renewable and on account of the existing methods of their use which are polluting TERI has
launched a major project, the first phase of which is completing near completion. This project
called growth with resource enhancement of Environment and nature (GREEN INDIA-2047)” has
vigorously estimated the reduction in India’s key natural resources during the period 1947- 97, and
has completed economic values of consequent loses, which in some cases are alarmingly high. On
the basis of past experience and a careful analysis of the cost behind the degradation that has taken
place in the past strategies for the future have been developed, Where by a fresh and creative
approach can be taken in the next 50 years.
The global presence and reach attained by TERI are not only substantiated by its presence in
different parts of the world, but also in terms of wide geographical relevance of its activities.
Symbolic of this fact is the annual Delhi Sustainable Development Summit (DSDS), a major event
focusing on sustainable

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