GENERAL BIOLOGY I CELL ORGANELLES (LITTLE ORGANS)

➢ are separated, membranous compartments

CELL THEORY
inside the cells of the organs of living
- ROBERT HOOKE (1665) – He coined the
organisms
term “cell”.
- ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK (1676)– He ➢ each organelle has a specific function
was the first to observe in a tiny organism in a FUNCTIONS OF CELL ORGANELLES
microscope and named it “animalcules”.
- MATTHIAS SCHLEIDEN (1838) – proposed ➢ Maintain the shape and structure of cells
that all plants are composed of cells ➢ Act as storage of nutrients
- THEODOR SCHWANN (1839) – proposed ➢ Manufacture proteins
that all animals are made up of cells ➢ Harvest energy
- RUDOLF VIRCHOW (1858) – He proposed
➢ Repair cell parts
that cells arise from pre-existing cell.
- ZACHARIAS JANSSEN – He is the inventor of ➢ Digest substances
the microscope.
- ROBERT BROWN – Discovered the nucleus.
PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF CELL
THREE FUNDAMENTALS OF CELL THEORY: ORGANELLES
1. All living organism is made up of one
or more cells 1.) Cell membrane
2. Cell is the basic unit of life -I surround the cell to selectively screen the
3. Cell arise from pre-existing cells kinds of substances that go in and out of the
cell.
SPONTANEOUS GENERATION
2.) Cytoplasm
- it made people believe that life
- I am a gel-like substance made from
seemingly emerge from decaying matter.
dissolved proteins and liquid encasing the cell
- it is disproved by the swan neck
and giving it a fluid nature.
experiment by Louis Pasteur.
3.) Nucleus
- I am only found in eukaryotic cells and I
PARTS OF A MICROSCOPE store the cell’s hereditary DNA and controls
1. Eyepiece (Ocular Lens) cellular activities like growth, metabolism,
-The eyepiece is where you look through to protein synthesis and reproduction.
view the specimen
2. Objective Lenses 4.) Nucleolus
-These lenses come in various magnifications - I am a sub organelle of the nucleus
and provide the primary magnification of the composed of proteins and ribonucleic acids
specimen. (RNA) whose role is to assemble rRNA codes
3. Stage for protein synthesis.
-The stage is where you place the microscope
5.) Nuclear Envelope
slide for examination.
- I am a double membrane lipid layer
4. Coarse Adjustment Knob
enclosing the nucleus to protect the DNA and
-It is used for focusing at low magnification.
nucleoplasm.
5. Fine Adjustment Knob
-This knob is used for precise focusing, 6.) Nuclear pores
especially at high magnifications.
6. Light Source -I am a permeable barrier that limit the entry
-The light source illuminates the specimen on of proteins and RNA but allow the free
the slide. passage of water, ATP, ions and other small
7. Condenser molecules.
-The condenser focuses the light onto the 7.) Nucleoplasm
specimen, improving visibility. -I am a gelatinous liquid inside the nucleus
8. Diaphragm containing the enzymes and nucleotides.
-It controls the amount of light reaching the
specimen. 8.) Chromatin
9. Arm - I am a cellular bundle made up of complex
-The arm is the part you hold when carrying macromolecules of DNA, RNA and protein.
the microscope. 9.) Mitochondria
10. Base - I am the site of cellular respiration and the
-The base provides stability and support for production of ATP energy molecules which
the entire microscope. gave it the title “powerhouse of the cell”.
11.) Golgi bodies the part that keeps the organelles intact in
- I consist of stacks of flattened sacs called their proper places.
cisternae that receive proteins and fats from
Elements of the Cytoskeleton
the ER for processing/packing into sealed
droplets called vesicles that would then be a. Microtubules
stored and distributed to the other parts of
the cell. ➢Tubes with an outer diameter of about 25
nm and an inner diameter of about 15 nm.
12.) Endoplasmic Reticulum
- I am a network of membranous tubules that b. Microfilament
transport the materials needed by the cell ➢Any of the minute actin-containing protein
(nutrients, enzymes, hormones, etc.) filaments of eukaryotic cytoplasm that
function in maintaining structure and
13.) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
intracellular movement.
- I have a grainy rough structure that comes
from the attached ribosomes and is in charge c. Intermediate Filament
of the manufacture of glycoproteins.
➢Fibers with diameters of about 8 – 12 nm.
14.) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum ➢Found only in multicellular organisms.
- I have no ribosomes and I am in charge of ➢Provides structural support in many cells
the metabolism/ synthesis of carbohydrates, and tissues
lipid, enzymes, etc.
2. Cilia
15.) Vacuole - microscopic hair-like structures in
- I am a membrane- enclosed sac for storing eukaryotic cells that can be motile or non-
essential materials while disposing off motile.
poisonous or harmful wastes.
a. Non-motile cilia
16.) Lysosome
➢antenna like role in receiving sensory
- I am found only in animal cells that is
messages to be transmitted to other cells.
responsible for intracellular digestion with
the help of hydrolytic enzymes stored in my b. Motile cilia
membranes that are powerful enough to ➢surrounded by mucus or fluid substances
break down macromolecules. to help move the cell or transfer/dispose off
17.) Chloroplast materials.
- I found exclusively in plant cells and 3. Microvilli
contains the green chlorophyll pigments - non-moving membrane enclosed projections
which, together with the action of sunlight that increase secretion, absorption, and
and H2O in the process called photosynthesis, binding/adhesion properties of cells
manufactures food for the entire plant.
4. Root hairs
18.) Thylakoid - hairy membrane enclosed projections in
- I am a membranous compartment of plant cells that increase absorption and
flattened sacs in the chloroplast that in turn surface area for osmosis.
are made up of several stacks called grana.
5. Flagella
19.) Stroma -are tail-like projections in prokaryotic and
- I am a highly concentrated fluid composed eukaryotic cells that enable the locomotion of
of enzymes, DNA, and ribosomes where organisms.
with/without sunlight, photosynthesis occurs
and carbon dioxide is converted to glucose.
20.) Centriole
- I am a paired barrel-shaped organelles
located in the cytoplasm of animal cells near
the nuclear envelope and I play a role in
organizing microtubules that serve as the
cell's skeletal system
OTHER SPECIAL CELL STRUCTURES
1. Cytoskeleton
- from the name itself, is the structure which
gives the cell its shape and form, as well as
PARTS OF A PROKARYOTIC CELL CELL TYPE AND MODIFICATION
Capsule Cells in human body= 3.7 x 10^13
-protect them from phagocytosis -enable Experts estimate that there are around 200
adherence to surfaces, prevent desiccation, cell types in the human body
and may provide nutrients -composed of
glycocalyx TYPES OF TISSUE
Cell Wall
1.) Epithelial Tissue
-outer covering that protects the bacterial cell
and gives it shape. -made up of peptidoglycan.
Epithelial cells
Cell Membrane or Plasma Membrane ➢ Cells that cover the inside and outside
-surrounds the cell's cytoplasm and regulates surfaces of the body, such as your skin, blood
the flow of substances in and out of the cell. vessels, urinary tract, or organs

Flagella
Types of Epithelial Tissue
-long filamentous appendages consisting of a
filament, hook, and basal body.
-prokaryotic flagella rotate to push the cell
Pili (Pilus singular)
-Hair-like structures on the surface of the cell
that attach to other bacterial cells.
Fimbriae
-help bacteria attach to surfaces
Cytoplasm
-gel-like substance composed mainly of water
that also contains enzymes, salts, cell
components, and various organic molecules.
Inclusions
-nuclear or cytoplasmic aggregates of
stainable substances, usually proteins
Nucleoid Region
-area of the cytoplasm that contains the single
bacterial DNA molecule
Plasmids
-are gene carrying, circular DNA structures
that are not involved in reproduction. -
important for bacterial evolution and
adaptation to the changing environment
Ribosomes
-are cell structures responsible for protein
production.
2.) Connective Tissue
-tissue that supports, protects, and gives
structure to other tissues and organs in the
body.
➢ Most abundant, widespread, and varied of
all tissue types in the body.
➢ It also has the widest variety of functions.

3.) Muscular Tissues

➢It is composed of cells that have the special
ability to shorten or contract in order to
produce movement of the body parts.
➢ The tissue is highly cellular and is well
supplied with blood vessels.
Connective tissue proper

Loose connective tissue Cells: fibroblasts

Fibers: collagen fibers loosely scattered in the
ECM
4.) Nervous Tissue
Dense connective tissue Cells: fibroblasts  It is found in the brain, spinal cord,
Fibers: collagen fibers heavily packed in the and nerves.
ECM either in parallel order (dense regular),  It is responsible for coordinating and
or randomly interlaced (dense irregular) controlling many body activities.

Fibroblasts

Loose connective tissue Cells: fibroblasts

Fibers: collagen fibers loosely scattered in the
ECM

Dense connective tissue Cells: fibroblasts

Fibers: collagen fibers heavily packed in the
ECM either in parallel order (dense regular),
or randomly interlaced (dense irregular)
 e. Pseudopods
-temporary, irregular lobes formed by
PLANT TISSUES amoebas and some other eukaryotic cells
PARENCHYMA -bulge outward to move the cell or engulf
prey
Characteristics spherical, thin-walled and living
f. Extra Cellular Matrix (ECM)
metabolizing tissue
-compound secreted by the cell on its apical
Location throughout the plant surface
Functions metabolic functions of a plant, such as -area between cells
photosynthesis, aerobic respiration, g. Cell wall is the extracellular structure in
regeneration and food storage plant cells that distinguishes them from
animal cells
h. Glycoprotein is the main ingredient of ECM
COLLENCHYMA
in animal cells
Characteristics elongated cells with unevenly thickened
cell walls and alive at maturity 2. Basal Modifications
Location found beneath the epidermis in young -found on the basal surface of the cell
stems and in leaf veins basement membrane
Functions provide flexible support in actively -thickening of cytoplasmic face of the
growing parts of the plant, young stems membrane at the base of epithelium cell,
and petioles which attaches it to the basement membrane
-EXAMPLES
a. Hemidesmosomes
SCLERENCHYMA -facilitate the stable adhesion of basal
epithelial cells to the underlying basement
Characteristics with primary and secondary cell walls,
membrane
dead at functional maturity
-has a totally different molecular structure
Location fibers in wood, bark, leaves, stems, because the transmembrane glycoproteins
sclereids in fruits and seeds are integrins rather than cadherins
Functions structural support
3. Lateral Modifications
-found on the side surface of the cell
CELL MODIFICATIONS -it includes tight junction, adhering junction
Cell Modification- a process that occurs after and gap junction
cell division where the newly formed cells are a. Tight Junction- act as barriers that
structurally modified so that they can regulate the movement of water and solutes
perform their function efficiently and between epithelial layers.
effectively.
CELL CYCLE
Types of Cell Modification
1. Apical Modification (Surface or luminal) Why is Cell Division important?
-It is found on the apical surface of the cell. a.) Reproduction
-It is specialized to carry out functions that - an amoeba, a single- celled eukaryote is
occur at these interfaces, including secretion, dividing into two cells. Each new cell will be
absorption, and movement of luminal an individual organism (LM)
contents.
EXAMPLE: b.) Growth and development
a. Flagella- long whiplike structures and - This micrograph shows a sand dollar
formed from microtubules embryo shortly after the fertilized egg
b. Cilia- usually short, hair- like structures divided, forming two cells (LM)
that move in waves
c. Villi c.) Tissue renewal
-finger-like projections that arise from the - These dividing bone marrow cells (arrow)
epithelial layer in some organs will give rise to new blood cells (LM)
-help to increase surface area allowing for
faster and more efficient absorption Cell Cycle
d. Microvilli - refers to the cycle of growth and division
-smaller projections that arise from the cell’s seen in most cells.
surface 1. Interphase
-increase surface area allowing faster and  G1 (Gap 1)
more efficient absorption  S (Synthesis)
 G2 (Gap 2)
2. Mitosis Mitosis Phase
 Prophase  Prophase
 Metaphase  Metaphase
 Anaphase  Anaphase
 Telophase  Telophase
3. Cytokinesis
Mitosis- Prophase
-Chromosomes condense and become visible
Interphase- G1 Phase
-Spindle fibers emerge from the centrosome
- “Decision making step”: to divide or not to
- Centrosomes move toward opposite poles
divide
 Cell growth Mitosis- Prometaphase
 Organelle duplication - Nuclear envelope breaks down
 Protein synthesis - Spindle fibers connect to kinetochore
 DNA damage check
Mitosis- Metaphase
Why do cells exit the Cell cycle at G0 phase? - Chromosomes are lined up at the metaphase
plate
a.) Irreversible - Each sister chromatid is attached to a
- Cell differentiation: the process in which a spindle fiber originating from opposite poles
less specialized cell develops to acquire more
specialized form and function Mitosis- Anaphase
- Examples: Neuron, Red blood cells, platelets, - Centromeres split in two
cardiomyocytes, osteocytes - Sister chromatids are pulled toward
opposite poles
b.) Reversible - Certain spindle fibers begin to elongate the
- Quiescence: dormancy, quiet, rest, stillness, cell
repose, inactivity, latency, silence, sleeping
- Examples: Hepatocytes, Lymphocytes, Mitosis- Telophase
Fibroblasts, Endothelial cells - Chromosomes arrive at opposite poles and
begin to decondense
G1/S Checkpoint - Nuclear envelope reappears
 Cell size - Mitotic spindle breaks down
 Nutrients - Spindle fibers continue to push poles apart
 Growth factors
 No DNA damage Cytokinesis
YES- S Phase - Cytokinesis is the process after the splitting
NO- G0 Phase of the nuclear chromosomes. During this
process, the cytoplasm and the cell
membrane split, resulting in two daughter
Interphase- S phase cells.
 DNA replication

S/G2 Checkpoint
 No DNA damage
 Correct duplication
YES- G2 Phase
NO- Cell cycle Arrest

Interphase- G2 Phase
 Cell growth
 Organelle duplication
 Protein synthesis
 DNA damage check

G2/ M Checkpoint
 No DNA damage
 Correct duplication
YES- M phase
NO- Cell cycle arrest
Application of Mitosis
Meiosis I: Reduction Division
1. Cloning
- It is a technique employed in biotechnology
to produce identical copies of cells or DNA
fragments.
- In cloning, the number of organisms is
increased by the process of mitosis.

2. Tissue culture
- The growth of tissues or cells outside of the
body of the organism in a liquid, semi-solid,
or solid growth medium.
- It is based on the process of mitosis, where a
cell undergoes division to form multiple
tissues.

3. Stem cell regeneration

- Stem cells are a group of cells that can be
directed to form specialized cells in the body.
- Stem cells can undergo mitosis to regenerate
and repair diseased or damaged tissues in
people.

Meiosis
- Meiosis is a type of cell division in sexually
reproducing organisms that reduces the Meiosis II: Separation of Sister Chromatids
number of chromosomes in gametes (the sex
cells, or egg and sperm)
 Abnormalities During the Cell Cycle

1. Non-disjunction
-failure of the paired chromosomes to
separate
a.) Aneuploidy- abnormal number of
chromosomes
b.) Monosmy- lack of one sex chromosome
(Turner’s syndrome)

c.) Trisomy - excess of one sex chromosome

(Down’s syndrome, Edward’s syndrome,
Patau’s syndrome etc.)

N= #of chromosomes C= DNA content

Types of cell division

2. Mutation CANCER BY CELL/TISSUE TYPE
- a change in a DNA sequence

 Adenocarcinomas: begin in glandular cells

that
manufacture fluids, such as breast milk.
 Squamous cell carcinomas: include those
in the top layer of the skin, the upper
portion of the esophagus and airways,
and the lower portion of the cervix and
vagina
 Basal cell carcinomas: only present in the
skin and are the deepest layer of skin cells
 Transitional cell carcinomas: present in
the bladder

Cancer: Unregulated Cell Division

 Osteosarcoma (bone cancers)

 Chondrosarcoma (cartilage cancers)
 Liposarcoma (fatty tissue cancers)
 Rhabdomyosarcoma (skeletal muscle
cancers)
 Leiomyosarcoma (smooth muscle
cancers)
-Cancer cells divide relentlessly, forming solid  Angiosarcoma (blood vessel cancers)
tumors or flooding the blood with abnormal  Mesothelioma (cancers of the
cells. mesothelium, the tissues that line the
chest and abdominal cavities)
Metastasis  Fibrosarcoma (cancers of fibrous
- It is a complex process that involves the tissues)
spread of a tumor or cancer to distant parts of  Glioma and astrocytoma (cells of the
the body from its original site. connective

 Myeloma
- also called multiple myeloma, is a
cancer of cells in the immune system
known as plasma cells. Plasma cells
are the cells that manufacture
antibodies
 Karyotyping
 process of pairing and ordering all the
chromosomes of an organism,
thus providing a genome-wide
snapshot of an individual's
chromosomes.
 Karyotypes are prepared using
standardized staining procedures that
 Lymphocytic leukemias: These are reveal characteristic structural
cancers of white blood cells known as features for each chromosome.
lymphocytes. Karyotype
 Myelocytic leukemias: These are cancers  An individual's complete set of
of mature or immature cells known as chromosomes.
myelocytes, such as neutrophils.  It also refers to a laboratory-produced
image of a person's
chromosomes isolated from an
individual cell and arranged in
numerical order.
 A karyotype may be used to look for
abnormalities in chromosome
number or structure.

TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
Cells are surrounded by Phospholipid bilayer
 Lymphomas are a type of cancer that known as cell membrane. It consists of lipids,
arises from cells of the immune system. proteins and carbohydrates. It is selectively
These cancers may arise in lymph nodes permeable which means that it regulates
or from extranodal sites such as the transport of materials in and out of the cell.
spleen, stomach, or testicles. The Cell Membrane/Plasma Membrane
 Dynamic in nature
 Regulate substances that go in and out of
the cell
 Phospholipid bilayer and proteins

 It's not uncommon for a cancer to have

characteristics of more than one type of
tissue. For example, a lung cancer may
have some cells that look like
adenocarcinoma and others that appear
Fluid Mosaic Model (Cell membrane)
to be squamous cell carcinoma.
-FLUID because individual phospholipids and
proteins can move around freely within the
layer, like it’s a liquid.
-MOSAIC because of the pattern produced by
the scattered protein molecules when the
membrane is viewed from above

Phospholipid Bilayer
Membrane Proteins

Membrane Protein: Functions Facilitated diffusion

 Carbohydrates
a.) Junctions – Serve to connect and join two  Amino acids
cells  Nucleosides
b.) Enzymes – Fixing to membranes localizes  Ions
metabolic pathways
c.) Transport – Responsible for facilitated
diffusion and active transport
d.) Recognition – May function as markers for
cellular identification
e.) Anchorage – Attachment points for
cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix
f.) Transduction – Function as receptors for
peptide hormones

2 Major Ways in which molecules can be

moved across a membrane

a.) Passive Transport

b.) Active Transport

Passive Transport Types

Diffusion through a Membrane - OSMOSIS

Diffusion
 Oxygen
 Carbon dioxide
 Most lipids

Factors Affecting Diffusion Rate

 separated by a partially permeable

membrane
 movement of water through a semi-
permeable membrane from an area of
higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration of water
Cell Environment: Different Types of
Solution

Osmosis in Red Blood Cells

Cytolysis and Plasmolysis