Group Theory

∗
Lecture Notes

2021/04/07

1 Group Theory
1.1 Sets, Functions and equivalence Relations

Sets
• Set operations:
set (A = {. . . | . . . }), ∈ (an element of), ⊆ (subset), ⊂ (proper subset), ∪ (union), ∩ (intersec-
 − B) (difference) , cartesian product (A × B = {(a, b)| a ∈ A, b ∈ B}), cardinality
tion), (A
# elements in A, if A is finite
(|A| = .
∞, Otherwise

• Logical Operations:
∀ (for each), ∃ (there exist), ! (unique), =⇒ (implies, if then), ⇐⇒ (if and only if, iff, necessary and
sufficient).

• Number Systems:
Z = {0, ±1, ±2, . . . } (integral numbers or integers)
Q = {a/b | a, b ∈ Z, b 6= 0} (rational numbers or rationals)
R = {all decimal expressions ± d1 d2 . . . dn .a1 a2 a3 . . . } (real numbers or reals)
C = {a + bi | a, b ∈ R, i2 = −1} (complex numbers)
Z+ , Q+ and R+ denote the positive (nonzero) in Z, Q and R respectively.
Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R ⊂ C (all proper inclusions)

Functions
f
Definition. A function f : A → B (also written A −→ B) between two sets A (domain) and B
(codomain) is defined as:
∗
This lecture is loosely based on the book: D. S. Dummit & R. M. Foote, Abstract Algebra, 3rd Edition, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.

1
”a rule a 7→ f (a) that associates, to each element a ∈ A, a unique element f (a) ∈ B”.
Or (eqivalently)
”i) f (a) ∈ B, ∀ a ∈ A and ii) a1 = a2 ⇒ f (a1 ) = f (a2 ), f or a1 , a2 ∈ A”.

• Function Examples:
Identity function: IdA : A → A, a 7→ a.
Inclusion of a subset A ⊆ S : A ,→ S, a 7→ a.
Restriction of f : S → T to a subset A ⊆ S : f |A : A → T, a 7→ f (a).
Projections: S ← S × T → T, s ← (s, t) 7→ t.
Constant functions: S → T , s 7→ t0 , where t0 is a fixed element of T .
Composition of functions: Given functions f : A → B and g : B → C, define g ◦ f : A → C by

(g ◦ f )(a) = g(f (a)).

• More on functions:
Let f : A → B be a function.

Definition. The set

f (A) = {b ∈ B | b = f (a), for some a ∈ A}

is a subset of B, called the range or image of f (or the image of A under f ).

Definition. For each subset C of B the set

f −1 (C) = {a ∈ A | f (a) ∈ C}

consisting of the elements of A mapping into C under f is called the preimage or inverse image of
C under f .

Remark 1. For each b ∈ B, the preimage of {b} under f (i.e., f −1 ({b})) is called the fiber of f
over b. Note that f −1 is not in general a function and that the fibers of f generally contain many
elements since there may be many elements of A mapping to the element b.

Definition. f is infective or is an injection if whenever a1 6= a2 then f (a1 ) 6= f (a2 ) (or, equivalently,

f (a1 ) = f (a2 ) ⇒ a1 = a2 ).

Definition. f is surjective or is a surjection if for all b ∈ B there is some a ∈ A such that f (a) = b,
i.e., the image of f is all of B.
Note that since a function always maps onto its range (by definition) it is necessary to specify the
codomain B in order for the question of surjectivity to be meaningful.

Definition. f is bijective or is a bijection if it is both injective and surjective. If such a bijection f

exists from A to B, we say A and B are in bijective correspondence.

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Definition. f has a left inverse if there is a function g : B → A such that g ◦ f : A → A is the
identity map on A, i.e., (g ◦ f )(a) = a, for all a ∈ A.

Definition. f has a right inverse if there is a function h : B → A such that f ◦ h : B → B is the

identity map on B.

Proposition. Let f : A → B.
(1) The map f is injective if and only if f has a left inverse.
(2) The map f is surjective if and only if f has a right inverse.
(3) The map f is a bijection if and only if there exists g : B → A such that f ◦ g is the identity map
on B and g ◦ f is the identity map on A.
(4) If A and B are finite sets with the same number of elements (i.e., |A| = |B|), then f : A → B
is bijective if and only if f is injective if and only if f is surjective.

Proof. Hints: 1.(⇒) For t ∈ im(f ), define `(t) to be the (unique) s ∈ f −1 ({t}), and define `(t)
arbitrary for t 6∈ im(f ).
2. (⇒) Define r(t) = any s ∈ f −1 ({t}).
3. (⇐) directly follows by parts (1) and (2). (Why? Explain.)
(⇒) By parts (1) and (2), there exists g : B → A and h : B → A such that g ◦ f = IA and f ◦ h = IB .
Next it is shown that g = h. Let b ∈ B then f (h(b)) = b whereby g(f (h(b))) = g(b) and hence
h(b) = g(b).
4. It suffices to prove that ”f is injective if and only if f is surjective.” The proof follows by the
definition of injectivity and surjectivity. (Why? Explain.)

Note that in the situation of part (3) of the proposition above the map g is necessarily unique
and we shall say g is the 2-sided inverse (or simply the inverse) of f .

Binary Relation
Let A be a nonempty set.

Definition. A binary relation on a set A is a subset R of A × A and we write a ∼ b if (a, b) ∈ R.

Definition. The relation ∼ on A is said to be:

(a) reflexive if a ∼ a , for all a ∈ A,
(b) symmetric if a ∼ b implies b ∼ a for all a, b ∈ A,
(c) transitive if a ∼ b and b ∼ c implies a ∼ c for all a, b, c ∈ A.
A relation is an equivalence relation if it is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.

Definition. If ∼ defines an equivalence relation on A, then the equivalence class of a ∈ A is defined

to be [a] = ā = {x ∈ A | x ∼ a}. Elements of the equivalence class of a are said to be equivalent to
a. If C is an equivalence class, any element of C is called a representative 1 of the class C.
1
Observe that Exc.0 justifies the name ”a representative of the class”

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Exc.0 Let ∼ be an equivalence relation on a set A. Let a, b ∈ A. Then prove that

1. b ∈ a if and only if b ⊆ a.

2. b ∼ a if and only if b = a.

Definition. A partition of A is any collection {Ai | i ∈ I} of non empty subsets of A (I some

indexing set) such that
(a) A = ∪i∈I Ai , and
(b) Ai ∩ Aj = ∅, for all i, j ∈ I with i 6= j, (or equivalently, for any i, j ∈ I either Ai = Aj or
Ai ∩ Aj = ∅).
i.e., A is the disjoint union of the sets in the partition.

The notions of an equivalence relation on A and a partition of A are the same :

Proposition. Let A be a nonempty set.

(1) If ∼ defines an equivalence relation on A then the set of equivalence classes of ∼ form a partition
of A.
(2) If {Ai | i ∈ I} is a partition of A then there is an equivalence relation on A whose equivalence
classes are precisely the sets Ai , i ∈ I.

Proof: Hints: 2) Define relation on A as a ∼ b iff a, b ∈ Ai for some i. Complete the proof!!!
1 ) We have to prove two facts:
i. ∪a∈A [a] = A (why?).
ii. Let a, b ∈ A then either [a] = [b] or [a] ∩ [b] = ∅, (suppose [a] ∩ [b] 6= ∅, then ∃ c ∈ A such
that c ∼ a and c ∼ b. By symmetric property, a ∼ c. Now ∀ x ∈ [a], by transitive property,
x ∼ a, a ∼ c, c ∼ b ⇒ x ∼ b, that is, [a] ⊆ [b]. Similarly, [b] ⊆ [a]. Hence [a] = [b] )

Definition. The set of all equivalence classes of an equivalence relation ∼ on A is called the quotient
set of A by ∼
A/ ∼:= {B ⊆ A | B = a for some a ∈ A}

and the map A → A/ ∼, x → x is a surjection from A onto A/ ∼ (called the natural projection of
A onto A/ ∼).

Home Work
1. Complete the proofs of Propositions 1 and 2.

2. Prove that the composition of two injective functions is injective.

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 3. Prove that the composition of two surjective functions is surjective.

4. Prove that the composition of two bijective functions is bijective.

Exercises
In Exercises 1 to 4 let A be the set of 2 × 2 matrices with real number entries. Recall that matrix
multiplication is defined by

! ! !
a b p q ap + br aq + bs
=
c d r s cp + dr cq + ds
!
1 1
Let M = and let
0 1
B = {X ∈ A | M X = XM }

1. Determine which of the following elements of A lie in B

! ! ! ! ! !
1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1
, , , , ,
0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0

2. Prove that if P, Q ∈ B, then P + Q ∈ B (where + denotes the usual sum of two matrices).

3. Prove that if P, Q ∈ B, then P · Q ∈ B. (where . denotes the usual product of two matrices).
!
p q
4. Find conditions on p, q, r, s which determine precisely when ∈B
r s

5. Determine whether the following functions f are well defined:

(a) f : Q → Z defined by f (a/b) = a.
(b) f : Q → Q defined by f (a/b) = a2 /b2 .

6. Determine whether the function f : R+ → Z defined by mapping a real number r to the first
digit to the right of the decimal point in a decimal expansion of r is well defined.

7. Let f : A → B be a surjective map of sets. Prove that the relation

a ∼ b if and only if f (a) = f (b)

is an equivalence relation whose equivalence classes are the fibers of f .

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1.2 Properties of the Integers
1. Well Ordering of Z If A is any nonempty subset of Z+ , there is some element m ∈ A such
that m ≤ a, for all a ∈ A (m is called a minimal element of A).

2. a divides b If a, b ∈ Z with a 6= 0, we say a divides b if there is an element c ∈ Z such that

b = ac. In this case we write a|b; if a does not divide b we write a - b.

3. Greatest common divisor If a, b ∈ Z − {0}, there is a unique positive integer d, called the
greatest common divisor of a and b (or g.c.d. of a and b), satisfying:
(a) d|a and d|b (so d is a common divisor of a and b), and
(b) if e|a and e|b, then e|d (so d is the greatest such divisor).
The g.c.d. of a and b will be denoted by (a, b). If (a, b) = 1, we say that a and b are relatively
prime.

4. Least common multiple If a, b ∈ Z − {0}, there is a unique positive integer l, called the
least common multiple of a and b (or l.c.m. of a and b), satisfying:
(a) a|l and b|l (so l is a common multiple of a and b), and
(b) if a|m and b|m, then l|m (so l is the least such multiple).
Fact: The connection between the greatest common divisor d and the least common multiple
l of two integers a and b is given by dl = ab.

5. The Division Algorithm If a, b ∈ Z − {0}, then there exist unique q, r ∈ Z such that

a = qb + r and 0 ≤ r < |b|,

where q is the quotient and r the remainder. This is the usual ”long division” familiar from
elementary arithmetic.

6. Euclidean Algorithm The Euclidean Algorithm is an important procedure which produces

a greatest common divisor of two integers a and b by iterating the Division Algorithm: if
a, b ∈ Z − {0}, then we obtain a sequence of quotients and remainders

a = q0 b + r0 , (0)
b = q1 r0 + r1 , (1)
r0 = q2 r1 + r2 , (2)
r1 = q3 r2 + r3 , (3)
..
.
rn−2 = qn rn−1 + rn , (n)
rn−1 = qn+1 rn , (n + 1)

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 where rn is the last nonzero remainder. Such an rn exists since |b| > |ro | > |r1 | > · · · > |rn |
is a decreasing sequence of strictly positive integers if the remainders are nonzero and such a
sequence cannot continue indefinitely. Then rn is the g.c.d. (a, b) of a and b.
Example 1 Suppose a = 57970 and b = 10353. Then applying the Euclidean Algorithm we
obtain:
57970 = (5)10353 + 6205
10353 = (1)6205 + 4148
6205 = (1)4148 + 2057
4148 = (2)2057 + 34
2057 = (60)34 + 17
34 = (2)17
which shows that (57970, 10353) = 17.

7. Fact One consequence of the Euclidean Algorithm which we shall use regularly is the follow-
ing:
if a, b ∈ Z − {0}, then there exist x, y ∈ Z such that

(a, b) = ax + by

that is, the g.c.d. of a and b is a Z-linear combination of a and b. This follows by recursively
writing the element rn in the Euclidean Algorithm in terms of the previous remainders (namely,
use equation (n) above to solve for rn = rn−2 + (−qn )rn−1 in terms of the remainders rn−1 and
rn−2 , then use equation (n − 1) to write rn in terms of the remainders rn−2 and rn−3 , etc.,
eventually writing rn in terms of a and b).

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 Example 2
Suppose a = 57970 and b = 10353, whose greatest common divisor we computed above to
be 17. From the fifth equation (the next to last equation) in the Euclidean Algorithm ap-
plied to these two integers we solve for their greatest common divisor: 17 = 2057 − (60)34.
The fourth equation then shows that 34 = 4148 − (2)2057, so substituting this expression
for the previous remainder 34 gives the equation 17 = 2057 − (60)[4148 − (2)2057], i.e.,
17 = (121)2057 − (60)4148. Solving the third equation for 2057 and substituting gives
17 = (121)[6205 − (1)4148] − (60)4148 = (121)6205 − (181)4148. Using the second equation to
solve for 4148 and then the first equation to solve for 6205 we finally obtain

17 = (302)57970 − (1691)10353

as can easily be checked directly. Hence the equation ax + by = (a, b) for the greatest common
divisor of a and b in this example has the solution x = 302 and y = −1691. Note that it is
relatively unlikely that this relation would have been found simply by guessing. The integers
x and y in (7) above are not unique. In the example with a = 57970 and b = 10353 we
determined one solution to be x = 302 and y = 1691, for instance, and it is relatively simple
to check that x = 307 and y = 1719 also satisfy 57970x + 10353y = 17.

8. Prime An element p of Z+ is called a prime if p > 1 and the only positive divisors of p are 1
and p (initially, the word prime will refer only to positive integers). An integer n > 1 which
is not prime is called composite. For example, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, . . . are primes and
4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 18, . . . are composite. An important property of primes (which
in fact can be used to define the primes is the following:

p is a prime if and only if p|ab, for some a, b ∈ Z, implies either p|a or p|b.

9. Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic & GCD The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic

says: if n ∈ Z, n > 1, then n can be factored uniquely into the product of primes, i.e., there
are distinct primes p1 , p2 , . . . , ps and positive integers α1 , α2 , . . . , αs such that

n = pα1 1 pα2 2 . . . pαs s

This factorization is unique in the sense that if q1 , q2 , . . . , qt are any distinct primes and
β1 , β2 , . . . , βt positive integers such that

n = q1β1 q2β2 . . . qtβt

then s = t and if we arrange the two sets of primes in increasing order, then qi = pi and
αi = βi , 1 ≤ i ≤ s. For example, n = 1852423848 = 23 32 112 193 31 and this decomposition into
the product of primes is unique.

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 Suppose the positive integers a and b are expressed as products of prime powers:

a = pα1 1 pα2 2 . . . pαs s , b = pβ1 1 pβ2 2 . . . pβs s

where p1 , p2 , . . . , ps are distinct and the exponents are ≥ 0 (we allow the exponents to be 0
here so that the products are taken over the same set of primes - the exponent will be 0 if that
prime is not actually a divisor). Then the greatest common divisor of a and b is

min(α1 ,β1 ) min(α2 ,β2 )

(a, b) = p1 p2 . . . pmin(α
s
s ,βs )

(and the least common multiple is obtained by instead taking the maximum of the αi , and βi
instead of the minimum).
Example 3
In the example above, a = 57970 and b = 10353 can be factored as a = 2 · 5 · 11 · 17 · 31 and
b = 3 · 7 · 17 · 29, from which we can immediately conclude that their greatest common divisor
is 17. Note, however, that for large integers it is extremely difficult to determine their prime
factorizations (several common codes in current use are based on this difficulty, in fact), so
that this is not an effective method to determine greatest common divisors in general. The
Euclidean Algorithm will produce greatest common divisors quite rapidly without the need for
the prime factorization of a and b.

10. Euler ϕ-function The Euler ϕ-function is defined as follows: for n ∈ Z+ let ϕ(n) be the
number of positive integers a ≤ n with a relatively prime to n, i.e., (a, n) = 1. For example,
ϕ(12) = 4 since 1, 5, 7 and 11 are the only positive integers less than or equal to 12 which
have no factors in common with 12. Similarly, ϕ(1) = 1, ϕ(2) = 1, ϕ(3) = 2, ϕ(4) = 2, ϕ(5) =
4, ϕ(6) = 2, etc. For primes p, ϕ(p) = p − 1, and, more generally, for all a ≥ 1 we have the
formula

ϕ(pa ) = pa − pa−1 = pa−1 (p − 1)

The function ϕ is multiplicative in the sense that ϕ(ab) = ϕ(a)ϕ(b) if (a, b) = 1

(note that it is important here that a and b be relatively prime). Together with the formula
above this gives a general formula for the values of ϕ : if n = pα1 1 pα2 2 . . . pαs s , then
ϕ(n) = ϕ(pα1 1 )ϕ(pα2 2 ) . . . ϕ(pαs s )
= pα1 1 −1 (p1 − 1)pα2 2 −1 (p2 − 1) . . . pαs s −1 (ps − 1)

For example, ϕ(12) = ϕ(22 )ϕ(3) = 21 (2 − 1)30 (3 − 1) = 4. The reader should note that we
shall use the letter ϕ for many different functions throughout the text so when we want this
letter to denote Euler’s function we shall be careful to indicate this explicitly.

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 Class Activity
1. Compute ϕ(30).
Solution 60 can be factorized as 60 = 22 .3.5
ϕ(60) = ϕ(2.3.5) = ϕ(2).ϕ(3).ϕ(5) = 2(2 − 1).(3 − 1).(4 − 1) = 16

2. Compute greatest common divisor of 12 and 32 and find x, y ∈ Z, such that (12, 32) =
12x + 32y.
Solution (12,32)=4 and x = 3, y = −1

Exercise
1. For each of the following pairs of integers a and b, , determine their greatest common divisor,
their least common multiple, and write their greatest common divisor in the form ax + by for
some integers x and y.
(a) a = 20, b = 13.
(b) a = 792, b = 275.
(c) a = 1761, b = 1567.

2. Prove that if the integer k divides the integers a and b then k divides as + bt for every pair of
integers s and t.

3. Calculate ϕ(n) for n = 10, 18, 24, 29, 30

4. Prove that if d divides n then ϕ(d) divides ϕ(n) where ϕ denotes Euler’s ϕ-function.

1.3 The Integers Modulo n

• Let n be a fixed positive integer. Define a relation on Z by

a ∼ b if and only if n | (b − a).

Observe that n | (b − a) if and only if b − a = kn for some k ∈ Z.

The later is equivalent to b = a + kn for some k ∈ Z

Lemma. Prove that ∼ defined above is an equivalnce relation on Z.

Proof. . Reflexive Since n | a − a for any integer a so a ∼ a, so the relation is reflexive.

. Symmetric For any integers a and b
a ∼ b ⇒ n | b − a ⇒ b − a = nk, for some integer k
⇒ a − b = n(−k) ⇒ n | a − b ⇒ b ∼ a, so this relation is symmetric.
. Transitive If a ∼ b and b ∼ c then n divides a − b and n divides b − c so n also divides the sum
of these two integers, i.e., n divides (a − b) + (b − c) = a − c, so a ∼ c and the relation is transitive.

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Hence ∼ is an equivalence relation on Z.

• Write a ≡ b (mod n) (read: a is congruent to b (mod n)) if a ∼ b.

• For any a ∈ Z we shall denote the equivalence class of a by ā - this is called the congruence class
or residue class of a (mod n) and consists of the integers which differ from a by an integral multiple
of n, i.e.,

ā = {b ∈ Z | a ∼ b} = {a + kn | k ∈ Z} = {a, a ± n, a ± 2n, a ± 3n, . . . }.

Observe that for any a, b ∈ Z, a ≡ b( mod n) if and only if a = b.

• There are precisely n distinct equivalence classes mod n, namely

0̄, 1̄, 2̄, . . . , n − 1

determined by the possible remainders after division by n. ( That is, if a ∈ Z is arbitrary then by
Division Algorithm, there exist unique q and r such that a = qn + r, where 0 ≤ r < n. This implies
a ∼ r and hence a = r ∈ {0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1}, as required.)
Clearly, these residue classes partition the integers Z. The set of equivalence classes under this
equivalence relation will be denoted by Z/nZ and called the integers modulo n (or the integers mod
n).

Warning!! Note that for different n’s the equivalence relation and equivalence classes are different
so we shall always be careful to fix n first before using the bar notation.

• Example: Suppose n = 12 and consider Z/12Z, which consists of the twelve residue classes

¯
0̄, 1̄, 2̄, . . . , 11

determined by the twelve possible remainders of an integer after division by 12. The elements in
the residue class 5̄, for example, are the integers which leave a remainder of 5 when divided by 12
(the integers congruent to 5 mod 12). Any integer congruent to 5 mod 12 (such as 5, 17, 29, . . .
or 7, 19, . . . ) will serve as a representative for the residue class 5̄. Note that Z/12Z consists of the
twelve elements above (and each of these elements of Z/12Z consists of an infinite number of usual
integers).
• Terminology: The process of finding the equivalence class mod n of some integer a is often
referred to as reducing a mod n. This terminology also frequently refers to finding the smallest
nonnegative integer congruent to a mod n (the least residue of a mod n).

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• Addition and Multiplication in Z/nZ: We can define an addition and a multiplication for the
elements of Z/nZ, defining modular arithmetic as follows: for a, b̄ ∈ Z/nZ, define their sum and
product by ā + b̄ = a + b and ā.b̄ = ab.

• Example: Suppose now that ā = 5̄ and b̄ = 8̄. The most obvious representative for ā is the
integer 5 and similarly 8 is the most obvious representative for b̄. Using these representatives for the
¯ = 1̄ since 13 and 1 lie in the same class modulo n = 12. Had we
residue classes we obtain 5̄ + 8̄ = 13
instead taken the representative 17, say, for ā (note that 5 and 17 do lie in the same residue class
modulo 12) and the representative −28, say, for b̄, we would obtain 5̄ + 8̄ = (17 − 28) = −11 = 1̄ and
as we mentioned the result does not depend on the choice of representatives chosen. The product
¯ = 4̄, also independent of the representatives chosen.
of these two classes is āb̄ = 5.8 = 40

Theorem: The operations of addition and multiplication on Z/nZ defined above are both well
defined, that is, they do not depend on the choices of representatives for the classes involved. More
precisely,
if a1 , a2 ∈ Z and b1 , b2 ∈ Z with a1 = b1 and a2 = b2 , then a1 + a2 = b1 + b2 and a1 a2 = b1 b2 , i.e., if
a1 ≡ b1 (mod n) and a2 ≡ b2 (mod n) then a1 + a2 ≡ b1 + b2 (mod n) and a1 a2 ≡ b1 b2 (mod n).

Proof: . Suppose a1 ≡ b1 (mod n), i.e., a1 − b1 is divisible by n. Then a1 = b1 + sn for some integer
s. Similarly, a2 ≡ b2 (mod n) means a2 = b2 + tn for some integer t.
. Then a1 + a2 = (b1 + b2 ) + (s + t)n so that a1 + a2 ≡ b1 + b2 (mod n), which shows that the sum
of the residue classes is independent of the representatives chosen.
. Similarly, a1 a2 = (b1 + sn)(b2 + tn) = b1 b2 + (bl t + b2 s + stn)n shows that a1 a2 ≡ b1 b2 (mod n) and
so the product of the residue classes is also independent of the representatives chosen, completing
the proof.

• Application of modular arithmetic in number theory:

The following are obvious:
!If a ≡ b (mod n) then al ≡ bl (mod n) for any l ∈ Z.
!If a ≡ b (mod n) and c ≡ d (mod n) then ac ≡ bd (mod n)
The fact that one can define arithmetic in Z/nZ has many important applications in elementary
number theory. As one simple example we compute the last two digits in the number 21000 . First
observe that the last two digits give the remainder of 21000 after we divide by 100 so we are interested
in the residue class mod 100 containing 21000 . We compute 210 = 1024 ≡ 24 (mod 100), so then
220 = (210 )2 ≡ 242 = 576 ≡ 76 (mod 100). Then 240 = (220 )2 ≡ 762 = 5776 ≡ 76 (mod 100).
Similarly 280 ≡ 2160 ≡ 2320 ≡ 2640 ≡ 76 (mod 100). Finally, 21000 = 2640 2320 240 ≡ 76 · 76 · 76 ≡ 76
(mod 100) so the final two digits are 76.

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• An important subset in Z/nZ:
Consider a subset of Z/nZ consists of the collection of residue classes which have a multiplicative
inverse in Z/nZ:

(Z/nZ)× = {a ∈ Z/nZ | there exists c ∈ Z/nZ with a.c = 1}.

Proposition: (Z/nZ)× = {a ∈ Z/nZ | (a, n) = 1}.

Proof : . We claim that the set {a ∈ Z/nZ | (a, n) = 1} is well defined i.e., if a = b and (a, n) = 1
then (b, n) = 1 (The proof follows by contradiction) Suppose a = b and (b, n) = d 6= 1 then b = a+kn,
d|b and d|n this implies a + kn = dl and n = dm for some l, m ∈ Z, this implies a = dl − kn and
n = dm, this implies d|a and d|n, this implies (a, n) = d, a contradiction to the hypothesis.
. ⊆ proof follows from Exc. 8. (Proof Exc. 8: if (a, n) = d 6= 1 then d|a and d|n this implies a = kd
and n = ld for some k, l ∈ Z. Now, if we choose b = l, then 1 ≤ b < n and ab = (kd)( nd ) = kn ≡ 0
(mod n), the desired. Next, we show that there cannot be an integer c such that ac = 1. Suppose,
on contrary that, there exist c such that ac = 1, i.e., 1 = qn + ac. Multiplication by b gives
b=l n=ld
b = bqn + bac = bqn + b(kd)c = bqn + (bd)kc = lqn + (ld)kc = lqn + nkc, a contradiction because
1 ≤ b < n. ).
. ⊇ proof follows from Exc. 9. (Proof Exc. 9 : if (a, n) = 1 then there exist integers c and f such
that ac + nf = 1 this implies ac ≡ 1 (mod n), the desired. )3
Example:
For n = 9 we obtain (Z/9Z)× = {1̄, 2̄, 4̄, 5̄, 7̄, 8̄} from the proposition. The multiplicative inverses of
these elements are {1̄, 5̄, 7̄, 2̄, 4̄, 8̄}, respectively.
• Method of finding multiplicative inverses in Z/nZ:
If a is an integer relatively prime to n then the Euclidean Algorithm produces integers x and y
satisfying ax + ny = 1, hence ax ≡ 1 (mod n), so that x is the multiplicative inverse of a in Z/nZ.
This gives an efficient method for computing multiplicative inverses in Z/nZ.
Example:
Suppose n = 60 and a = 17. Applying the Euclidean Algorithm we obtain
60 = (3)17 + 9
17 = (1)9 + 8
9 = (1)8 + 1
so that a and n are relatively prime, and (−7)I7+(2)60 = 1. Hence −7 = 53 is the multiplicative
inverse of 17 in Z/60Z.

Class Activity
1. Write down all the elements in (Z/12Z)× .
¯
Sol: (Z/12Z)× = {1̄, 5̄, 7̄, 11}

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 2. Find the multiplicative inverse of 13 in Z/60Z
Sol: We have n = 60 and a = 13. Using the Euclidian Algorithm we obtain 1 = (13, 60) and
we can write 1 = (5)60 + (−23)13 this implies (−23)13 ≡ 1 (mod 60). Hence (−23) = 37 is
the multiplicative inverse of 13 in Z/60Z .

3. Is the element 12 = −7 in Z/20Z ?

Sol: No. 12 = 8 in Z/20Z

4. 7 + 9 = in Z/12Z ?
Sol: 4

5. 7 · 9 = in Z/12Z ?
Sol: 3?

Home Work
Do the proofs of the proposition and Theorem.
Do the topic ”application of modular arithmetic in number theory” given in this lecture.

Exercise
0.3.1, 0.3.2, 0.3.3, 0.3.4, 0.3.5, 0.3.6, 0.3.10, 0.3.11, 0.3.15

1. Write down explicitly all the elements in the residue classes of Z/18Z.

2. Prove that the distinct equivalence classes in Z/nZ are precisely 0̄, 1̄, 2̄, . . . , n − 1 (use the
Division Algorithm).

3. Prove that if a = an 10n + an−1 10n−1 + · · · + a1 10 + a0 is any positive integer then a ≡

an + an−1 + · · · + a1 + a0 (mod 9).

4. Compute the remainder when 37100 is divided by 29.

5. Compute the last two digits of 91500 .

6. Prove that the number of elements of (Z/nZ)× is ϕ(n) where ϕ denotes the Euler ϕ- function.

7. Prove that if a, b ∈ (Z/nZ)× , then a · b ∈ (Z/nZ)×

8. Let n ∈ Z, n > 1, and let a ∈ Z with 1 ≤ a ≤ n. Prove if a and n are not relatively prime,
there exists an integer b with 1 ≤ b < n such that ab ≡ 0 (mod n) and deduce that there
cannot be an integer c such that ac ≡ 1 (mod n).

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 9. Let n ∈ Z, n > 1, and let a ∈ Z with 1 ≤ a < n. Prove that if a and n are relatively prime
then there is an integer c such that ac ≡ 1 (mod n); [use the fact that the g.c.d. of two integers
is a Z-linear combination of the integers].

10. For each of the following pairs of integers a and n, show that a is relatively prime to n and
determine the multiplicative inverse of a in Z/nZ.
(a) a = 13, n = 20.
(b) a = 69, n = 89.
(c) a = 1891, n = 3797.
(d) a = 6003722857, n = 77695236973. [The Euclidean Algorithm requires only 3 steps for
these integers.]

1.4 Groups

Basic axioms of a group with examples

Definition. A binary operation ? on a set G is a function ? : G × G → G.
For any a, b ∈ G we shall write a ? b for ?(a, b), therefore a ? b ∈ G ∀ a, b ∈ G.

Examples
(1) + (usual addition) is a binary operation on Z (or on Q, R, or C respectively).
(2) × (usual multiplication) is a binary operation on Z (or on Q, R, or C respectively).
(3) − (usual subtraction) is a binary operation on Z, where −(a, b) = a − b. The map a 7→ −a is
not a binary operation (not binary).
(4) − is not a binary operation on Z+ (nor Q+ , R+ ) because for a, b ∈ Z+ with a < b, a − b ∈
/ Z+ ,
that is, − does not map Z+ × Z+ into Z+ .

Definition. A group is an ordered pair (G, ?) where G is a set and ? is a binary operation on G
satisfying the following axioms:
(i) (a ? b) ? c = a ? (b ? c), ∀ a, b, c ∈ G, i.e., ? is associative,
(ii) ∃ e ∈ G, called an identity of G, such that ∀ a ∈ G we have a ? e = e ? a = a,
(iii) ∀ a ∈ G ∃ x ∈ G, called an inverse of a, such that a ? x = x ? a = e.

Examples:
(1) Z, Q, R and C are groups under + with e = 0 and inverse of a is, −a, for all a.
(2) Q − {0}, R − {0}, C − {0}, Q+ , R+ are groups under × with e = 1 and inverse of a is, a1 , for all
a. Note however that Z − {0} is not a group under × because although × is an associative binary
operation on Z − {0}, the element 2 (for instance) does not have an inverse in Z − {0}.

Glossing Over: We have glossed over the fact that the associative law holds in these familiar
examples. For Z under + this is a consequence of the axiom of associativity for addition of nat-
ural numbers. The associative law for Q under + follows from the associative law for Z a proof

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of this will be outlined later when we rigorously construct Q from Z (cf. Section 7.5 in 2 ). The
associative laws for R and, in turn, C under + are proved in elementary analysis courses when R
is constructed by completing Q ultimately, associativity is again a consequence of associativity for Z.

The associative axiom for multiplication may be established via a similar development, starting
first with Z. Since R and C will be used largely for illustrative purposes and we shall not construct
R from Q we shall take the associative laws (under + and × ) for R and C as given.

Examples (continued):
(3) The axioms for a vector space V include those axioms which specify that (V, +) is an abelian
group (the operation + is called vector addition). Thus any vector space such as Rn is, in particular,
an additive group.

(4) For n ∈ Z+ , Z/nZ is an abelian group under the operation + of addition of residue classes as
described in Chapter 0. We shall prove in Chapter 3 (in a more general context) that this binary
operation + is well defined and associative; for now we take this for granted. The identity in this
group is the element 6 and for each ā ∈ Z/nZ, the inverse of ā is −a. Henceforth, when we talk
about the group Z/nZ it will be understood that the group operation is addition of classes mod n.

(5) For n ∈ Z+ , the set (Z/nZ)× of equivalence classes ā which have multiplicative inverses mod n is
an abelian group under multiplication of residue classes as described in Section 1.3. Again, we shall
take for granted (for the moment) that this operation is well defined and associative. The identity of
this group is the element 1̄ and, by definition of (Z/nZ)× , each element has a multiplicative inverse.
Henceforth, when we talk about the group ((Z/nZ)× it will be understood that the group operation
is multiplication of classes mod n.

(6) If (A, ?) and (B, ) are groups, we can form a new group A × B, called their direct product,
whose elements are those in the Cartesian product

A × B = {(a, b) | a ∈ A, b ∈ B}

and whose operation is defined componentwise:

(a1 , b1 )(a2 , b2 ) = (a1 ? a2 , b1  b2 )

For example, if we take A = B = R (both operations addition), R×R is the familiar Euclidean plane.
The proof that the direct product of two groups is again a group is left as a straightforward exercise
(later) the proof that each group axiom holds in A × B is a consequence of that axiom holding in
2
D. S. Dummit & R. M. Foote, Abstract Algebra, 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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both A and B together with the fact that the operation in A × B is defined componentwise.

Definition. The group (G, ?) is called abelian (or commutative) if a ? b = b ? a for all a, b ∈ G.

Examples
(1) The groups given in examples 1 and 2 are abelian or commutative groups.
(2) The symmetric group S3 3 is non-abelian or non-commutative group.

Remark 2. Suppose that ? is a binary operation on a set G and on a subset H of G. Observe

that if ? is an associative (respectively, commutative) binary operation on G, then ? is automatically
associative (respectively, commutative) on H as well.

Notation: From now on, for the sake of simplicity,

(1) we shall take . as the binary operation on a set G instead of ? and a.b will always be written as
ab
(2) we shall always denote the inverse of an element a in a group G by a−1 .

Proposition. If G is a group under the operation . , then

(1) the identity of G is unique
(2) for each a ∈ G, a−1 is uniquely determined
(3) (a−1 )−1 = a for all a ∈ G
(4) (ab)−1 = b−1 a−1 for all a, b ∈ G

Proof
(1) Let f and g be both identities, by axiom (ii) of the definition of a group

f g = f (take a = f and e = g).

By the same axiom

f g = g (take a = g and e = f ).

Thus f = g, and the identity is unique.

(2) Assume b and c are both inverses of a and let e be the identity of G. By axiom (iii), ab = e and
ca = e. Thus

c = ce (definition of e − axiom (ii))

= c(ab) (since e = ab)
= (ca)b (associative law)
= eb (e = ca)
= b (axiom (ii))
3
See section 1.6

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(3) To show (a−1 )−1 = a is exactly the problem of showing a is the inverse of a−1 (since by part (2)
a has a unique inverse). In the axiom (iii), replace a by a−1 , we have x = a, hence a is the inverse
of a−1
(4) Let c = (ab)−1 so by definition of c, (ab)c = e. By the associative law

a(bc) = e.

Multiply both sides on the left by a−1 to get

a−1 (a(bc) = a−1 e.

The associative law on the left hand side and the definition of e on the right give

(a−1 a)(bc) = a−1

so
e(bc) = a−1

hence
bc = a−1 .

Now multiply both sides on the left by b−1 and simplify similarly:

b−1 (bc) = b−1 a−1 , (b−1 b)c = b−1 a−1 , ec = b−1 a−1 , c = b−1 a−1 ,

as claimed.
Notation:
(3) For an abstract group G (operation ·) we denote the identity of G by 1.
(4) For any group G (operation . implied) and x ∈ G and n ∈ Z+ since the product xx...x (n terms)
does not depend on how it is bracketed, we shall denote it by xn . Denote x−1 x−1 ...x−1 (n terms)
by x−n Let x0 = 1, the identity of G.

Proposition. 2. Let G be a group and let a, b ∈ G. The equations ax = b and ya = b have unique
solutions for x, y ∈ G. In particular, the left and right cancellation laws hold in G, i.e.,
(1) if au = av, then u = v, and
(2) if ub = vb, then u = v.

Proof:

1. We are given ax = b, by multiplying both sides on the left by a−1 , we get

x = a−1 b.

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 x is unique because a−1 is unique. Similarly, if ya = b then y = ba−1 .

2. If au = av, multiply both sides on the left by a−1 we get,

u = v.

Similarly, the right cancellation law holds.

Consequences of Proposition 2:
(1) if a is any element of G and for some x ∈ G, ax = e or xa = e, then x = a−1 , i.e., we do not
have to show both equations hold.
(2) Also, if for some b ∈ G, ab = a (or ba = a), then b must be the identity of G, i.e., we do not
have to check bx = xb = x for all x ∈ G.

Definition. For G a group and x ∈ G, define the order of x to be the smallest positive integer n
such that xn = 1, and denote this integer by |x|. In this case x is said to be of order n. If no positive
power of x is the identity, the order of x is defined to be infinity and x is said to be of infinite order.
Or, in other words, for any element a ∈ G,

n, if n ∈ Z+ is the smallest such that xn = e
|a| =
∞, otherwise.

Examples:
(1) An element of a group has order 1 if and only if it is the identity.
(2) In the additive groups Z, Q, R or C every nonzero (i.e., nonidentity) element has infinite order.
(3)In the multiplicative groups R − {0} or Q − {0} the element −1 has order 2 and all other
nonidentity elements have infinite order.
(4) In the additive group Z/9Z the element 6̄ has order 3, since 6̄ 6= 0̄, 6̄ + 6̄ = 12 = 3̄ 6= 0̄, but
6 + 6 + 6 = 18 = 6, the identity in this group. Recall that in an additive group the powers of an
element are the integer multiples of the element. Similarly, the order of the element 5̄ is 9, since 45
is the smallest positive multiple of 5 that is divisible by 9.
(5) In the multiplicative group (Z/7Z)× , the powers of the element 2̄ are 2̄, 4̄, 8̄ = 1̄, the identity in
this group, so 2̄ has order 3. Similarly, the element 3̄ has order 6, since 36 is the smallest positive
power of 3 that is congruent to 1 modulo 7.

Practice Problems with Solutions

1. Consider the set R with the operation x y := xy + 1, where x, y ∈ R.
(a) Compute (3 2) 5 and 3 (2 5).

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 Solution: We have: (3 2) 5 = (6 + 1) 5=7 5 = 36
and 3 (2 5) = 3 11 = 34.
(b) Is the operation on R associative?
Solution: No. Since, by part (a), we know that (3 2) 6 6= 3 (2 5), the operation
is not associative.

2. In the group Z with the operation of addition, what is the inverse of the element 5?
Solution: We have 5 + (−5) = (−5) + 5 = 0. Therefore, by definition of the inverse element
in the group, the inverse of 5 in (Z,+) is −5.

3. Consider the set M2,2 (R) of all 2 × 2 matrices with entries from R, endowed with the standard
operation of matrix multiplication. Is M2,2 (R) a group?
Solution: No, this is not a group. Since for any 3 × 3 matrices A, B, C ∈ M2,2 (R) we have
(AB)C = A(BC), the # axiom of being a group is satisfied for (M2,2 (R), · ).
" first
1 0
Moreover, for E = , we have
0 1

EA = AE = A for every A ∈ M2,2 (R).

Thus the second axiom of being a group is satisfied for (M2,2 (R), ·).
However, not" every# element in (M2,2 (R), ·) has a multiplicative inverse. For example, for the
0 0
matrix O = there does not exist a matrix B ∈ (M2,2 (R), ·) such that OB = E, since
0 0
we always have OB = O. Thus the third axiom of being a group fails here.

4. Consider the set (R, +) as a group with respect to addition. Compute the 3rd power of 5 ∈ R,
with respect to addition. What is the order of the element 5 in (R, +)?
Solution: The 3rd power of 5 in (R, +) is 5 + 5 + 5 = 15. The order of 5 in (R, +) is ∞
since for every integer n ≥ 1, 5n 6= 0.

5. In the group Z/7Z with the operation of addition, what is the order of the element 2?
Solution: The order of 2 in (Z/7Z, +) is 7. Indeed 7 · 2 = 0 in Z/7Z and a direct check shows
that for every n = 1, 2, . . . , 6, 2n 6= 0 in Z/7Z.

6. Let (G, ∗) be group. Let n ≥ 1, let g1 , . . . , gn ∈ G and let g = g1 ∗ · · · ∗ gn . Express the

element g −1 in terms of g1−1 , . . . , gn−1 .
Solution: We have g −1 = gn−1 ∗ · · · ∗ g1−1 . This follows from the definition of g −1 and from the
fact that (g1 ∗ · · · ∗ gn ) ∗ (gn−1 ∗ · · · ∗ g1−1 ) = e = (gn−1 ∗ · · · ∗ g1−1 ) ∗ (g1 ∗ · · · ∗ gn ).

Exercises
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 1. Determine which of the following binary operations are associative:
(a) the operation ∗ on R defined by a ∗ b = a + b + ab
(b) the operation ∗ on Q defined by a ∗ b = (a + b)/5
(c) the operation ∗ on Z × Z defined by (a, b) ∗ (c, d) = (ad + bc, bd)

2. Decide which of the binary operations in the preceding exercise are commutative.

3. Prove for all n > 1 that Z/nZ is not a group under multiplication of residue classes.

4. Determine which of the following sets are groups under addition:

(a) the set of rational numbers (including 0 = 0/1) in lowest terms whose denominators are
odd
(b) the set of rational numbers (including 0 = 0/1) in lowest terms whose denominators are
even
(c) the set of rational numbers of absolute value < 1
(d) the set of rational numbers of absolute value ≥ 1 together with 0
(e) the set of rational numbers with denominators equal to 1 or 2
(f) the set of rational numbers with denominators equal to 1, 2 or 3.

5. (a) Find the orders of the following elements of the additive group Z/36Z:
1, 2, 6, 9, 10, 12, −1, −10, −18.
(b) Find the orders of the following elements of the multiplicative group (Z/36Z)× :
1, −1, 5, 13, −13, 17.

6. For x an element in G show that x and x−1 have the same order.

1. Do the following exercises from the book:

Exercise 1.1: Q.1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,28,29, 32,33,34,35.

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1.5 Dihedral group, The Quaternion group, Klein-4 group
Definition. Let G = {g1 , g2 , . . . , gn } be a finite group with g1 = 1. The multiplication table or group
table of G is the n × n matrix whose i, j entry is the group element gi gj .

Definition. Let G be a group. The cardinality of G, i.e., |G|, is called the order of the group G.

Eamples: The order of the group Z/nZ is n that is, |Z/nZ| = n . The order of the group Z is ∞,
that is, |Z| = ∞.

Dihedral groups
An important family of examples of groups is the class of groups whose elements are symmetries of
geometric objects. The simplest subclass is when the geometric objects are regular planar figures.
For each n ∈ Z+ , n ≥ 3

D2n := {symmetries of a regular n-gon P ⊂ C},

where a symmetry4 is any rigid motion of the n-gon which can be effected by taking a copy of the
n-gon, moving this copy in any fashion in 3-space and then placing the copy back on the original
n-gon so it exactly covers it. More precisely, we can describe the symmetries by first choosing a
labelling of the n vertices, for example as shown in the following figure.

Figure 1:

Now make D2n into a group by defining st for s, t ∈ D2n to be the symmetry obtained by first
applying t then s to the n-gon (note that we are viewing symmetries as functions on the n-gon, so
st is just function composition - read as usual from right to left). The binary operation on D2n is
associative since composition of functions is associative. The identity of D2n is the identity symmetry
4
A symmetry of P is a rigid motion (i.e. distance preserving function f : C → C) which carries P onto itself (i.e.
f (P ) = P )

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(which leaves all vertices fixed), denoted by 1, and the inverse of s ∈ D2n is the symmetry which
reverses all rigid motions of s.
It can be proved5 that there are exactly 2n symmetries of a regular n-gon. These symmetries
are the n rotation about the center through 2πi/n radian, 0 ≤ i ≤ n − 1, and the n reflections
through the n lines of symmetry (if n is odd, each symmetry line passes through a vertex and the
mid-point of the opposite side; if n is even, there are n/2 lines of symmetry which pass through 2
opposite vertices and n/2 which perpendicularly bisect two opposite sides). That is, D2n consists
of n rotations and n reflections, so |D2n | = 2n. For example, if n = 4 and we draw a square at the
origin in an x, y plane, the lines of symmetry are

Figure 2:

the lines x = 0 (y-axis), y = 0 (x-axis), y = x and y = −x (note that ”reflection” through the
origin is not a reflection but a rotation of n radians).
We now fix some notation and mention some calculations for future use. Fix a regular n-gon centered
at the origin in an x, y plane and label the vertices consecutively from 1 to n in a clockwise manner.
Let r be the rotation clockwise about the origin through 2π/n radian. Let s be the reflection about
the line of symmetry through vertex 1 and the origin. Observe the following calculations:

(1) 1, r, r2 , . . . , rn−1 are all distinct and rn = 1, so |r| = n.

(2) |s| = 2.
(3) s 6= ri for any i.
(4) sri 6= srj , for all 0 ≤ i, j ≤ n − 1 with i 6= j, so

D2n = {1, r, r2 , . . . rn−1 , s, sr, sr2 , ..., srn−1 }

i.e., each element can be written uniquely in the form sk ri for some k = 0 or 1 and 0 ≤ i ≤ n − 1.
(5) rs = sr−1 . This shows in particular that r and s do not commute so that every element in D2n
does not have the abelian/commutative property. Hence D2n is non-abelian group.
5
See proof on the page 24 of the Dummit & Footie Book or see the link http://www.math.uconn.edu/ kcon-
rad/blurbs/grouptheory/dihedral.pdf for more rigorous proof.

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(6) ri s = sr−i , for all 0 ≤ i ≤ n. This indicates how to commute s with powers of r.

Having done these calculations, we now observe that the complete multiplication table of D2n
can be written in terms r and s alone, that is, all the elements of D2n have a (unique) representation
in the form sk ri , k = 0 or 1 and 0 ≤ i ≤ n − 1, and any product of two elements in this form can be
reduced to another in the same form using only ”relations” (1), (2) and (6) (reducing all exponents
mod n). For example, if n = 12, (sr9 )(sr6 ) = s(r9 s)r6 = s(sr−9 )r6 = s2 r−9+6 = r−3 = r9 .

Klein 4-Group
Definition. The Klein 4-group, V4 , is defined by

V4 = {1, a, b, c}

with the product · defined as follows:

1 · x = x · 1 = x, for all x ∈ V4 ,
a · b = b · a = c,
a · c = c · a = b,
b · c = c · b = a,
a · a = b · b = c · c = 1.

Observe that the group V4 is abelian group of order 4.

The group table for the Kelin 4 group is

1 a b c
1 1 a b c
a a 1 c b
b b c 1 a
c c b a 1

The Quaternion Group

The quaternion group, Q8 , is defined by

Q8 = {1, −1, i, −i, j, −j, k, −k}

with product · computed as follows:

1 · a = a · 1 = a, for all a ∈ Q8 ,
(−1) · (−1) = 1, (−1) · a = a · (−1) = −a, for all a ∈ Q8 ,
i · i = j · j = k · k = −1,
i · j = k, j · i = −k,

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j · k = i, k · j = −i,
k · i = j, i · k = −j.
Note that every element in Q8 does not have the abelian/commutative property.
The group table for the Quartenion group is

1 -1 i -i j -j k -k
1 1 -1 i -i j -j k -k
-1 -1 1 -i i -j j -k k
-i -i i 1 -1 -k k j -j
i i -i -1 1 k -k -j j
j j -j -k k -1 1 i -i
-j -j j k -k 1 -1 -i i
k k -k j -j -i i -1 1
-k -k k -j j i -i 1 -1

The multiplication table shows that Q8 is a non-abelian group of order 8.

Matrix Groups
Definition. (1) A field is a set F together with two binary operations + and · on F such that (F, +)
is an abelian group (call its identity 0) and (F − {0}, ·) is also an abelian group, and the following
distributive law holds:
a · (b + c) = (a · b) + (a · c), for all a, b, c ∈ F.

(2) Let F be a field.

For each n ∈ Z+ , define

GLn (F ) = {A | A is an n × n matrix with entries from F and det(A) 6= 0}

GLn (F ) is a group (Exc.) under matrix multiplication, called the general linear group of degree n.

Generators and Relations

The use of the r and s for the dihedral group provides a simple and clear way of computing in D2n .
We can similarly introduce the notions of generators and relations for arbitrary groups.

Definition. A subset S of elements of a group G with the property that every element of G can be
written as a (finite) product of elements of S and their inverses is called a set of generators of G.
We shall indicate this notationally by writing G = hSi and say G is generated by S or S generates
G.

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 For example, the integer 1 is a generator for the additive group Z of integers since every integer
is a sum of a finite number of +1’s and −1’s, so Z = h1i. By property (4) of D2n the set S = {r, s}
is a set of generators of D2n , so D2n = hr, si.
We shall see later that in a finite group G the set S generates G if every element of G is a finite
product of elements of S (i.e., it is not necessary to include the inverses of the elements of S as well).
Any equations in a general group G that the generators satisfy are called relations in G. Thus
in D2n we have relations: rn = 1, s2 = 1 and rs = sr−1 . Moreover, in D2n these three relations have
the additional property that any other relation between elements of the group may be derived from
these three.
In general, if some group G is generated by a subset S and there is some collection of relations,
say R1 , R2 , . . . , Rm (here each Ri , is an equation in the elements from S ∪{1}) such that any relation
among the elements of S can be deduced from these, we shall call these generators and relations a
presentation of G and write G = {S | R1 , R2 , . . . , Rm }. One presentation for the dihedral group D2n
(using the generators and relations above) is then

D2n = {r, s | rn = s2 = 1, rs = sr−1 }.

A presentation for the Klein 4-group V4 is

V4 = {a, b | a2 = b2 = (ab)2 = 1}

Practice Problems with Solutions

1. Is it true that the group D6 is abelian? Why, or why not?
Solution: Not, because rs 6= sr in D6 .

2. Is it true that the group (Z, +) can be generated by a finite subset S in Z?

Solution: Yes, Z = h1i = h−1i = h1, −1i

3. In D8 express r2 s in the form srj for some 0 ≤ j ≤ 3.

Solution: By using the relation rs = sr3 in D8 , we obtain r2 s = sr2 .

4. Consider the group (Z2 , +) with respect to addition. Give an example of a finite subset S⊆ Z2
such that S generates Z2 .
Solution: For example S = {(1, 0), (0, 1)} generates Z2 .

5. Consider a group given by the presentation G = {a, b | ab = ba}. Is it true that this group is
abelian?
Solution: Yes, it is true that this group is abelian.

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 6. Let G and H be groups such that G is generated by a finite subset S ⊆ G and H is generated
by a finite subset Q ⊆ H. Is it true that the group G × H also can be generated by a finite
set?
Solution: Yes, this is true. The set {(s, 1) | s ∈ S} ∪ {(1, q) | q ∈ Q} is finite and generates
G × H.

Exercises
1. Compute the order of each of the elements in Q8 .

2. Write out the group tables-for S3 , D8 and Q8 .

3. Prove that GLn (F ) is a group under matrix multiplication.

4. Prove that D2n is a nonabelian group.

5. Do the following selected exercises from Book:

Exercise 1.2: Q.1,2,3,6,8,9,10,14,15
Exercise 1.4: Q.1,2,3,4,5,9,10
Exercise 1.5: Q.1,2,3.

1.6 Symmetric groups, Permutation groups

Symmetric/Permutation Group
Set n = {1, 2 . . . , n} Then
Sn := {all bijections from n → n}

is a group under composition of functions. (Exc.) Its elements are called permutations (of n symbols
or letters), and (Sn , ◦) is called the symmetric group of degree n. Note that Sn is a finite, nonabelian
(for n ≥ 3) group of order n!,
|Sn | = n! (why?)

Hint: Use Fundamental Counting Principal.

(What about S1 and S2 ?)

More generally, for any set A (possibly infinite), the set SA of bijections A → A is a group(Exc.)
under composition of functions, called the symmetric group on A.

Notation for elements σ ∈ Sn :

(a) two-row notation: write the numbers 1, . . . , n in the first row and their images σ(1), . . . , σ(n) in
the second.

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(b) cycle notation (more efficient): break σ ∈ Sn into disjoint cycles:
The k-cycle
(i1 i2 i3 . . . ik )

is the permutation which sends each ij to the next ij+1 in the list, sends ik to i1 , and leaves all
else fixed (draw circular picture). Note that ”cyclic permutations” of the list, e.g. (i2 i3 . . . ik i1 ),
represent the same cycle. A 2-cycle is also called a transposition.

Note: Disjoint cycles commute.

Example:
(1 3 4)(2 5 7) = (2 5 7)(1 3 4)

Fact: Every σ ∈ Sn can be written uniquely (up to rearranging its cycles and cyclically permuting
the numbers within each cycle) as a product of disjoint (i.e. non overlapping) cycles, called its cycle
decomposition. (Often omit 1-cycles in notation)

Examples:
!
1 2 3 4 5
(1) = (1 4)(2 5 3)
4 5 2 1 3
!
1 2 3 4 5
(2) = (1 4)(2)(3 5) = (1 4)( 35) = (3 5)(4 1)
4 2 5 1 3

Multiplication of permutations:
To multiply (i.e. compose) two permutations, first juxtapose their cycle decompositions. What
results is a product of cycles that might not be disjoint. To rewrite this in disjoint cycle form, work
from right to left (as with composition of functions) to see where each number 1, . . . , n maps.

Example:

For example, to compute π = στ where σ = (2 1 4 5 3) and τ = (1 5)(2 3), first see where 1 maps:
we have τ (1) = 5 and σ(5) = 3, and so π(1) = 3. Similarly π(3) = 1 (giving (1 3) as one of the
cycles in π), π(2) = 2 (giving the cycle (2)), π(4) = 5 and π(5) = 4 (giving the cycle (4 5)). Thus

(2 1 4 5 3) · (1 5)(2 3) = (1 3)(2)(4 5) = (1 3)(4 5).

Inverse of a permutation:
For any σ ∈ Sn , the cycle decomposition of σ −1 is obtained by writing the numbers in each cycle of
the cycle decomposition of σ in reverse order.

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Example:
if σ = (1 12 8 10 4)(2 13)(5 11 7)(6 9) is the element of S13 described before then

σ −1 = (4 10 8 12 1)(13 2)(7 11 5)(9 6).

Order of a permutation:

Note The order (as an element of Sn ) of any k-cycle is k, and in general the order of a permutation
is the least common multiple (lcm) of the orders of the (disjoint) cycles in its cycle decomposition
(why?).

Example:

|(2 1 4 5 3)(6 9)(7 8)| = 10 |(2 1 4 5 3)(1 5)(2 3)| = 2

(not 10 for the latter, since the cycles are not disjoint).

Practice Problems with Solutions

!
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
1. Given τ =
3 13 5 12 8 11 9 1 6 10 7 4 2
(i) Find the cyclic decomposition of τ ?
(ii) Find the inverse of τ ?
(iii) Find the length of each cycle in τ ?
(iv) Compute the product (1345) ◦ (123)(45)

Solution: i. (1 3 5 8)(2 13)(6 11 7 9)(4 12)

ii. (8 5 3 1)(13 2)(9 7 11 6)(12 4)
iii. τ contains cycles of length 2 and 4
iv. (124)

2. Write down the all the elements of S3 and S4 .

Solution:
S3 = {I, (1 2), (1 3), (2 3), (1 2 3), (1 3 2)}.
 
 I, (1 2), (1 3), (1 4), (2 3), (2 4), (3 4), (1 2 3), (1 2 4), (1 3 4), (2 3 4), 
 
S4 = (1 3 2), (1 4 2), (1 4 3), (2 4 3), (1 2)(3 4), (1 3)(2 4), (1 4)(2 3), .
 
(1 2 3 4), (1 3 2 4), (1 4 2 3), (1 2 4 3), (1 3 4 2), (1 4 3 2)
 

Exercises
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 1. Let σ and τ be the permutations given by: !
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
τ=
13 2 15 14 10 6 12 3 4 1 7 9 5 11 8
!
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
σ=
14 9 10 2 12 6 5 11 15 3 8 7 4 1 13
Find the cycle decompositions of the following permutations: σ, τ, σ 2 , στ, τ σ and τ 2 σ.

2. Compute the order of each of the elements in the following groups: (a) S3 (b) S4 .

3. Find the order of (1 12 8 10 4)(2 13)(5 11 7)(6 9).

4. Write out the cycle decomposition of each element of order 4 in S4 .

5. Write out the inverse of each element of order 2 in S4 .

6. Prove that Sn is a group under composition of maps.

7. Prove that the order of an element in Sn is the least common multiple of the lengths of the
cycles in its cycle decomposition.

1. Do the following exercises from the book:

Exercise 1.3: Q.1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,15.

1.7 Homomorphism and Isomorphism

In this lecture we will see when two groups ”look the same,”?
Definition Let (G, ?) and (H, ◦) be groups. A map ϕ : G → H such that

ϕ(x ? y) = ϕ(x) ◦ ϕ(y), for all x, y ∈ G

is called a homomorphism.
Intuitively, a map ϕ is a homomorphism if it respects the group structures of its domain and
codomain.
A homomorphism from a group to itself (i.e. G = H) is called an endomorphism.
The image of ϕ is:
im(ϕ) := {ϕ(x) | x ∈ G} = ϕ(G)

The kernel of ϕ is:

ker(ϕ) := {x ∈ G | ϕ(x) = 1G } = ϕ−1 (1H )

Definition. The map ϕ : G → H is called an isomorphism (and G and H are said to be isomorphic
or of the same isomorphism type), written G ∼
= H, if
(1) ϕ is a homomorphism (i.e., (ϕ(xy) = ϕ(x)ϕ(y)), and
(2) ϕ is a bijection.

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Intuitively, G and H are the same group except that the elements and the operations may be written
differently in G and H.
An automorphism is a bijective endomorphism.

Examples:
1. exp : (R, +) → (R − {0}, ·) is an (injective) homomorphism.
2. det : GLn (R) → R − {0} is a surjective homomorphism (where it is understood that the operation
is multiplication in both groups).
3(a). For any abelian group G, the map ψ : G → G; x 7→ x−1 is a homomorphism since ψ(xy) =
(xy)−1 = y −1 x−1 = x−1 y −1 = ψ(x)ψ(y). In fact ψ is an automorphism which is its own inverse!
3(b). If G is nonabelian, then ψ is not a homomorphism: for any a, b ∈ G with ab 6= ba, have
ψ(ab) = (ab)−1 and ψ(a)ψ(b) = a−1 b−1 = (ba)−1 , but (ab)−1 6= (ba)−1 since inverses are unique.

Proposition. Let f : G → H be a homomorphism of groups. Then Prove:

1. f (1) = 1 .

2. f (x−1 ) = (f (x))−1 .

3. f is injective ⇔ ker(f ) = {1}.

4. If |x| is finite then |f (x)| is finite. Furthermore, |f (x)| divides |x|.

Proof: Do yourself.
2

Lemma. 1. Order Lemma: Let a be an element of order k in a group. If k is finite, then

ai = aj ⇐⇒ i ≡ j (mod k). In particular an = 1 ⇐⇒ k|n. If k = ∞ then ai 6= aj unless i = j.

Proof: If k is finite, then for any i and j we can write i − j = qk + r with 0 ≤ r < k. Thus
ai = aj ⇐⇒ ai−j = 1 ⇐⇒ ar = 1, since aqk+r = (ak )q ar = ar . But ar = 1 ⇐⇒ r = 0, since
r < k = |a|, and r = 0 ⇐⇒ i ≡ j (mod k). The last statement is clear since ai = aj ⇐⇒ ai−j = 1.
2 Exc. If ϕ : G → H is an isomorphism of groups, then show that ϕ−1 : H → G is isomorphism.

Lemma. 2. If ϕ : G → H is an isomorphism of groups, then

(a) |G| = |H|;
(b) G is abelian ⇐⇒ H is abelian;
(c) |ϕ(x)| = |x|, ∀x ∈ G.

Proof: do yourself.
We can use Lemma 2 to prove, two groups are not isomorphic.

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Examples:
1 Z/mZ  Z/nZ for m 6= n, since they have different orders
2 Z/6Z  S3 , since Z/mZ is abelian and S3 is not .
3 (Z/24Z)×  Z/8Z, since Z/8Z has element of order 8 but (Z/24Z)× does’t.

We Can also count the number of elements of a given order to distinguish groups.
Examples:
1 D24  S4 , since D24 has 12 elements of order 2 while S4 has 9 only (why?).
1 (R − {0}, ×)  (R, +), since in (R − {0}, ×) the element −1 has order 2 whereas (R, +) has no
element of order 2

Open Problem: Classify all groups (up to isomorphism)

Facts:
1 There is only one group of any given prime order
2 There exist 2 of order 4 (Z/4Z, V4 ), 2 of order 6 (Z/6Z, S3 ), 5 of order 8 (Z/8Z, Z/4Z ×
Z/2Z, Z/2Z × Z/2Z × Z/2Z, D8 , Q8 ), 2 of order 9 ( Z/9Z, Z/3Z × Z/2Z), 2 of order 10 (Z/10Z, D10 ),
5 of order 12, 14 of order 16 . . . (see page 168 in text)

Homomorphisms and isomorphisms between two groups given by generators and relations:
Facts:
1 Let G be a finite group of order n for which we have a presentation and let S = {s1 , . . . , sm } be
the generators. Let H be another group and r1 , . . . , rm be elements of H. Suppose that any relation
satisfied in G by the si is also satisfied in H when each si is replaced by ri . Then there is a (unique)
homomorphism ϕ : G → H which maps si to ri .
2 If H is generated by the elements r1 , . . . , rm , then ϕ is surjective.
3 If, in addition, H has the same (finite) order as G, then any surjective map is necessarily injective,
i.e., ϕ is an isomorphism: G ∼ = H.
Intuitively, we can map the generators of G to any elements of H and obtain a homomorphism
provided that the relations in G are still satisfied.

Examples:
1 Recall that D2n = {r, s | rn = s2 = 1, sr = rs−1 }. Suppose H is a group containing elements
a and b with an = 1, b2 = 1 and ba = a−1 b. Then there is a homomorphism from D2n to H
mapping r to a and s to b. For instance, let k be an integer dividing n with k ≥ 3 and let
D2k = {r1 , s1 | r1k = s21 = 1, s1 r1 = r1−1 s1 ). Define

ϕ : D2n → D2k by ϕ(r) = r1 and ϕ(s) = s1

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If we write n = km, then since r1k = 1, also r1n = (r1k )m = 1. Thus the three relations satisfied by
r, s in D2n are satisfied by r1 , s1 in D2k . Thus ϕ extends (uniquely) to a homomorphism from D2n
to D2k . Since {r1 , s1 } generates D2k , ϕ is surjective. This homomorphism is not an isomorphism if
k < n.
3 Following up on the preceding example, let G = D6 , be as presented above. Check that in H = S3
the elements a = (1 2 3) and b = (1 2) satisfy the relations: a3 = 1, b2 = 1 and ba = ab−1 . Thus there
is a homomorphism from D6 to S3 which sends r 7→ a and s 7→ b. One may further check that S3 is
generated by a and b, so this homomorphism is surjective. Since D6 and S3 both have order 6, this
homomorphism is an isomorphism: D6 ∼ = S3 .

Practice Problems with Solutions

1. Consider the map exp : R → (0, ∞); exp (x) = ex : Is it true that the map exp from the
group R with respect to addition to the group (0, ∞) with respect to multiplication is an
isomorphism?
Solution: Yes, this is true. Indeed, exp(x + y) = exp(x)exp(y) for any x, y ∈ R so that exp is
homomorphism. Also exp : R → (0, ∞) is a bijection, so that exp is an isomorphism.

2. Suppose that f : G → H is a group homomorphism such that f (G) = H and such that G is
abelian. Does this imply that H is abelian?
Solution: Yes, this does imply that H is abelian. Indeed, let h1 , h2 ∈ H be arbitrary. Then,
since f (G) = H, there exist g1 , g2 ∈ G such that f (g1 ) = h1 and f (g2 ) = h2 . Since f is a
homomorphism, we have f (g1 g2 ) = f (g1 )f (g2 ) = h1 h2 and f (g2 g1 ) = f (g2 )f (g1 ) = h2 h1 . Since
G is abelian, g1 g2 = g2 g1 and hence h1 h2 = f (g1 g2 ) = f (g2 g1 ) = h2 h1 , so that H is abelian.

3. Give an example of two finite groups G and H such that |G| = |H| but G is not isomorphic to
H.
Solution: For example, take G = S3 and H = Z/6Z. We have |G| = |H| = 6. However, H is
abelian but G is non-abelian, and hence G and H are not isomorphic.

Exercises
1. Let G and H be groups. Let ϕ : G → H be a homomorphism.
(a) Prove that ϕ(xn ) = ϕ(x)n for all n ∈ Z+ .
(b) Do part (a) for n = −1 and deduce that ϕ(xn ) = ϕ(x)n for all n ∈ Z.

2. Prove that the following pair of groups are not isomorphic:

i. (R − {0}, .) and (C − {0}, .)
ii. (R, +) and (Q, +).

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 iii. (Z, +) and (Q, +).
iv. D8 and Q8 .
v. D24 and S4 .

3. Let A and B be groups. Prove that A × B ∼

= B × A.

4. Let G and H be groups and let ϕ : G → H be a homomorphism.

i. Prove that the image of ϕ, ϕ(G), is also a group.
ii. Prove that if ϕ is injective then G ∼
= ϕ(G). iii. Prove that the kernel of ϕ is also group.
iv. Prove that ϕ is injective if and only if the ker ϕ = {1}.

5. Prove Proposition 1 and Lemma 2.

1. Do the following selected exercises from Book.

Exercise 1.6: Q.1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22.

1.8 Subgroups, Centralizer, Normalizer and Centre

Subgroups
Definition: A subset H of a group G is a subgroup of G, written H ≤ G,
if it is a group under the operation induced from G, i.e.
(S1) x, y ∈ H =⇒ xy ∈ H (S2) 1 ∈ H (S3) x ∈ H =⇒ x−1 ∈ H.
(Note: associativity is automatic)
Examples:
1 Every group has the trivial subgroups 1 and G. Any other subgroup will be called proper.
2 For k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , the set kZ = {nk | n ∈ Z} of all multiples of k is a subgroup of Z; there are
no others. (Note that + is the operation in Z, so (S2) reads 0 ∈ kZ.) 0Z = {0} and 1Z = Z are
trivial, 2Z = evens, etc.
3 {1, r, . . . , rn−1 } and {1, s} are subgroups of D2n .
4 {1, −1} are {1, i, −1, −i} and are subgroups of Q8 .

Subgroup Criterion:
A subset H of a group G is a subgroup if and only if
a H is nonempty, and b x, y ∈ H =⇒ xy −1 ∈ H.
Proof:( =⇒ ) 1 ∈ H by (S2) so H 6= ∅. If x, y ∈ H, then y −1 ∈ H by (S3) so xy −1 ∈ H by (S1).
Thus b holds.
(⇐=) ∃ x0 ∈ H by a , so 1 = x0 .x−1
0 ∈ H by b =⇒ (S2). Now x ∈ H =⇒ x
−1
= 1.x−1 ∈ H by
b =⇒ (S3). Finally x, y ∈ H =⇒ y −1 ∈ H by (S3) =⇒ xy = x(y −1 )−1 ∈ H by b , so (S1)
holds.
Corollary: Let H be a finite subset of a group G.

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H is a subgroup if and only if a H is nonempty, and b x, y ∈ H =⇒ xy ∈ H.
Proof: =⇒ similar as above
b H is finite
(⇐=) Since H 6= ∅ =⇒ ∃ x ∈ H =⇒ xm ∈ H ∀ m ∈ Z+ =⇒ ∃ a, b ∈ Z+ with a < b such that
xa = xb =⇒ 1 = xb−a =⇒ 1 = xn ∈ H, where n = b − a =⇒ (S2).
Since xn = 1 so x−1 = xn−1 ∈ H =⇒ (S3).

More examples of subgroups (Kernel, image, Centralizer, Normalizer

and Centre):
6 For any homomorphism f : G → H of groups,

ker(f ) ≤ G and im(f ) ≤ H.

(check this by the definition of subgroup or using the subgroup criterion)

7 The center Z(G) := {x ∈ G | xg = gx for all g ∈ G} of a group G is a subgroup of G.
Proof: For x, y ∈ Z(G) and g ∈ G, we have xyg = xgy = gxy =⇒ xy ∈ Z(G) (proving S1) and
xg −1 = g −1 x =⇒ (taking inverses) x−1 g = gx−1 =⇒ x−1 ∈ Z(G) (proving S3). For (S2), note
that 1 ∈ Z(G) since 1.g = g = g.1 for all g.
(Exercise: Give an alternative proof using the subgroup criterion and the observation that xg =
gx ⇐⇒ x = gxg −1 )
More generally, for any subset A ⊆ G, define the centralizer of A in G to be

CG (A) := {x ∈ G | xa = ax for all a ∈ A}

(so Z(G) = CG (G)), and the normalizer of A in G to be

NG (A) := {x ∈ G | xA = Ax}

where xA = {xa | a ∈ A} and Ax = {ax | a ∈ A}. All are subgroups of G

Example: Z(Q8 ) = {1, −1} (verify). For A = {1 − 1, i, −i} ≤ Q8 , have ji 6= ij, ki 6= ik, etc. and
so CQ8 (A) = A. However jA = {j, −j, −k, k} is the same set as Aj = {j, −j, k, −k}, . . . and so
NQ8 (A) = Q8 .

Remark: In general, for any subsets A1 , . . . , An of a group G, define

A1 . . . An = {a1 . . . an | ai ∈ Ai for each i = 1, . . . , n}: xA and Ax are special cases of this, as is
xAx−1 = {xax−1 | a ∈ A}. Note that the conditions xa = ax and xA = Ax defining CG (a) and
NG (A) can be rewritten as xax−1 = a and xAx−1 = A.

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 Practice Problems with Solutions
1. Is the set of all positive integers a subgroup of (Z, +)?
Solution: No. because 0 in Z is not in the set of all positive integers.

Homework
1. Let f : G → H be a homomorphism of groups. Prove that

ker(f ) ≤ G and im(f ) ≤ H.

2. Let G be a group. Let A ⊆ G. Prove that Z(G), CG (A) and NG (A) are subgroups of G.

Exercises
Do the following selected exercises from Book.
Exercise 2.1: Q.1,2,3,4,6,8,9,10,11,12,14,15,16,17.
Exercise 2.2: Q. 1,2,3,4,5,6,11.

1.9 Cyclic Groups

Cyclic Groups
Definition: For any element x in a group G, denote by hxi the set of all powers of x (or multiples of
x if G is additive),
hxi = {xk | k ∈ Z}.

This is a subgroup of G (verify) called the cyclic subgroup generated by x.

If G = hxi for some x ∈ G we say G is a cyclic group, and any such x is called a generator of G
(there may be many, for example, hxi = hx−1 i).
Examples:

1. Z under + (or its multiplicative analogue C∞ = {tk | k ∈ Z}, where t is an indeterminant) is

cyclic with generator 1 (or t). Alternatively, −1 (resp. t−1 ) is a generator.

2. Z/nZ under addition is cyclic group with generator 1.

3. D2n is not cyclic for n > 1: hrk i ⊂ hri =

6 D2n and hrk si = {1, rk s} =
6 D2n

Proposition 2: If x is an element in a group G. Then |hxi| = |x|.

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Proof. Case I: Let |x| = n < ∞. The elements 1, x, x2 , ..., xn−1 are distinct because if xa = xb , with,
say, 0 ≤ a < b < n, then xb−a = x0 = 1, contrary to n being the smallest positive power of x giving
the identity.
Thus hxi has at least n elements (i.e., {1, x, x2 , ..., xn−1 } ⊆ hxi) and it remains to show that these
are all of them (i.e., {1, x, x2 , ..., xn−1 } ⊇ hxi). If xt is any power of x, use the Division Algorithm
to write t = nq + k, where 0 ≤ k < n, so

xt = xnq+k = (xn )q xk = 1q xk = xk ∈ {1, x, x2 , . . . , xn−1 },

as desired.
Case II: Next suppose |x| = ∞ (i.e., no positive power of x is the identity) so for integers a 6= b,
xa 6= xb (because if xa = xb , for some a and b with, say, a < b, then xb−a = 1, a contradiction).
Hence distinct powers of x are distinct elements of hxi so |hxi| = ∞.

Corollary: If |G| = n, then G cyclic ⇐⇒ G has an element of order n.

Proof. Prove yourself.

Proposition 3: Let G be an arbitrary group, x ∈ G and let m, n ∈ Z.

(a) If xn = 1 and xm = 1, then xd = 1, where d = (m, n).
(b) In particular, if xm = 1 for some m ∈ Z, then |x| divides m.

Proof. (a) By the Euclidean Algorithm there exist integers r and s such that d = mr + ns, where d
is the g.c.d. of m and n. Thus

xd = xmr+ns = xmr xns = 1r 1s = 1.

(b) If xm = 1, let n = |x|. If m = 0, certainly n|m, so we may assume m 6= 0. Since some nonzero
power of x is the identity, n < ∞. Let d = (m, n) so by the preceding result xd = 1. Since 0 < d ≤ n
and n is the smallest positive power of x which gives the identity, we must have d = n, that is, n|m,
as asserted.

Practice Problems with Solutions

Question: Which of the following are cyclic?

1. Z/5Z

2. Z/6Z

3. Z/6Z

4. Z × Z

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 5. Z/2Z × Z/2Z

Solution:

Exercises
Do exercises: 2.3.1, 2.3.2, 2.3.3, 2.3.4, 2.3.5, 2.3.6

1.10 The structure of cyclic groups up to isomorphism

Classification Theorem for Cyclic Groups

Theorem 4. Any two cyclic groups of the same order are isomorphic. More specifically,
(1) if n ∈ Z+ and hxi and hyi are both cyclic groups of order n, then the map

ϕ : hxi −→ hyi

xk 7−→ y k

is well defined and is an isomorphism.

(2) if hxi is an infinite cyclic group, the map

ψ : Z −→ hxi

k 7−→ xk

is well defined and is an isomorphism.

Proof: (1) Suppose hxi and hyi are both cyclic groups of order n.
Let ϕ : hxi −→ hyi be defined by ϕ(xk ) = y k ;
we must first prove ϕ is well defined, that is, if xr = xs , then ϕ(xr ) = ϕ(y s ).
Since xr−s = 1, Proposition (in section 1.9) implies n | r − s.
Write r = tn + s so ϕ(xr ) = ϕ(xtn+s ) = y tn+s = (y n )t y s = y s = ϕ(xs ). This proves ϕ is well defined.
It is immediate from the laws of exponents that ϕ(xa xb ) = ϕ(xa )(ϕ(xb ) (check this), that is, ϕ is a
homomorphism.
Since the element y k of hyi is the image of xk under ϕ, this map is surjective.
Since both groups have the same finite order, any surjection from one to the other is a bijection,
so ϕ is an isomorphism (alternatively, ϕ has an obvious two-sided inverse).

(2) If hxi is an infinite cyclic group, let ψ : Z −→ hxi be defined by ψ(k) = xk .

Note that this map is already well defined since there is no ambiguity in the representation of ele-
ments in the domain.

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Since (by Proposition in section 1.9) xa 6= xb , for all distinct a, b ∈ Z, ψ is injective.
By definition of a cyclic group, ψ is surjective.
As above, the laws of exponents ensure ψ is a homomorphism, hence ψ is an isomorphism, complet-
ing the proof.

Notation: For each n ∈ Z+ , let Zn be the cyclic group of order n (written multiplicatively).

Up to isomorphism, Zn is the unique cyclic group of order n and Zn ∼ = Z/nZ. On occasion when
we find additive notation advantageous we shall use the latter group as our representative of the
isomorphism class of cyclic groups of order n.
Note: We shall occasionally say ”let hxi be the infinite cyclic group” (written multiplicatively),
however we shall always use Z (additively) to represent the infinite cyclic group.

As noted earlier, a given cyclic group may have more than one generator. The next two propositions
determine precisely which powers of x generate the group hxi.

Proposition 5. Let G be a group, let x ∈ G and let a ∈ Z − {0}.

(1) If |x| = ∞, then |xa | = ∞.
n
(2) If |x| = n < ∞, then |xa | = (n,a) .
n
(3) In particular, if |x| = n < ∞ and a is a positive integer dividing n, then |xa | = a
Proof:

(1) Suppose on contrary that |xa | = m < ∞. By definition of order

1 = (xa )m = xam .

Also,
x−am = (xam )−1 = 1−1 = 1.

Now one of am or −am is positive (since neither a nor m is 0) so some positive power of x is
the identity. This contradicts the hypothesis |x| = ∞, so the assumption |xa | < ∞ must be
false, that is, ( 1) holds.

(2) Let d = (n, a) be the g.c.d of a and b. Then ∃ b, c ∈ Z with b > 0 such that n = db, a = dc.
This implies (b, c) = 1 (since d is gcd of a and n). We must show that

n n
|xa | = = = b.
(a, n) d

First note that

(xa )b = xab = xdcb = (xdb )c = (xn )c = 1c = 1

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 so by Proposition 3 applied to xa , |xa ||b. Thus |xa | ≤ b.
Let k = |xa |. Then
xak = (xa )k = 1

so by Proposition 3 applied to x, n|ak, i.e., db|dck. Thus b|ck. Since (b, c) = 1, b must divide
k. Thus b | |xa | and hence |xa | ≥ b. Since|xa | ≤ b and |xa | ≥ b, |xa | = b, which proves (2).

(3) This is a special case of (2) recorded for future reference.

Proposition 6. Let H = hxi.

(1) Assume |x| = ∞. Then H = (xa ) if and only if a = ±1. (2) Assume |x| = n < ∞. Then
H = hxa i if and only if (a, n) = 1. In particular, the number of generators of H is ϕ(n) (where ϕ is
Euler’s ϕ -function).
Proof:

Practice Problems with Solutions

Question: Determine precisely which powers of x generate hxi?

if x = 2̄ ∈ (Z/9Z)×

Home Work

Do the proofs of Proposition 5 and 6.

Exercises
Do Exercises: 2.3.7, 2.3.8, 2.3.9, 2.3.10, 2.3.11, 2.3.12, 2.3.13, 2.3.14, 2.3.15

1.11 The subgroups of cyclic groups

Proposition 5. Let G be a group, let x ∈ G and let a ∈ Z − {0}.
(1) If |x| = ∞, then |xa | = ∞.
n
(2) If |x| = n < ∞, then |xa | = (n,a) .
n
(3) In particular, if |x| = n < ∞ and a is a positive integer dividing n, then |xa | = a

Proof. For proof see the book, page-57.

Proposition 6.
(1) Assume |x| = ∞. Then hxi = hxa i if and only if a = ±1.
(2) Assume |x| = n < ∞. Then hxi = hxa i if and only if (a, n) = 1.
In particular, the number of generators of hxi is ϕ(n) (where ϕ is Euler’s ϕ -function).

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Proof: (1) ” ⇐ ” follows from the definition of cyclic group.
” ⇒ ” Let hxi = hxa i. Then x = (xa )l = xal for some l ∈ Z so xal−1 = 1. Now, since |x| = ∞
therefore al − 1 = 0 or equivalently, al = 1. Hence a = ±1, as required.
In (2) if |x| = n < ∞, Proposition 2 says |hxa i| = |xa | . Now by Corollary (after Proposition 2)
n
hxa i = hxi| if and only if |xa | = |x|. By Proposition 5, |xa | = |x| if and only if (a,n) = n, i.e. if and
only if (a, n) = 1.
Since ϕ(n) is, by definition, the number of a ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n} such that (a, n) = 1, this is the number
of generators of H.
Example Proposition 6 tells precisely which residue classes mod n generate Z/nZ: namely, a
generates Z/nZ if and only if (a, n) = 1. For instance, 1, 5, 7 and 11 are the generators of Z/12Z
and ϕ(12) = 4.

Subgroups of cyclic groups

Theorem 7 (Classification Theorem for Subgroups of Cyclic Groups).

1. Every subgroup of cyclic group is cyclic. More precisely, if K ≤ hxi then either K = {1} or
K = hxd i, where d is the smallest positive integer such that xd ∈ K.

2. Assume |hxi| = n < ∞. If a is any positive integer dividing n, then there is a unique subgroup
n
hx a i of hxi of order a. Furthermore, for every integer m, hxm i = hx(m,n) i, 6 so that the
subgroups of hxi correspond bijectively with the positive divisors of n.

3. If |hxi| = ∞, then for any distinct nonnegative integers a and b, hxa i = 6 hxb i. Furthermore,
for every integer m, hxm i = hx|m| i, where |m| denotes the absolute value of m, so that the
nontrivial subgroups of hxi correspond bijectively with the integers 1, 2, 3, . . .

Proof: 1. Let K ≤ hxi. If K = {1}, the statement is true for this subgroup, so we assume
K 6= {1}. Thus there exists some a 6= 0 such that xa ∈ K. If a < 0 then since K is a group, also
x−a = (xa )−1 ∈ K. Hence K always contains some positive power of x. Let

P = {b | b ∈ Z+ and xb ∈ K}.

By the above, P is a nonempty set of positive integers. By the Well Ordering Principle P has a
minimum element–call it d. Since K is a subgroup and xd ∈ K, hxd i ≤ K. Since K is a subgroup of
hxi, any element of K is of the form xa for some integer a. By the Division Algorithm write

a = qd + r, 0 ≤ r < d.
6
(This implies if hxi has a subgroup of order k, then k|n. So that the subgroups of hxi correspond bijectively with
the positive divisors of n.)

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Then xr = xa−qd = xa (xd )−q is an element of K since both xa and xd are elements of K. By the
minimality of d it follows that r = 0, i.e., a = qd and so xa = (xd )q ∈ hxd i. This gives the reverse
containment K ≤ hxd i which proves the theorem.
2. Assume |hxi| = n < ∞ and a| n. Then n = ad for some d ∈ Z and d | n. Applying Proposition
5(3) hxd i is a subgroup of order a, showing the existence of a subgroup of order nd = a.
To show uniqueness, suppose K is any subgroup of hxi of order a. By part 1. we have K = hxb i
where b is the smallest positive integer such that xb ∈ K. By Proposition 5

n n
= a = |K| = |xb | = ,
d (n, b)

so d = (n, b). In particular, d|b. Since b is a multiple of d, xb ∈ hxd i, hence K = hxb i ≤ hxd i.
Since|hxd i| = a = |K|, we have K = hxd i.
The final assertion of 2. follows from the observation that hxm i is a subgroup of hx(n,m) i (check this!)
and, it follows from Proposition 5(2) and Proposition 2 that they have the same order. Since (n, m)
is certainly a divisor of n, this shows that every subgroup of H arises from a divisor of n, completing
the proof.
3. Do by yourself.
Example:
We can use Proposition 6 and Theorem 7 to list all the subgroups of Z/nZ for any given n. For
example, the subgroups of Z/12Z are

a. Z/12Z = h1i = h5i = h7i = h11i (order 12)

b. h2i = (10i (order 6)

c. h3i = (9i (order 4)

d. h4i = (8i (order 3)

e. h6i (order 2)

f. h0i (order 1).

The inclusions between them are given by

hai ≤ hbi if and only if (b, 12) | (a, 12), 1 ≤ a, b ≤ 12.

Practice Problems with Solutions

Find all subgroups of Z36 = hxi, giving a generator for each. Describe the containments between
these subgroups.

Home Work

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 1. Prove the part 3. of Theorem 7.

2. Prove that in the group Z/nZ, the following equivalance hols:

hai ≤ hbi if and only if (b, n) | (a, n), 1 ≤ a, b ≤ n.

3. Do Example 2 on page 59 of the book.

Exercises
1. Do exercise 2.3: Q.14, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24

1.12 Subgroups generated by subsets of a group

See page 61-64 of the book.
Let A be any subset of a group G. Define

hAi = {a11 a22 . . . ann | n ∈ Z≥0 , ai ∈ A, i = ±1 for each i}. (1)

T T
Proposition (9). Jn hAi =
n A⊆H≤G

Exercises
1. Do exercise 2.4: Q.5, 13, 14.

2. Compute the subgroup of S4 generated by (12) and (12)(34).

3. Compute the subgroup of S4 generated by (12) and (13)(24).

1.13 Lattice of subgroups of a group

See page 66-71 of the book.

Exercises
1. Do exercise 2.5: Q.9, 10.

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1.14 Coset decomposition and Lagrange’s Theorem
Cosets: For any N ≤ G and any g ∈ G, let

gN = {gn | n ∈ N } and N g = {ng | n ∈ N }

called respectively a left coset and a right coset of N in G. Any element of a coset is called a
representative for the coset.

Example 1: Let G = D8 = {1, r, r2 , r3 , s, sr, sr2 , sr3 }, and N = {1, r2 }, then all the left cosets of
N in G are:
1N = {1, r2 } = N ,
rN = {1.r, 1.r3 } = {r, r3 },
r2 N = {r2 .1, r2 .r2 } = {r2 , r4 } = {r2 , 1} = {1, r2 } = N ,
r3 N = {r3 .1, r3 .r2 } = {r3 , r5 } = {r3 , r} = {r, r3 } = rN ,
sN = {s.1, s.r2 } = {s, sr2 },
srN = {sr.1, sr.r2 } = {sr, sr3 },
sr2 N = {sr2 .1, sr2 .r2 } = {sr2 , sr4 } = {sr2 , s} = {s, sr2 } = sN ,
sr3 N = {sr3 .1, sr3 .r2 } = {sr3 , sr5 } = {sr3 , sr} = {sr, sr3 } = srN ,
It is clear that there are only four distinct left cosets of N in D8 so the set of left cosets of N in D8
is
{N, rN, sN, srN }

Similarly we can find that the set of right cosets of N in D8 will be

{N, N r, N s, N sr}

Lemma (Coset Decomposition): Let N be any subgroup of the group G. The set of left cosets
of N in G form a partition of G.
Furthermore, for all u, v ∈ G, uN = vN if and only if v −1 u ∈ N and in particular, uN = vN if and
only if u and v are representatives of the same coset (i.e., v ∈ uN ).

Proof. First of all note that since N is a subgroup of G, 1 ∈ N . Thus g = g.1 ∈ gN for all g ∈ G,
S S
i.e., G ⊆ g∈G gN. Furthermore, since gN ⊆ G, for all g ∈ G, Thus g∈G gN ⊆ G.
To show that distinct left cosets have empty intersection, suppose uN ∩vN 6= φ. (We show uN = vN ,
which is contradiction.) Let x ∈ uN ∩ vN . Write

x = un = vm, for some n, m ∈ N.

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In the later equality multiply both sides on the right by n−1 to get

u = vmn−1 = vm1 , where m1 = mn−1 ∈ N.

Now for any element ut of uN (t ∈ N ),

ut = (vm1 )t ∈ vN.

This proves uN ⊆ vN . By interchanging the roles of u and v one obtains similarly that vN ⊆ uN .
Thus two cosets with nonempty intersection coincide.
By the first part of the proposition, uN = vN if and only if u ∈ vN if and only if u = vn, for
some n ∈ N if and only if v −1 u ∈ N , as claimed. Finally, v ∈ uN is equivalent to saying v is a
representative for uN , hence uN = vN if and only if u and v are representatives for the same coset
(namely the coset uN = vN ).

The following is a part of Decomposition Lemma but it is stated explicitly for its importance.

Corollary. Let G be a group and N ≤ G. Then

uN = vN ⇐⇒ v ∈ uN ⇐⇒ v −1 u ∈ N .

Exc. Prove the Coset Decomposition Lemma for the right cosets of the subgroup H in group G.

The following are direct observations from Coset Decomposition Lemma.

Corollary. Let G be a group and H ≤ G. Then

1. xH = H ⇐⇒ x ∈ H ⇐⇒ Hx = H.

2. H ≤ NG (H).

Remark: One can verify that in Example 1, the set of left cosets of N in D8 (i.e., {N, rN, sN, srN })
forms a partition of D8 .

Theorem (Lagrange’s Theorem): If G is a finite group and H is a subgroup of G, then the order
|G|
of H divides the order of G (i.e., |H| | |G|) and the number of left cosets of H in G equals |H| .
Proof: Let |H| = n and let the number of distinct left cosets of H in G equal k. By the coset
decomposition lemma, the set of left cosets of H in G partition G. That is,

g1 H ∪ g2 H · · · ∪ gk H for g1 = 1, g2 , . . . , gk ∈ G and gi H ∩ gj H 6= ∅ for i 6= j.

Therefore,
|G| = |H| + |g2 H| + . . . |gk H|.

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Now we claim that |gH| = |H|. By definition of a left coset, the map

f : H → gH defined by f (h) = gh

is a surjection from H to the left coset gH. The left cancellation law implies this map is injective
i.e., gh1 = gh2 implies h1 = h2 . This proves that |gH| = |H|.
Since |gH| = |H| = n therefore |G| = |H| + |H| + · · · + |H| or |G| = kn. Thus k = |G| n
|G|
= |H| ,
completing the proof. 

Remark: With the help of Lagrange’s Theorem, we can count at a glance, the number of left
(right) cosets of a subgroup H in G. For instance, if H = h−1i ≤ Q8 , then the number of left (right)
cosets of H in Q8 is:
|Q8 | 8
= = 4.
|H| 2
Index: If G is a group (possibly infinite) and H ≤ G, the number of left cosets of H in G is called
the index of H in G and is denoted by |G : H|.
Example 2: 0 is of infinite index in Z and hni is of index n in Z for every n > 0).
Remark: Example 2 indicates that infinite groups may have subgroups of finite or infinite index.

Question: A question arises whether the index can be defined by the right cosets of H in G.
The answer is affirmative as the number of left cosets of H in G and the number of right cosets of
H in G are same (Exc.)

Consequences of Lagrange’s Theorem

Corollary 1: If G is a finite group and x ∈ G, then the order of x divides the order of G.
In particular x|G| = 1 for all x ∈ G.
Proof: We know that |x| = |hxi|. The first part of the corollary follows from Lagrange’s Theorem
applied to H = hxi. The second statement is clear since |G| is a multiple of the order of x. 
Corollary 2: If G is a group of prime order p, then G is cyclic, hence G ∼ = Zp .
Proof: Since G = p > 1 therefore there exists x ∈ G, x 6= 1. Thus |hxi| > 1 and |hxi| divides |G|.
Since |G| is prime we must have |hxi| = |G| , hence G = hxi is cyclic (with any nonidentity element
x as generator). ”Classification Theorem for Cyclic Groups” completes the proof. 

Practice Problems with Solutions

1. Consider G = Z and N = nZ. Find all the distinct left (right) cosets of N in G.
Solution: The distinct left cosets of N in G are:
0 + N = N (= 0 )
1 + N = {1 + kn | k ∈ Z}(= 1)

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 ..
.
(n − 1) + N = {(n − 1) + kn | k ∈ Z}(= n − 1)

Home Work

1. Let G be a group and H ≤ G. Show that the number of left cosets of H in G is equal to the
number of right cosets of H in G. [Hint: Show that for any g ∈ G there is a biective map
between gH and Hg. ]

2. Prove the corollaries.

3. Let G be a group H ≤ G. Prove that H ⊆ NG (H) and H ≤ NG (H).

Exercises
1. Which of the following are permissible orders for subgroups of a group of order 120: 1,2 5, 7,
9, 15, 60, 240.

2. Let H be a subgroup of G and fix some element g ∈ G.

(a) Prove that gHg −1 is a subgroup of G of the same order as H.
(b) Deduce that if n ∈ Z+ and H is the unique subgroup of G of order n then gHg −1 = H, ∀g ∈
G.

3. Let H ∈ G and define a relation ∼ on G by a ∼ b if and only if b−1 a ∈ H. Prove that ∼ is

an equivalence relation and describe the equivalence class of each a ∈ G. Use his to prove The
Coset Decomposition Lemma.

4. Use Lagrange’s Theorem in the multiplicative group (Z/pZ)× to prove Fermat’s Little Theo-
rem: if p is a prime then ap ≡ a (mod p) for all a ∈ Z.

5. Use Lagrange’s Theorem in the multiplicative group (Z/pZ)× to prove Euler’s Theorem:
aϕ(n) ≡ 1 (mod n) for every integer a relatively prime to n, where ϕ denotes Euler’s ϕ-
function.
100
6. Determine the last two digits of 33 . [Determine 3100 (mod ϕ(100)) and use the previous
Question 5. ]

1.15 Normal Subgroups, Factor/ Quotient groups

Proposition 5. Let G be a group and let N be a subgroup of G. The following holds:

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 1. The operation on the set of left cosets of N in G described by

uN · vN = (uv)N

is well defined if and only if gng −1 ∈ N for all g ∈ G and all n ∈ N .

2. If the above operation is well defined, then it makes the set of left cosets of N in G into a
group. In particular the identity of this group is the coset 1N and the inverse of gN is the
coset g −1 N i.e., (gN )−1 = g −1 N .
Proof: (1) Assume first that this operation is well defined, that is, for all u, v ∈ G, if

if u, u1 ∈ uN and v, v1 ∈ vN then uvN = u1 v1 N

Let g be an arbitrary element of G and let n be an arbitrary element of N . Letting u = 1, u1 = n

and v = v1 = g −1 and applying the assumption above we deduce that

1g −1 N = ng −1 N i.e., g −1 N = ng −1 N.

Since 1 ∈ N, ng −1 · 1 ∈ ng −1 N . Thus ng −1 ∈ g −1 N , hence ng −1 = g −1 n1 , for some n1 ∈ N .

Multiplying both sides on the left by g gives gng −1 = n1 ∈ N , as claimed.
Conversely, assume gng −1 ∈ N for all g ∈ G and all n ∈ N . To prove the operation stated above
is well defined let u, u1 ∈ uN and v, v1 ∈ vN . We may write

u1 = un and v1 = vm, for some n, m ∈ N.

We must prove that u1 v1 ∈ uvN :

u1 v1 = (un)(vn) = u(vv −1 )nvm

= (uv)(v −1 nv)m = (uv)(n1 m),

where n1 = v −1 nv = v −1 n(v −1 )−1 is an element of N by assumption. Now N is closed under

products, so n1 m ∈ N . Thus
u1 v1 = (uv)n2 , for some n2 ∈ N.
Thus the left cosets uvN and u1 v1 N contain the common element u1 v1 . By the later part in Coset
decomposition lemma, they are equal. This proves that the operation is well defined.
(2) If the operation on cosets is well defined the group axioms are easy to check and are induced by
their validity in G. For example, the associative law holds because for all u, v, w ∈ G,

(uN )(vN wN ) = uN (vwN )

= u(vw)N
= (uv)wN = (uN vN )(wN ),

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since u(vw) = (uv)w in G. The identity in G/N is the coset 1N and the inverse of gN is g −1 N as
is immediate from the definition of the multiplication.

Definition: The element gng −1 is called the conjugate of n ∈ N by g ∈ G. The set

gN g −1 = {gng −1 | n ∈ N }

is called the conjugate of N by g.

The element g is said to normalize N if gN g −1 = N .
A subgroup N of a group G is called normal if every element of G normalizes N , i.e., if gN g −1 = N
for all g ∈ G.
If N is a normal subgroup of G we shall write N  G.

Definition: Let N  G. As seen in Proposition 6, the set

G/N := {gN | g ∈ G}

under the binary operation

uN · vN = (uv)N

is a group, called the quotient group, G/N (read G modulo N or simply G mod N ) or factor group.
Remark: Note that the structure of G is reflected in the structure of the quotient G/N when N is
a normal subgroup (for example, the associativity of the multiplication in G/N is induced from the
associativity in G and inverses in G/N are induced from inverses in G). We shall see more of the
relationship of G to its quotient G/N when we consider the Isomorphism Theorems.

Theorem 6: Let N be a subgroup of the group G. The following are equivalent:

1. N  G

2. NG (N ) = G (recall NG (N ) is the normalizer in G of N )

3. gN = N g for all g ∈ G

4. the operation on left cosets of N in G described in Proposition 5 makes the set of left cosets
into a group

5. gN g −1 ⊆ N for all g ∈ G.

Proof: Do yourself.
Remarks: In some cases we can minimize the computations necessary to determine whether a given
subgroup N is normal in a group G. For example

1. the elements of N itself normalize N since N is a subgroup.

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 2. if one has a set of generators for N , it suffices to check that all conjugates of these generators
lie in N to prove that N is a normal subgroup (this is because the conjugate of a product is
the product of the conjugates and the conjugate of the inverse is the inverse of the conjugate).

3. if generators for G are also known, then it suffices to check that these generators for G normalize
N . In particular, if generators for both N and G are known, this reduces the calculations to
a small number of conjugations to check.

4. if N is a finite group then it suffices to check that the conjugates of a set of generators for N
by a set of generators for G are again elements of N

Examples :

1. Let H = h123i ≤ S3 and let G = S3 . We show H  S3 . It is easy to see,

H ≤ NG (H) ≤ G.

By Lagrange’s Theorem, the order of H divides the order of NG (H) and the order of NG (H)
divides the order of G. Since G has order 6 and H has order 3, the only possibilities for NG (H)
are H or G. A direct computation gives

(1 2)(1 2 3)(1 2)−1 = (1 3 2) = (123)−1 ,

this calculation shows that (1 2) conjugates a generator of H to another generator of H, this

shows that (1 2) normalizes H, this implies that (1 2) ∈ NG (H). Thus NG (H) 6= H so
NG (H) = G, i.e., H  S3 , as claimed. This argument illustrates that checking normality of a
subgroup can often be reduced to a small number of calculations.
We now examine some examples of non-normal subgroups. Although in abelian groups every
subgroup is normal, this is not the case in non-abelian groups. In fact, there are groups G in
which the only normal subgroups are the trivial ones: 1 and G. Such groups are called simple
groups (simple does not mean easy, however). Simple groups play an important role in the
study of general groups. For now we emphasize that not every subgroup of a group G is normal
in G; indeed, normal subgroups may be quite rare in G. The search for normal subgroups of
a given group is in general a highly nontrivial problem.

2. Let H = h(1 2)i ≤ S3 . Direct computation shows

(1 3)(1 2)(1 3)−1 = (1 3)(1 2)(1 3) = (2 3) ∈

/H

7
so H is not a normal subgroup of S3 .
7
Example 1 on page 91 of the book shows how the binary operation uH.vH = uvH fails to be well defined when
H is not normal subgroup.

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Definition: Let N  G. The homomorphism π : G → G/N defined by π(g) = gN is called the
natural projection (homomorphism) of G onto G/N . If H ≤ G/N , the complete preimage of H in
G is the preimage of H under the natural projection homomorphism.

Practice Problems with Solutions

1. Prove that every subgroup of an abelian group is normal subgroup.
Solution: If G is an abelian group, any subgroup N of G is normal because for all g ∈ G and
all n ∈ N ,
gng −1 = gg −1 n = n ∈ N.

2. The centre of a group is normal subgroup of the group.

Solution: Let G be a group and N = Z(G).
For all g ∈ G and all n ∈ N ,

gng −1 = n ∈ N .

Home Work

1. Prove Theorem 6.

2. Let G be group and N a normal subgroup of G. Prove that every subgroup of the quotient
G/N must be of the form A/N , where A ≤ G such that A ⊃ N . [Hint: Use the fact that
π : G → G/H is surjectiove homomorphism and the Excercise 1 below.]

Exercises
1. Let ϕ : G → H be a homomorphism and let E be a subgroup of H. Prove that ϕ−1 (E) ≤ G.
If E  H prove that ϕ−1 (E) ≤ G. Deduce that ker ϕ  G.

2. Prove that in the quotient group G/N , (gN )α = g α N for all α ∈ Z.

3. Define π : R2 → R by π(x, y) = x + y. Prove that π is a surjective homomorphism and

describe the kernel and fibers of π geometrically.

4. Let G and H be groups and let ϕ : G → H be a homomorphism. Then ϕ(g n ) = ϕ(g)n for all
n ∈ Z.

5. (a) Prove that if H and K are normal subgroups of a group G then their intersection H ∩ K
is also a normal subgroup of G.

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 (b) Prove that the intersection of an arbitrary nonempty collection of normal subgroups of a
group is a normal subgroup.

6. Prove that if G/Z(G) is cyclic then G is abelian.

7. Let A and B be groups. Show that {(a, 1)|a ∈ A} is a normal subgroup of A × B and the
quotient of A × B by this subgroup is isomorphic to B.

8. Let A be an abelian group and let D be the (diagonal) subgroup {(a, a)|a ∈ A} of A × A.
Prove that D is a normal subgroup of A × A and (A × A)/D ∼= A.

9. Exercise 3.1: Q. 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14,

1.16 Computations in factor groups

Examples:

1. Let G be a group. The subgroups 1 and G are always normal in G; G/1 ∼

= G and G/G ∼
= 1.

2. If G is an abelian group, any subgroup N of G is normal because for all g ∈ G and all n ∈ N ,

gng −1 = gg −1 n = n ∈ N.

[Note that it is important that G be abelian, not just that N be abelian.]

(a) For instance, if G = Z, then every subgroup N of G is cyclic:

N = hni = h−ni = nZ, for some n ∈ Z

and G/N = Z/nZ is a cyclic group with generator 1 = 1 + nZ (note that 1 is a generator
for G).
(b) Suppose now that G is the cyclic group. Let x be a generator of G and let N ≤ G. By
Classification Theorem for Subgroups of Cyclic Groups, N = hxd i, where d is the smallest
power of x which lies in N . Now G/N = {gN | g ∈ G} = {xa N | a ∈ Z} = {(xN )a | a ∈
Z} = hxN i i.e., G/N is cyclic with xN as a generator.
Suppose now that G = Zk is the cyclic group of order k. The order of xN in G/N equals
d (because i. (xN )d = xd N = N and ii. if (xN )l = N for some 0 < l < d, then xl ∈ N
contradicting d is the smallest such that xd ∈ N ). By Proposition 2.2 and Lagrange’s
|G| 8
Theorem, d = |N |
.
In summary,

quotient groups of a cyclic group are cyclic

8 |G|
Indeed, d = |xN | = |hxN i| = |G/N | = [G : N ] = |N | .

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 and the image of a generator g for G is a generator g = π(g) = gN for the quotient group
|G|
G/N . If in addition G is a finite cyclic group and N ≤ G, then |G/N | = |N |
gives a
formula for the order of the quotient group.
9
3. If f : G → H be a homomorphism of groups G and H. Then ker f is normal subgroup of G
and therefore one can define the factor group G/ker f.
Let G = Q8 and let H = V4 be the Klein 4-group. Define ϕ : D8 → V4 by

ϕ(±1) = 1, ϕ(±i) = a, ϕ(±j) = b, ϕ(±k) = ab

Then check that ϕ is a homomorphism is left as an exercise. It is clear that ϕ is surjective

and that ker ϕ = {±1}. Put ker ϕ = N . Since N = {±1}, each coset, gN , consists of the two
element set {g, −g}. Since these cosets partition the 8 elements of Q8 into pairs, there must
be 4 (disjoint) left cosets of N in Q8 :

1 = 1N, i = iN, j = jN, and k = kN.

One can easily conclude from the isomorphism gN → ϕ(g) that Q8 /N ∼

= V4 .

4. If N ≤ Z(G), then N  G because for all g ∈ G and all n ∈ N , gng −1 = n ∈ N . Thus, in

particular, Z(G)  G.
Let G = D8 and let Z = hr2 i = Z(D8 ). Since Z = {1, r2 }, each coset, gZ, consists of the two
element set {g, gr2 }. Since these cosets partition the 8 elements of D8 into pairs, there must
be 4 (disjoint) left cosets of Z in D8 :

1 = 1Z, r = rZ, s = sZ, and rs = rsZ.

Now by the classification of groups of order 4, 10 we know that D8 /Z(D8 ) ∼ = Z4 or V4 . To

determine which of these two is correct (i.e., determine the isomorphism type of the quotient)
simply observe that
(r)2 = r2 Z = 1Z = 1
2 2
(s) = s Z = 1Z = 1
2
(rs) = (rs) Z = 1Z = 1
9
(because: for any g ∈ G and n ∈ ker f, f (gng −1 ) = f (g)f (n)f (g −1 ) = f (g).1.f (g)−1 = 1. Hence gng −1 ∈ ker f )
10
Fact: Any group of order four is either cyclic or isomorphic to V4 .

Proof. Let G = {1, a, b, c}. By Lagrange’s theorem, we must have that the order of a is either 2 or 4. But if it were 4
the group would be cyclic, so the order of a is 2, i.e. a2 = 1. So if you assume ab = 1, you get a = a1 = aab = a2 b = b,
a contradiction (the starting assumption is that G has four different elements, of course). So ab cannot be 1. It
cannot be a either, because ab = a = a1 =⇒ b = 1, and similarly it cannot be b. So it has to be c. The same
argument shows that |a| = |b| = 2, ba = c = ab, ca = b = ac and cb = a = bc.

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 so every nonidentity element in D8 /Z has order 2. In particular there is no element of order
4 in the quotient, hence D8 /Z is not cyclic so D8 /Z ∼
= V4 .

5. Let G be any group containing a subgroup H of index 2. We prove H  G.

Let g ∈ G − H so, by hypothesis, the two left cosets of H in G are H and gH. Since 1H = H
and the cosets partition G, we must have gH = G − H. Now the two right cosets of H in G
are H1 and Hg. Since H1 = H, we again must have Hg = G − H. Combining these gives
gH = Hg, so every left coset of H in G is a right coset. By Theorem 6, H  G. By definition
of index, |G/H| = 2, so that G/H ∼ = Z2 .
Note that this result proves that hii , hji and hki are normal subgroups of Q8 and that hs, r2 i,
hri and hsr, r2 i are normal subgroups of D8 .

6. The property ”is a normal subgroup of” is not transitive. For example,

hsi  hs, r2 i  D8

(each subgroup is of index 2 in the next), however, hsi is not normal in D8 because rsr−1 =
sr2 ∈
/ hsi.

Practice Problems with Solutions

1. Every group of order 4 is isomorphic to Z4 or V4 .

Proof. See the proof of the fact on the previous page.

2. Consider G = Z2 × Z4 , and the followings subgroups in G:

S = h(0, 1)i, H = h(1, 0)i, J = h(1, 2)i, K = h(0, 2)i

(a) Show that all these subgroups are normal in G

(b) Compute the factor groups corresponding to each of the normal subgroups S, H, J, K.

Solution: (a) Since G is abelian so every subgroup of G is abelian. This proves (a).
(b) Note that |S| = 4 (since (0, 1) has order 4) so G/S has order |G/S| = |G|/|S| = 8/2 = 2,
and therefore G/S ∼ = Z2 .
The subgroups H, J and K all have order 2. So, |G/H| = |G/J| = |G/K| = 8/2 = 4.
One can see that G/H ∼ = G/J ∼ = Z4 , but G/K ∼ = Z2 × Z2 One can verify this by computing
the orders of elements in the quotient, e.g. (0, 1) + H has order 4 in G/H.

Exercises
1. Do the following questions in Exercise 3.1.1: 14, 17, 20, 21.

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 2. Prove that a subgroup N of the group G is normal if and only if it is the kernel of some
homomorphism.

3. Prove that every subgroup of Q8 is normal. For each subgroup find the isomorphism type of
its corresponding quotient.

4. Find all normal subgroups of D8 and for each of these find the isomorphism type of its corre-
sponding quotient.

1.17 Isomorphism Theorems

Definition: Let H and K be subgroups of a group and define

HK = {hk | h ∈ H, k ∈ K}.

Proposition 14: If H and K are subgroups of a group, HK is a subgroup if and only if HK = KH.
Proof: Assume first that HK = KH and let a, b ∈ HK. We prove ab−1 ∈ HK so HK is a subgroup
by the subgroup criterion. Let
a = h1 k1 and b = h2 k2 for some h1 , h2 ∈ H and k1 , k2 ∈ K. Thus b−1 = k −1 h−1 , so ab−1 =
h1 k1 k2−1 h−1
2 . Let k3 = k1 k2
−1
∈ K and h3 = h−1 2 . Thus ab
−1
= h1 k3 h3 . Since HK = KH,
k3 h3 = h4 k4 , for some h4 ∈ H, k4 ∈ K.
Thus ab−1 = h1 h4 k4 , and since h1 , h4 ∈ H, k4 ∈ K, we obtain ab−1 ∈ HK, as desired.
Conversely, assume that HK is a subgroup of G. Since K ≤ HK and H ≤ HK, by the closure
property of subgroups, KH ⊆ HK. To show the reverse containment let hk ∈ HK. Since HK is
assumed to be a subgroup, write hk = a−1 , for some a ∈ HK. If a = h1 k1 , then
hk = (h1 k1 )−1 = k1−1 h−1
1 ∈ KH, completing the proof.

Corollary 15: If H and K are subgroups of G and H ≤ NG (K), then HK is a subgroup of G. In

particular, if K  G then HK ≤ G for any H ≤ G.
Proof: We prove HK = KH. Let h ∈ H, k ∈ K. By assumption, hkh−1 ∈ K, hence

hk = (hkh−1 )h ∈ KH.

This proves HK ⊆ KH. Similarly, kh = h(hkh−1 ) ∈ HK, proving the reverse containment. The
corollary follows now from the preceding Lemma.

Theorem 16. (The First Isomorphism Theorem) If ϕ : G → H is a homomorphism of groups,

then ker ϕ  G and G/kerϕ ∼
= ϕ(G).

Proof. Define ψ : G/ker ϕ → ϕ(G) by

ψ (g ker ϕ) = ϕ(g) for any g ∈ G

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ψ is well defined because for any g1 , g2 ∈ G with g1 ker ϕ = g2 ker ϕ =⇒ g2−1 g1 ∈ ker ϕ =⇒
ϕ(g2−1 g1 ) = 1 =⇒ ϕ(g2−1 )ϕ(g1 ) = 1 =⇒ ϕ(g1 ) = ϕ(g2 ) =⇒ ψ (g1 ker ϕ) = ψ (g2 ker ϕ)
ψ is homomorphism because for any g1 , g2 ∈ G,
ψ (g1 ker ϕ g2 ker ϕ) = ϕ(g1 g2 ) = ϕ(g1 ) ϕ(g2 ) = ψ(g1 ker ϕ) ψ(g2 ker ϕ).
ψ is injective ψ (g1 ker ϕ) = ψ (g2 ker ϕ) =⇒ ϕ(g1 ) = ϕ(g2 ) =⇒ ϕ(g2−1 )ϕ(g1 ) = 1 =⇒
ϕ(g2−1 g1 ) = 1 =⇒ g2−1 g1 ∈ ker ϕ =⇒ g1 ker ϕ = g2 ker ϕ.
ψ is surjective because for any y ∈ ϕ(G), y = ϕ(g) for some g ∈ G which implies that there exists
g ker ϕ ∈ G/ker ϕ such that ϕ(g ker ) = y

Corollary. If ϕ : G → H is a surjective homomorphism of groups, then G/kerϕ ∼

= H.

Corollary (17). Let ϕ : G → H be a homomorphism of groups.

(1) ϕ is injective if and only if ker ϕ = 1.
(2) |G : ker ϕ| = |ϕ(G)|.

Proof. Exercise.

Theorem (18). (The Second or Diamond Isomorphism Theorem)11

Let G be a group, let A and B be subgroups of G and assume A ≤ NG (B). Then AB is a subgroup
of G, B  AB, A ∩ B  A and AB/B ∼ = A/A ∩ B.

Proof. By Corollary 15 , AB is a subgroup of G. Since A ≤ NG (B) by assumption and B ≤ NG (B)

trivially, it follows that AB ≤ NG (B), i.e., B is a normal subgroup of the subgroup AB.
Since B is normal in AB, the quotient group AB/B is well defined. Define the map

ϕ : A → AB/B by ϕ(a) = aB.

Since the group operation in AB/B is well defined it is easy to see that ϕ is a homomorphism:

ϕ(a1 a2 ) = (a1 a2 )B = a1 B · a2 B = ϕ(a1 )ϕ(a2 ).

It is clear from the definition of AB that ϕ is surjective. The identity in AB/B is the coset 1B , so

ker ϕ = {a ∈ A | ϕ(a) = 1B} = {a ∈ A | aB = 1B} = {a ∈ A | a ∈ B} = A ∩ B.

11
An interpretation: Let π : G → G/N be natural prohection from G to G/N . Let H be any subgroup of G.
Question is that what is the image of H?
If N ≤ H then answer is simple π(H) = H/N .
What if H does not contain N ? We can find answer in two different way and it gives us an equality.

1. The image of HN and H are same since π(hn) = π(h)π(n) = π(h) and since HN includes N , π(H) = π(HN ) =
(HN )/N .
2. Let restriction of π on H is π 0 then π 0 is an homomorphism from H to G/N . What is the kernel of π 0 ?
Ker(π 0 ) = H ∩ N . Then by first ismomorphim theorem π 0 (H) ∼
= H/(H ∩ N ).
From 1 and 2, we have desired result.
http://math.stackexchange.com/questions/722632/interpretation-of-second-isomorphism-theorem?rq=1

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By the First Isomorphism Theorem, A ∩ B  A and A/A ∩ B ∼
= AB/B, completing the proof.

The third Isomorphism Theorem considers the question of taking quotient groups of quotient
groups.

Theorem (19). (The Third Isomorphism Theorem)

Let G be a group and let H and K be normal subgroups of G with H ≤ K. Then K/H  G/H and

(G/H)/(K/H) ∼
= G/K.

Proof. We leave as an easy exercise the verification that K/H  G/H. Define

ϕ : G/H → G/K by ϕ(gH) = gK.

To show ϕ is well defined suppose g1 H = g2 H. Then g2−1 g1 ∈ H. Because H ≤ K, so g2−1 g1 ∈ K,

hence g1 K = g2 K i.e., ϕ(g1 H) = ϕ(g2 H), which shows ϕ is well defined. Since g may be chosen
arbitrarily in G, ϕ is a surjective homomorphism. Finally,

ker ϕ = {gH ∈ G/H | ϕ(gH) = 1K}

= {gH ∈ G/H | gK = 1K}
= {gH ∈ G/H | g ∈ K} = K/H.

By the First Isomorphism Theorem, (G/H)/(K/H) ∼

= G/K.

Theorem (20). (The Fourth or Lattice Isomorphism Theorem) Let G be a group and let N be a
normal subgroup of G. Then there is a bijection from the set of subgroups A of G which contain N
onto the set of subgroups A of G/N .

Proof. Let Ω = {A ≤ G | A ⊃ N } and Σ = {X | X ≤ G/N }. Define

Ψ:Ω→Σ by Ψ(A) = π(A).

Ψ is well defined: Let A ∈ Ω then N  A and Ψ(A) = A/N 12 . Hence Ψ(A) ∈ Σ.

Ψ is injective: Suppose Ψ(A) = Ψ(B) for A, B ∈ Ω; then π(A) = π(B). Hence A = B [Indeed, let
x ∈ A then π(x) = π(y) for some y ∈ B. Then xN = yN , hence x ∈ yN ⊆ B, estabilishing A ⊆ B.
Similarly, B ⊆ A. ].
Ψ is surjective: Let Y ∈ Σ. Since π : G → G/N is homomorphism so π −1 (Y ) ≤ G. Observe that
π −1 (Y ) ⊇ N (Indeed, since Y ⊇ {1}13 so π −1 (Y ) ⊇ π −1 ({1}) = N ). Now taking A = π −1 (Y ),
A ∈ Ω and Ψ(A) = π(A) = π(π −1 (Y )) = Y , as required.

Home Work
12
Indeed, Ψ(A) = π(A) = {π(a) | a ∈ A} = {aN | a ∈ A} = A/N
13
1 = 1N ∈ G/N

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 1. Complete the missing details (left as excercises) in the lecture.

2. Do the proofs of Proposition 14 and Corollary 15.

3. Do the proofs of all the Theorems.

Excercise

1. Excercise 3.3. Q#: 4,

1.18 Cayley’s Theorem

Theorem (Cayley’s Theorem) Every group is isomorphic to a subgroup of symmetric group.

Proof: Let G be a group. We show that G is isomorphic to a subgroup of SG .

• Define φ : G → SG by defining φ(x) = λx for all x ∈ G, where λx : G → G defined by λx (g) = xg.
• λx is indeed in SG because
the equation λx (x−1 c) = x(x−1 c) = c for all c ∈ G shows that λx is onto.
If λx (a) = λx (b), then xa = xb so a = b by cancellation. Thus λx is also one to one.
• φ is one to one
Suppose that φ(x) = φ(y). Then λx = λy . Thus for all a ∈ G λx (a) = λy (a), so xa = ya and x = y
by cancellation law. Thus φ is one to one.
• φ is homomorphism if we show that φ(xy) = φ(x)φ(y) i.e., λxy = λx λy .
Now for any g ∈ G, λx λy (g) = λx (λy (g)) = λx (yg) = x(yg) = (xy)g = λxy (g). Thus λxy = λx λy .
• φ(G) ≤ SG
Let e be the identity element in G. Let 1 be the identity in Sg . Then
1 · φ(e) = φ(e) = φ(e.e) = φ(e)φ(e). Cancellation in SG shows that 1 = φ(e) so 1 ∈ φ(G), this
implies that φ(G) 6= ∅
Let a, b ∈ φ(G). Then there exist x, y ∈ G such that φ(x) = a, φ(y) = b. Since φ is a
homomorphism so φ(xy) = φ(x)φ(y) = ab, shows that ab ∈ φ(G)
Let a ∈ φ(G) then a = φ(x) for some x ∈ G, we have
1 = φ(e) = φ(xx−1 ) = φ(x)φ(x−1 ) = aφ(x−1 ), which shows that a−1 = φ(x−1 ) ∈ φ(G)
• φ : G → φ(G) is an isomorphism
Since φ is a homomorphism which is one to one and clearly onto from G to φ(G). Thus φ is an
isomorphism and G ∼ = φ(G) ≤ SG , i.e., G is isomorphic to a subgroup of SG , i.e., G is isomorphic to
a group of permutations.

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 Interactive Work Sheet #

Home Work

1. Find a group of permutations such that V4 is isomorphic to that group of permutations, where
V4 = ha, b | a2 = b2 = (ab)2 = 1

2.

3.

Excercise

1. Excercise

1.19 Alternating groups

Orbits and Cycles

Each permutation σ of a set A determines a natural partition of A into cells with the property that
a, b ∈ A are in the same cell if and only if b = σ n (a) for some n ∈ Z. We establish this partition
using an appropriate equivalence relation:

For a, b ∈ A, let a ∼ b if and only if b = σ n (a) for some n ∈ Z. (∗)

We now check that ∼ is indeed an equivalence relation on A.

Reflexive: Clearly a ∼ a since a = i(a) = σ 0 (a).
Symmetric: If a ∼ b, then b = σ n (a) for some n ∈ Z. But then a = σ −n (b) and −n ∈ Z, so b ∼ a.
Transitive: Supposes a ∼ b and b ∼ c, then b = σ n (a) and c = σ n (b) for some n, m ∈ Z. Substituting,
we find that c = σ n (σ n (a)) = σ n+m (a), so a ∼ c.

Definition. Let σ be a permutation of a set A. The equivalence classes in A determined by the

equivalence relation (∗) are called the orbits of σ.

Examples:

1. Since the identity permutation i of A leaves each element of A fixed, the orbits of i are the
one-element subsets of A.
!
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2. Find the orbits of the permutation in S8 .
3 8 6 7 4 1 5 2
Solution: To find the orbit containing 1, we apply a repeatedly, obtaining symbolically

σ σ σ σ σ σ σ
1 → 3 → 6 → 1 → 3 → 6 → 1 → 3....

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 Since σ −1 would simply reverse the directions of the arrows in this chain, we see that the orbit
containing 1 is {1, 3, 6}. We now choose an integer from 1 to 8 not in {1, 3, 6}, say 2, and
similarly find that the orbit containing 2 is {2, 8}. Finally, we find that the orbit containing 4
is {4, 7, 5}. Since these three orbits include all integers from 1 to 8, we see that the complete
list of orbits of a is
{1, 3, 6}, {2, 8}, {4, 5, 7}.

Theorem (1). Every permutation σ of a finite set is a product of disjoint cycles.

Proof. Let B1 , B2 , . . . , Br be the orbits of σ, and let µi be the cycle defined by


σ(x) for x ∈ Bi
µi (x) =
x otherwise.

Clearly σ = µ1 µ2 . . . µr . Since the equivalence class orbits B1 , B2 , . . . , Br , being distinct equivalence

classes, are disjoint, the cycles µ1 , µ2 , . . . , µr are disjoint also.

Remark: While permutation multiplication in general is not commutative, it is readily seen that
multiplication of disjoint cycles is commutative. Since the orbits of a permutation are unique,

the representation of a permutation as a product of disjoint cycles, none of which is the identity
permutation, is unique up to the order of the factors.

Even and Odd Permutations

Recall that a cycle of length 2 is called a transposition. Observe that

(a1 a2 . . . an ) = (a1 an )(a1 an−1 ) . . . (a1 , a3 )(a1 , a2 ).

That is, any cycle is a product of transpositions. We then have the following as a corollary to
previous Theorem.

Corollary. Any permutation of a finite set of at least two elements is a product of transpositions.

Examples:

1. The permutation (1 6)(2 5 3) is the product (1 6)(2 3)(2 5) of transpositions.

2. In Sn for n ≥ 2, the identity permutation is the product (1 2)(1 2) of transpositions.

We have seen that every permutation of a finite set with at least two elements is a product of
transpositions. The transpositions may not be disjoint, and a representation of the permutation
in this way is not unique. For example, we can always insert at the beginning the transposition
(1,2) twice, because (1, 2) (1, 2) is the identity permutation. What is true is that the number of

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transpositions used to represent a given permutation must either always be even or always be odd.
This is an important fact. The proof uses a property of determinants from linear algebra.
Theorem (2). No permutation in Sn can be expressed both as a product of an even number of
transpositions and as a product of an odd number of transpositions.
Proof. First observe that SA ∼
= SB if A and B have the same cardinality (Exc.). We work with
permutations of the n rows of the n × n identity matrix In , rather than of the numbers 1, 2, . . . , n.
The identity matrix has determinant 1. Interchanging any two rows of a square matrix changes the
sign of the determinant. Let C be a matrix obtained by a permutation σ of the rows of In . If C
could be obtained from In by both an even number and an odd number of transpositions of rows,
its determinant would have to be both 1 and −1, which is impossible. Thus σ cannot be expressed
both as a product of an even number and an odd number of transpositions.
Definition. A permutation of a finite set is even or odd according to whether it can be expressed
as a product of an even number of transpositions or the product of an odd number of transpositions,
respectively.
Example: The identity permutation I in Sn is an even permutation since we have I = (1 2)(1 2).
If n = 1 so that we cannot form this product, we define i to be even. On the other hand, the
permutation (1 4 5 6)(2 1 5) in S6 can be written as

(1 4 5 6)(2 1 5) = (1 6)(1 5)(1 4)(2 5)(2 1)

which has five transpositions, so this is an odd permutation.

The Alternating Groups

Proposition (1). For n ≥ 2, the number of even permutations in Sn is the same as the number of
odd permutation; that is, Sn is split equally and both numbers are (n!)/2.
Proof. To show this, let An be the set of even permutations in Sn and let Bn be the set of odd
permutations for n ≥ 2. We proceed to define a one-to-one function from An onto Bn . This is
exactly what is needed to show that An and Bn have the same number of elements.
Let τ be any fixed transposition in Sn ; it exists since n ≥ 2. We may as well suppose that τ = (1 2).
We define a function
λτ : An → Bn by λτ (σ) = τ σ,

thatis, σ ∈ An is mapped into (1, 2)σ by λτ . Observe that since σ is even, the permutation (1, 2)σ
can be expressed as a product of a (1 + even number), or odd number, of transpositions, so (1, 2)σ
is indeed in Bn .
If for σ and µ in An , it is true that λτ (σ) = λτ (µ), then

(1 2)σ = (1 2)µ

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and since Sn is a group, we have σ = µ. Thus λτ is a one-to-one function.
Finally,
τ = (1, 2) = τ −1 ,

so if ρ ∈ Bn , then
τ −1 ρ ∈ An

and
λτ (τ −1 ρ) = τ (τ −1 ρ) = ρ.

Thus λτ is onto Bn .

Theorem (3). If n ≥ 2, then the collection of all even permutations of {1, 2, 3, . . . , n} forms a
subgroup of order n!/2 of the symmetric group Sn .

Proof. Exercise.14

Definition. The subgroup of Sn consisting of the even permutations of n letters is the alternating
group An on n letters.

Both Sn and An are very important groups. Cayley’s theorem shows that every finite group G
is structurally identical to some subgroup of Sn for n = |G|. It can be shown that there are no
formulas involving just radicals for solution of polynomial equations of degree n for n ≥ 5. This fact
is actually due to the structure of An , surprising as that may seem!

Home Work

1. Fill in the missing details (left as Exercises) in the Lecture.

2. Do the proofs of Proposition 1, Theorem 2, Theorem 3.

Excercise

1. Write down all the elements in A3 and A4 .

1.20 Conjugacy classes and class equation

Conjugacy class15 : Let G be a group and a, b ∈ G. Define a relation ∼ on G by
a ∼ b if and only if ∃ x ∈ G such that b = x−1 ax.
14
Note that the product of two even permutations is again even.
Also since n ≥ 2, Sn has the transposition (1 2) and i = (1 2)(1 2) is an even permutation.
Finally, note that if σ is expressed as a product of transpositions, the product of the same transpositions taken in
just the opposite order is σ −1 . Thus if σ is an even permutation, σ −1 must also be even.
15
Conjugacy classes of a group can be used to classify groups; they can be used to show that two groups are not
isomorphic, or to discover properties of an isomorphism between groups if it exists. In general, the sizes of conjugacy
classes in a group give information about its structure.

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If a ∼ b then b is called the conjugate of a and the relation ∼ is called the Conjugacy relation on G.
Examples:

1. In S3 , (123) is Conjugate of (132) as (132) = (12)−1 (123)(12).

2. In an abelian group G, every element a ∈ G is related to itself because x−1 ax = a for any
x ∈ G.

Lemma 1: The Conjugacy relation is an equivalence relation.

Proof. Do by yourself.

The equivalence class of any element a ∈ G is given by

[a] = {b ∈ G | b ∼ a}
= {b ∈ G | b = x−1 ax, x ∈ G}
not.
= {x−1 ax | x ∈ G} = : Cl(a)

called the Conjugacy class of a. We know that the set of equivalence classes partition G.
Example:

1. In S3 , the Conjugacy classes are

Cl((1)) = {(1)}, Cl((12)) = {(12), (13), (23)}, and Cl((123)) = {(123), (132)}.

2. In D8 , there are five conjugacy classes:

{1}, {r2 }, {s, r2 s}, {r, r3 }, {rs, r3 s}.

Proposition 2: Let G be a group. Then

1. Cl(a) = {a} ⇐⇒ a ∈ Z(G).
2. Let x−1 ax, y −1 ay ∈ Cl(a), then x−1 ax = y −1 ay ⇐⇒ CG (a)x = CG (a)y.

Proof. 1. Prove yourself.

2. Let x−1 ax, y −1 ay ∈ Cl(a), then

x−1 ax = y −1 ay ⇐⇒ axy −1 = xy −1 a
⇐⇒ xy −1 ∈ CG (a)
⇐⇒ CG (a)x = CG (a)y.

Corollary 3: Let G be a group then |Cl(a)| = |G|/|CG (a)| = |G : CG (a)|, where CG (a) is the
centralizer of a in G.

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Proof. Do by yourself.

Theorem 4 (The Class Equation): Let G be a finite group and let Cl(g1 ), Cl(g2 ), . . . , Cl(gr )
be the distinct Conjugacy classes of G not contained in the center Z(G) of G. Then
Pr
|G| = |Z(G)| + |G : CG (gi )|.
i=1
Proof: Let Z(G) = {1, z2 , . . . , zm }, then by Prop. 2(1), the full set of conjugacy classes of G is
given by
{1}, {z2 }, . . . , {zm }, Cl(g1 ), Cl(g2 ), . . . , Cl(gr )

Since these partition G by Lemma 1, we have

m
P r
P
|G| = 1+ |Cl(gi )|
i=1 i=1
r
Cor P
= |Z(G)| + |G : CG (gi )|.
i=1

Examples:
1. The class equation for any abelian group of order n is n.
2. In any group G we have hgi ⊆ CG (g); this observation helps to minimize computations of con-
jugacy classes. For example, in the quaternion group Q8 we see that hii ≤ CQ8 (i) ≤ Q8 . Since
i∈/ Z(Q8 ) we must have CQ8 (i) = hii and |Q8 : hii| = 2. Thus i has precisely 2 conjugates in Q8 ,
namely i and −i = kik −1 . The other conjugacy classes in Q8 are determined similarly and are

{1}, {−1}, {±i}, {±j}, {±k}.

The first two classes form Z(Q8 ) and the class equation for this group is
|Q8 | = 2 + 2 + 2 + 2.

Theorem 5: If p is a prime and P is a group of prime power order pα for some α ≥ 1, then
P has a nontrivial center i.e., Z(P ) 6= 1.
Proof: By the class equation
r
P
|P | = |Z(P )| + |P : CP (gi )|
i=1
where g1 , . . . , gr are representatives of the distinct non-central conjugacy classes. Since gi ∈
/ Z(P ),
16
CP (gi ) 6= P for i = 1, 2, . . . , r, so p divides |P : CP (gi )| by Lagrange’s Theorem . Since p also
divides |P | it follows that p divides |Z(P )|, hence the center must be nontrivial.

Corollary 6: If |P | = p2 for some prime p, then P is abelian.

17
Proof: Since Z(P ) 6= 1 by the theorem 5, it follows that P/Z(P ) is cyclic (by Lagrange’s The-
16
By Langrange’s Theorem, 1 6= |P : CP (gi )| divides |P | therefore |P : CP (gi )| = pβ , for some 1 < β ≤ α.
17
Since |P | = p2 and |Z(P )| = p or p2 so |P/Z(P )| = |P |/|Z(P )| = p or 1

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orem) i.e., P/Z(P ) = h xZ(P )i . If g is an arbitrary element of P then gZ(P ) = xa Z(P ) which
implies g = xa z, where z ∈ Z(P ) which implies that every element of P is of the form xa z, for some
z ∈ Z(P ). We have to show that P is abelian. Let g1 and g2 be two arbitrary elements in P then
g1 = xa z1 and g2 = xb z2 for some z1 , z2 ∈ Z(P ) and a, b ∈ Z.
Now g1 g2 = xa z1 .xb z2 = xa xb z1 z2 = xa+b z2 z1 = z2 xb+a z1 = z2 xb xa z1 = xb z2 xa z1 = g2 g1 .
| {z } |{z} | {z } |{z}
Hence P is abelian.

Home Work

1. Fill in the missing details (left as Exercises) in the Lecture.

2. If p is a prime and P is a group of prime power order pα for some α ≥ 1, then prove that P
has a nontrivial center: Z(P ) 6= 1.

3. If |P | = p2 for some prime p, then prove that P is abelian.

Excercise

1. Find the Conjugacy classes and the Class equation for the group S3 , D6 , D8 , Z/nZ.

1.21 Sylows Theorems

The full converse to Lagrange’s Theorem is not true: namely,

if G is a finite group and n divides |G|, then G need not have a subgroup of order n.
4!
Example: let A4 be the alternating group of degree 4. We know that |A4 | = 2
= 12 and
n
A4 = I, (1 2 3), (1 2 4), (1 3 4), (2 3 4), (1 3 2), (1 4 2), (1 4 3), (2 4 3), (1 2)(3 4), (1 3)(2 4), (1 4)(2 3)}

Suppose A4 had a subgroup H of order 6. Since |A4 : H| = |A 4|

|H|
= 2, hence H  A4 and A4 /H ∼ = Z2 .
Since the quotient group has order 2, the square of every element in the quotient is the identity, so
for all g ∈ A4 , (gH)2 = 1H , that is, for all g ∈ A4 , g 2 ∈ H. If g is an element of A of order 3, we
obtain g = (g 2 )2 ∈ H, that is, H must contain all elements of A4 of order 3. This is a contradiction
since |H| = 6 but A4 contains 8 elements of order 3.
Some partial converses to Lagrange’s Theorem:
For finite abelian groups the full converse of Lagrange is true, namely
Theorem: If m divides the order of a finite abelian group G, then G has a subgroup of order m.

A partial converse which holds for arbitrary finite groups is the following result:
Theorem (Cauchy’s Theorem): If G is a finite group and p is a prime dividing |G|, then G has
an element of order p.

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The strongest converse to Lagrange’s Theorem which applies to arbitrary finite groups is the follow-
ing: 18
Theorem (Sylow): If G is a finite group of order pa m, where p is a prime and p does not divide
m, then G has a subgroup of order pa .
Definition: Let G be a group and let p be a prime.
(1) A group of order pa for some α ≥ 1 is called a p-group. Subgroups of G which are p-groups are
called p-subgroups.
(2) If G is a group of order pα m, where p - m, then a subgroup of order pa is called a Sylow p-
subgroup of G.
(3) The set of Sylow p-subgroups of G will be denoted by Sylp (G) and the number of Sylow p-
subgroups of G will be denoted by np (G) (or just np when G is clear from the context).
Examples:

1. In group Z/12Z, the subgroups h3i and h6i are both 2-groups. The subgroup h3i is also Sylow
2-subgroup but the subgroup h6i is not Sylow 2-subgroup. The subgroup h4i is 3-subgroup as
well as Sylow 3-subgroup. The subgroup h2i is neither a 2-subgroup nor a 3-subgroup hence
neither a Sylow 2-subgroup nor a Sylow 3-subgroup.

2. In A4 , the subgroup h(1 2)(3 4), (1 3)(2 4)i ∼

= V4 is Sylow 2-subgroup as well as 2-subgroup.
The subgroup h(1 2)i is a 2-subgroup but not Sylow 2-subgroup of A4 .

Theorem (Sylow’s Theorem): Let G be a group of order pa m, where p is a prime not dividing
m.
(1) Sylow p-subgroups of G exist, i.e., Sylp (G) 6= ∅.
(2) If P is a Sylow p-subgroup of G and Q is any p-subgroup of G, then there exists g ∈ G such that
Q ≤ gP g −1 , i.e., Q is contained in some conjugate of P . In particular, any two Sylow p-subgroups
of G are conjugate in G.
(3) The number of Sylow p-subgroups of G is of the form 1 + kp, i.e.,

np ≡ 1(mod p).

Further, np is the index in G of the normalizer NG (P ) for any Sylow p-subgroup P , hence np
divides m.
Corollary 1: Any two Sylow p-subgroups of a group (for the same prime p) are isomorphic.19
Corollary 2: Let P be a Sylow p-subgroup of G. Then the following are equivalent:
(1) P is the unique Sylow p-subgroup of G, i.e., np = 1;
(2) P is normal in G.
18
Wikipedia: In mathematics, specifically in the field of finite group theory, the Sylow theorems are a collection of
theorems named after the Norwegian mathematician Ludwig Sylow (1872) that give detailed information about the
number of subgroups of fixed order that a given finite group contains.
19
Indeed. By Sylow Theorem (2), for any two Sylow p-subgroups P and Q in G there exists g ∈ G such that
Q = gP g −1 . The map x 7→ gxg −1 gives P ∼= gP g −1 = Q.

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Proof: If (1) holds, then gP g −1 = P for all g ∈ G since gP g −1 ∈ Sylp (G), i.e., P is normal in G.
Hence (1) implies (2). Conversely, if P  G and Q ∈ Sylp (G), then by Sylow’s Theorem there exists
g ∈ G such that Q = gP g −1 = P [since P  G ]. Thus SylP (G) = {P } and (2) implies (1).

Examples: Let G be a finite group and let p be a prime.

(1) If p does not divide the order of G, the Sylow p-subgroup of G is the trivial group (and all parts
of Sylow’s Theorem hold trivially). If |G| = pα , G is the unique Sylow p-subgroup of G.
(2) A finite abelian group has a unique Sylow p-subgroup for each prime p [by Corollary 2].
(3) S3 has three Sylow 2-subgroups: h(1 2)i, h(2 3)i and h(1 3)i. It has a unique (hence normal)
Sylow 3-subgroup: h(1 2 3)i = A3 [because |S3 : A3 | = 2 so A3  S3 hence unique [by Corollary 2].
Note that 3 ≡ 1(mod 2).
(4) A4 has a unique Sylow 2-subgroup: h(1 2)(3 4), (1 3)(2 4)i ∼ = V4 . It has four Sylow 3-subgroups:
h(1 2 3)i, h(1 2 4)i, h(1 3 4)i and h(2 3 4)i. Note that 4 ≡ 1(mod 3).
(5) Sylow p-subgroups in S4 : |S4 | = 4! = 24 = 23 .3 = 31 .8 which implies two cases:
Case I |S4 | = 4! = 23 .3 i.e., p = 2 and m = 3
Case II S4 | = 4! = 31 .8 i.e., p = 3 and m = 8
• # of elements in Sylow p-subgroups:
Order of Sylow 2-subgroups = 23 = 8
Order of Sylow 3-subgroups = 31 = 3
• # of Sylow p-subgroups: By Sylow’s Theorems
n2 = 1 + 2k, k = 0, 1, 2, . . . and n2 | 3 =⇒ n2 = 1 or 3
n3 = 1 + 3k, k = 0, 1, 2, . . . and n3 | 8 =⇒ n3 = 1 or 4
• The Sylow p-subgroups:
Recall
 


 I, (1 2), (1 3), (1 4), (2 3), (2 4), (3 4), (1 2 3), (1 2 4), (1 3 4), 



 (2 3 4), (1 3 2), (1 4 2), (1 4 3), (2 4 3), (1 2)(3 4), 

S4 = .
 (1 3)(2 4), (1 4)(2 3), (1 2 3 4), (1 3 2 4), (1 4 2 3),
 


 

 , (1 2 4 3), (1 3 4 2), (1 4 3 2) 

! Sylow 2-subgroups are

h(1 2 3 4), (1 3)i, h(1 3 4 2), (1 4)i, h(1 4 2 3), (1 2)i

Hence n2 = 3. Note that each of the Sylow 2-subgroups is isomorphic to D8 .

!Sylow 3-subgroups are

h(1 2 3)i, h(1 2 4)i, h(1 3 4)i, h(2 3 4)i

Hence n3 = 4. Note that each of the Sylow 2-subgroups is isomorphic to Z3 .

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Note that S4 contains a subgroup isomorphic to D8 and every Sylow 2-subgroup of S4 is isomorphic
to D8 .

Home Work

1. Fill in the missing details (left as exercise) in the lecture.

2.

3.

Excercise

1. Excercise

1.22 Application of Sylows theorems

Definition: A group is called simple if it has no normal subgroups.
Applications of Sylow’s Theorem:

1. Groups of order pq, p and q primes with p < q are not simple.
Proof 1.:Suppose |G| = pq for primes p and q with p < q. let Q ∈ Sylq (G). We show that Q is
normal in G.
Now by Sylow’s Theorem (3), nq = 1 + kq for some k ≥ 0 and nq divides p. Combining this with
p < q, gives k = 0 i.e., nq = 1 and hence Q  G, by Cor. 2.

Lemma: If the Sylow p-subgroups have order p, then the intersection of any two distinct Sylow
p-subgroups must be the identity.
Proof: Suppose P and Q be distinct Sylow p-subgroups of order p and P ∩ Q 6= 1. Since P ∩ Q
is a subgroup of P , |P ∩ Q| | |P |, by Lagrange’s theorem. Which implies that |P ∩ Q| = p i.e.,
P ∩ Q = P . By similar arguments, P ∩ Q = Q. But this is a contradiction to the fact that P 6= Q.


2. Groups of order 30, are not simple.

Proof: Let be a group of order 30. There arise three cases:
Case I |G| = 30 = 21 .15 i.e., p = 2 and m = 15
Case II |G| = 30 = 31 .10 i.e., p = 3 and m = 10
Case III: |G| = 30 = 51 .6 i.e., p = 5 and m = 6
• # of elements in Sylow p-subgroups:
Order of Sylow 2-subgroups = 21 = 2
Order of Sylow 3-subgroups = 31 = 3

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Order of Sylow 5-subgroups = 51 = 5
• # of Sylow p-subgroups: By Sylow’s Theorems
n2 = 1 + 2k, k = 0, 1, 2, . . . and n2 | 15 =⇒ n2 = 1 or 3 or 5 or 15
n3 = 1 + 3k, k = 0, 1, 2, . . . and n3 | 10 =⇒ n3 = 1 or 10
n5 = 1 + 5k, k = 0, 1, 2, . . . and n5 | 6 =⇒ n3 = 1 or 6
We claim at least one of n3 and n5 is 1:
Suppose that none of n3 and n5 is 1 then n3 = 10 and n5 = 6.
Since n5 = 6 so there are atleast 6 × (5 − 1) = 24 elements of order 5 in G, by Lemma.20
Since n3 = 10 so there are atleast 10 × (3 − 1) = 20 elements of order 3, by Lemma.
Hence |G| ≥ 20 + 24 = 44, which is a contradiction to the fact that order G is 30.
Thus either n3 or n5 is 1 which means we have either a unique 3-Sylow subgroup or a unique 5-Sylow
subgroup of G. Either way, this unique subgroup must be normal in G (by Corollary 2). Hence, G
can’t be simple.
3. Groups of order 12, are not simple.
Proof: Let be a group of order 12. There arise two cases:
Case I |G| = 12 = 22 .3 i.e., p = 2 and m = 3
Case II |G| = 12 = 31 .4 i.e., p = 3 and m = 4
• # of elements in Sylow p-subgroups:
Order of Sylow 2-subgroups = 22 = 4
Order of Sylow 3-subgroups = 31 = 3
• # of Sylow p-subgroups: By Sylow’s Theorems
n2 = 1 + 2k, k = 0, 1, 2, . . . and n2 | 3 =⇒ n2 = 1 or 3
n3 = 1 + 3k, k = 0, 1, 2, . . . and n3 | 4 =⇒ n3 = 1 or 4
We claim at least one of n2 and n3 is 1:
Suppose that none of n3 and n2 is 1 then n3 = 4 and n2 = 3
Since n3 = 4 so there are 4 × (3 − 1) = 8 elements of order 3 in G by Lemma.
Since n2 = 3 therefore, if P and Q are any distinct Sylow 2-subgroups of G. There must exist a
nonidentity element x ∈ Q with x ∈ / P . Thus there are atleast 5 elements of order other than 3.
But then |G| ≥ 8 + 5 = 13, which is a contradiction.
Thus either n2 and n3 is 1, which means we have either a unique 2-Sylow subgroup or a unique
3-Sylow subgroup of G. Either way, this unique subgroup must be normal in G (by Corollary 2).
Hence, G can’t be simple.

4. Groups of order p2 q, p and q distinct primes are not simple:

Proof: Let G be a group of order p2 q. We show that G has a normal Sylow subgroup (for either p
20
[Each element of order 5 lies in a Sylow 5-subgroup, each Sylow 5-subgroup contains 4 nonidentity elements and,
by Lagrange’s Theorem, distinct Sylow 5-subgroups intersect in the identity ( See Lemma above ). Thus the number
of elements of order 5 in G is the number of nonidentity elements in one Sylow 5-subgroup times the number of Sylow
5-subgroups. ]

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or q). Let P ∈ Sylp (G) and let Q ∈ Sylq (G).
Consider first when p > q. Since np |q and np = 1 + kp, we must have np = 1. Thus P  G.
Consider now the case p < q. lf nq = 1, Q is normal in G. Assume therefore that nq > 1, i.e.,
nq = 1 + tq, for some t > 0. Now nq divides p2 so nq = p or p2 . Since q > p we cannot have nq = p,
hence nq = p2 . Thus
tq = p2 − 1 = (p − 1)(p + 1)

Since q is prime, either q|p − 1 or q|p + 1. The former is impossible since q > p so the latter holds.
Since q > p but q|p + 1, we must have q = p + 1. This forces p = 2, q = 3 and |G| = 12. The result
now follows from the fact that ”a group of order 12 is not simple”.21

Exercises

1. Prove that a group of order 56 has a normal Sylow p-subgroup for some prime p dividing its
order.
2. Prove that a group of order 312 has a normal Sylow p-subgroup for some prime p dividing its
order.
3. Prove that a group of order 351 has a normal Sylow p-subgroup for some prime p dividing its
order.
4. Let |G| = pqr, where p, q and r are primes with p < q < r. Prove that G has a normal Sylow
subgroup for either p, q or r.
5. Prove that if |G| = 105 then G has a normal Sylow 5-subgroup and a normal Sylow 7-subgroup.
6. Prove that a group of order 200 has a normal Sylow 5-subgroup.
7. Prove that if |G| = 6545 then G is not simple.
8. Prove that if |G| = 1365 then G is not simple.
9. Prove that if |G| = 2907 then G is not simple.
10. Prove that if |G| = 132 then G is not simple.
11. Prove that if |G| = 462 then G is not simple.

1.23 Direct product of groups

In this chapter we consider one of the easier methods for constructing larger groups from smaller
ones, namely the notions of direct products.

Definition: The direct product of the groups G1 , G2 , . . . , Gn is the set

G1 × G2 × · · · × Gn = {(g1 , g2 , . . . , gn ) | gi ∈ Gi }
21
As we assumed n3 = nq > 1, we must have n2 = np = 1.

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with operation defined componentwise:

(gl , g2 , . . . , gn )(h1 , h2 , ..., hn ) = (g1 h1 , g2 h2 , . . . , gn hn ).

Examples: (1) Suppose Gi = R (operation addition) for i = 1, 2, . . . , n. Then R × R × · · · × R

(n-factors) is the familiar Euclidean n-space Rn with usual vector addition:
a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) + (b1 , b2 , . . . , bn ) = (a1 + b2 , a2 + b2 , . . . , an + bn ).
(2) To illustrate that groups forming the direct product (and corresponding operations) may be
completely general, let G1 = Z, let G2 = S3 and let G3 = GL2 (R), where the group operations are
addition, composition, and!matrix multiplication, ! respectively. Then the operation
! in G1 × G2 × G3
a b p q ap + br aq + bs
is defined by: (n, σ, )(m, τ, ) = (nm, σ ◦ τ, )
c d r s cp + dr cq + ds

Proposition 1. If G1 , . . . , Gn are groups, their direct product is a group of order |G1 ||G2 | . . . |Gn |
(if any G is infinite, so is the direct product).
Proof: Note that since gi ∈ G, hi ∈ Gi and Gi is a group, we have gi hi ∈ Gi . Thus G1 ×G2 ×· · ·×Gn
is closed under the binary operation.
The associative law in G1 × G2 × · · · × Gn is thrown back onto the associative law in each component
as follows:
(a1 , a2 , . . . , an )[(b1 , b2 , . . . , bn )(c1 , c2 , . . . , cn )]
= (a1 , a2 , . . . , an )(b1 c1 , b2 c2 , . . . , bn cn )
= ((a1 (b1 c1 ), a2 (b2 c2 ), . . . , an (bn cn ))
= ((a1 b1 )c1 ), (a2 b2 )c2 ), . . . , (an bn )cn ))
= (a1 b1 , a2 b2 ), . . . , an bn )(c1 , c2 , . . . , cn )
= [(a1 , a2 , . . . , an )(b1 , b2 , . . . , bn )](c1 , c2 , . . . , cn )

If ei is the identity element in Gi , then clearly, with multiplication by components, (e1 , e2 , . . . , en )

is an identity in G1 × G2 × · · · × Gn . Finally, an inverse of (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) is (a−1 −1 −1
1 , a2 , . . . , an );
compute the product by components. Hence G1 × G2 × · · · × Gn is a group.
The proof of the fact
|G1 × G2 × · · · × Gn | = |G1 ||G2 | . . . |Gn |

follows by Fundamental Principle of Counting22 .

Notation: Let us denote Z/nZ by Zn for convenience.
Examples: (1) Consider the group
Z2 × Z3 = {(0, 0), (0, 1), (0, 2), (1, 0), (1, 1), (1, 2)}, which has 6 elements. We claim that Z2 × Z3 is
cyclic. It is only necessary to find a generator. Let us try (1, 1). Here the operations in Z2 and Z3
22
Stated simply, it is the idea that if there are a ways of doing something and b ways of doing another thing, then
there are a b ways of performing both actions.

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are written additively, so we do the same in the direct product Z2 × Z3
(1, 1) = (1, 1)
2(1, 1) = (1, 1) + (1, 1) = (0, 2)
3(1, 1) = (1, 1) + (1, 1) + (1, 1) = (1, 0)
4(1, 1) = 3(1, 1) + (1.1) = (1, 0) + (1, 1) = (0, 1)
5(1, 1) = 4(1, 1) + (1, 1) = (0, 1) + (1, 1) = (1, 2)
6(1, 1) = 5(1, 1) + (1, 1) = (1, 2) + (1, 1) = (0, 0)
Thus (1, 1) generates all of Z2 × Z3 . Since there is, up to isomorphism, only one cyclic group struc-
ture of a given order, we see that Z2 × Z3 is isomorphic to Z6 .
(2) Consider Z3 × Z3 . This is a group of nine elements. We claim that Z3 × Z3 is not cyclic. Since
the addition is by components, and since in Z3 every element added to itself three times gives the
identity, the same is true in Z3 × Z3 . Thus no element can generate the group, for a generator added
to itself successively could only give the identity after nine summands. We have found another group
structure of order 9. A similar argument shows that Z2 × Z2 is not cyclic. Thus Z2 × Z2 must be
isomorphic to the Klein 4-group.
The preceding examples illustrate the following theorem:
Theorem 2: The group Zm × Zn is cyclic and is isomorphic to Zmn if and only if m and n are
relatively prime, that is, the gcd of m and n is 1.

Proof. Observe that g.c.d.(m, n) l.c.m.(m, n) = mn (*).

Let Zm = h1i and Zn = h1i. Let l = l.c.m.(m, n). Let (a · 1, b · 1) be an arbitrary element in Zm × Zn
then

l(a · 1, b · 1) = (la · 1, lb · 1) = (0, 0) (because m|l and n|l).

If g.c.d.(m, n) 6= 1 , every element of Zm × Zn has order at most l, hence has order strictly less than
mn23 , so Zm × Zn cannot be isomorphic to Zmn .
Conversely, if (m, n) = 1, then |(1, 1)| = 24 l.c.m.(|1|, |1|) = l.c.m.(m, n) = mn. Thus, by order
considerations, Zm × Zn = h(1, 1)i is cyclic, completing the proof.

Corollary 3: The group Zm1 × Zm2 × · · · × Zmn , is cyclic and isomorphic to Zm1 m2 ...mn if and only
if the numbers mi for i = 1, . . . , n are such that the g.c.d. of any two of them is 1.
23
since g.c.d.(m, n) l.c.m.(m, n) = mn
24
Here taking a power of (1, 1) in our additive notation will involve adding (1, 1) to itself repeatedly. Under addition
by components, the first component 1 ∈ Zm yields 0 only after m summands, 2m summands, and so on, and the second
component 1 ∈ Zn yields 0 only after n summands, 2n summands, and so on. For them to yield 0 simultaneously, the
number of summands must be a multiple of both m and n. The smallest number that is a multiple of both m and n
will be l.c.m.(1, 1).

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Example: The preceding corollary shows that if n is written as a product of powers of distinct
prime numbers, as in

n = (p1 )n1 (p2 )n2 . . . (pr )nr ,

then Zn is isomorphic to
Z(p1 )n1 × Z(p2 )n2 × · · · × Z(pr )nr

In particular, Z72 is isomorphic to Z8 × Z9 .

Remark: We remark that changing the order of the factors in a direct product yields a group
isomorphic to the original one.
Corollary 4: Let (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) ∈ G1 × G2 × · · · × Gn . If ai is of order ri in Gi , then the order of
(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) is equal to the least common multiple of all the ri .
Proof: For a power of (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) to give (e1 , e2 , . . . , en ), the power must simultaneously be a
multiple of r1 so that this power of the first component a1 will yield e1 , a multiple of r2 , so that this
power of the second component a2 will yield e2 , and so on.

Example: Find the order of (8, 4, 10) in the group Z12 × Z60 × Z24 ?
Since the gcd of 8 and 12 is 4, we see that 8 is of order 12
4
= 3 in Z12 . Similarly, we find that 4 is of
order 15 in Z60 and 10 is of order 12 in Z24 . The l.c.m. of 3, 15, and 12 is 3.5.4 = 60, so (8, 4, 10) is
of order 60 in the group Z12 × Z60 × Z24 .
Example: The group Z × Z2 is generated by the elements (1, 0) and (0, 1). More generally, the
direct product of n cyclic groups, each of which is either Z or Zm for some positive integer m, is
generated by the n n-tuples

(1, 0, 0, . . . , 0), (0, 1, 0, . . . , 0), (0, 0, 1, . . . , 0), . . . , (0, 0, 0, . . . , 1).

Such a direct product might also be generated by fewer elements. For example, Z3 × Z4 × Z35 is
generated by the single element (1, 1, 1).

Note that if G1 × G2 × · · · × Gn is the direct product of groups Gi , then the subset

Gi = {(e1 , e2 , . . . , ei−1 , ai , ei+1 , . . . , en ) | ai ∈ G},

that is, the set of all n-tuples with the identity elements in all places but the ith, is a subgroup
of G1 ×G2 ×· · ·×Gn . It is also clear that this subgroup Gi is naturally isomorphic to Gi ; just rename

(e1 , e2 , . . . , ei−1 , ai , ei+1 , . . . , en ) by ai .

The group Gi , is mirrored in the ith component of the elements of Gi , and the ej in the other
components just ride along. We consider G1 × G2 × · · · × Gn to be the internal direct product of

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these subgroups Gi . The direct product given by Proposition 1 is called the external direct product
of the groups Gi . The terms internal and external, as applied to a direct product of groups, just
reflect whether or not (respectively) we are regarding the component groups as subgroups of the
product group. We shall usually omit the words external and internal and just say direct product.
Which term we mean will be clear from the context.

Practice Problems with Solutions

1. Find the order of Zp × Zq × Zr .
Solution: Using Proposition 1, |Zp × Zq × Zr | = |Zp ||Zq ||Zr | = pqr

2. Is Z8 × Z9 × Z25 is cyclic?
Solution: By using Corollary 3, since 8, 9 and 25 are pairwise disjoint so
Z8 × Z9 × Z25 ∼
= Z8·9·25 and Z8 × Z9 × Z25 = h(1, 1, 1)i

3. Find the order of (2, 5, 8) in Z8 × Z9 × Z25 ?

Solution: Using Proposition 4, |(2, 5, 8)| = l.c.m{|2|, |5|, |8|} = l.c.m{4, 9, 25} = 900

Exercises
1. Show that the center of a direct product is the direct product of the centers: Z(G1 × G2 ×
· · · × Gn ) = Z(G1 ) × Z(G2 ) × · · · × Z(Gn ). Deduce that a direct product of groups is abelian
if and only if each of the factors is abelian.

2. List the elements of Z2 × Z4 and Z3 × Z4 .

3. Find the order of the given element of the direct product.

(a) (2, 6) in Z4 × Z12

(b) (2, 3) in Z6 × Z15
(c) (3, 10, 9) in Z4 × Z20 × Z24
(d) (3, 6, 12, 16) in Z4 × Z12 × Z20 × Z24

4. (a) Find the maximum possible order for some element of Z4 × Z6 .

(b) Are the groups Z2 × Z12 and Z4 × Z6 isomorphic? Why or why not?

Home Work

1.

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 2.

3.

Excercise

1. Excercise

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