MOTION DESIGN GUIDE

CROSSED-ROLLER LINEAR GUIDES

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 These are various crossed-
roller linear bearing options
CROSSED-ROLLER LINEAR GUIDES from NB Corp.

Crossed-roller linear guides are based on a non-recirculating linear bearing design

in which cylindrical roller bearing elements are oriented in a crisscross pattern.
Because the rollers don’t recirculate, these guides provide high load capacity and
good stiffness … with smoother motion than recirculating-bearing counterparts.
That’s because the rollers don’t suffer from the pulsations that recirculating
bearings experience as the balls (or rollers) enter and exit the load zone. Lack
of impacts due to recirculating elements also reduces noise generation, making
crossed-roller slides noticeably quieter than linear bearings with recirculating
elements. One caveat is that crossed-roller linear bearings are limited travel — ▼
typically to 1 meter. That’s because the crossed-roller assembly must be twice as
long as the maximum stroke of the two guides that move in opposite directions.
DANIELLE COLLINS
In this Design Guide, the editors of Design World detail these considerations Senior editor
as well as the most common variations and applications of crossed-roller linear
bearings. Best practices for selection and installation are also presented.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
▼

The four basic elements of a crossed-roller linear bearing...................................... 3

▼
Friction and load...................................................................................................... 5 LISA EITEL
Executive editor
Terminology related to crossed-roller linear designs............................................... 6

What are goniometer stages?.................................................................................. 7

Three benefits of cylindrical rollers in linear bearings............................................. 8

More on how cages in crossed-roller linear guides work...................................... 10

Specifying crossed-roller linear bearings............................................................... 13

Abbé error and how it affects linear systems........................................................ 15

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 The four basic elements of a

▼
crossed-roller linear bearing
A key advantage of crossed-roller slides over
recirculating-roller linear guides using balls is that
the former maintains extremely smooth motion.
Omission of roller recirculating means these
linear components don’t exhibit pulsations that
recirculating bearings induce upon entering and
exiting the axis’s load zone, either. That makes
the guider quiet … though the non-recirculating
design of traditional crossed-roller slides limits
travel to a meter or so.

A t their core, crossed-roller linear bearings support and

allow the low-friction movement of loads on arrays of
cylindrical roller bearings.
➂
Usually a third element called a cage (or bearing retainer
or just retainer) keeps the rollers well-spaced … and
prevents excess friction in the form of skidding or
➀ roller-to-roller contact.
• Cages made of hard plastic PEEK, polyacetal (or polyoxy-
The rollers (also called roller bearings or rolling elements)
are often made of hardened bearing steel of 55 to 65 methylene) or composite engineered plastic (sometimes
HRC or stainless steel if the linear bearing is to operate with fiberglass reinforcement) let rollers space more
in a corrosive setting. The rollers alternate between two tightly together. That in turn lets more rollers fit into the
90° offset orientations. Because of these opposing roller crossed-roller guide assembly for a given stroke length
directions, crossed-roller linear bearings can carry loads … and increases load capacity.
upward, downward, and from both sides. • In contrast, cages made of aluminum, brass, steel, or
other metal take more space and reduce the guide roller
count for a given length but are often the only suitable

➁ choice for harsh environments or applications operating

in cleanrooms or vacuums. That’s because composites
Crossed-roller linear-bearing assemblies contain the rollers are sensitive to contamination and can foul controlled
between solid twin bars or rails (usually made of through- environments with outgassing.
hardened tool steel or stainless steel) cut with ground
V-shaped grooves to serve as raceways. Some linear- CROSSED-ROLLER
bearing designs destined for corrosive environments feature LINEAR BEARING SUBCOMPONENTS
electrolytically applied chrome coatings on these rails to
extend design life and boost wear resistance.

CARRIAGE OR TABLE

Shown here are the basic

elements of a crossed-roller
linear-bearing assembly.

ROLLERS AND CAGE RAIL OR BED

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 MOTION DESIGN GUIDE I CROSSED-ROLLER LINEAR GUIDES

(continued)
The four basic elements of a
crossed-roller linear bearing

This linear-motor table from Motion Solutions

incorporates crossed-roller linear bearings for
precision linear motion. Initially incorporated into
Lasik eye surgery systems to focus optics and lasers
on the eye, it’s also precise enough for positioning
tables used in the manufacture of liquid-crystal
products, measuring instruments, assembling
systems, and material-transfer equipment.

➃
Sometimes linear bearings contain the roller-
filled cage with steel or chromed end pieces.
However, a fourth element called an anti-creep
mechanism (usually a studded wheel or gear)
is usually necessary. That’s because while cages
solve one problem, they can create another.
More specifically, crossed-roller guide cages are
indispensable but can exhibit cage creep.

Because the cage floats between the guide CROSSED-ROLLER

CURVED GUIDES
assembly’s two bar guides, during operation it
can drift from its correct position … especially
when operating on vertical axes or when the axis
makes many partial strokes. Vibrations and shock
loading can also induce cage creep. A cage that’s
misaligned from center effectively reduces stroke
length … because the cage strikes end stops RAIL

before the completion of a full stroke. That in ROLLER

CAGE RAIL

turn forces the cage back to its centered position

— potentially damaging the slide halves and
inducing the very roller skidding or sliding the
cage is supposed to prevent. Shown here are curved variations of crossed-roller slides from NB
Corp. These gonio ways incorporate low-friction precision rollers
to serve applications that need gradient changes or accurate
setting of specific gradient angles without changes to the center
of rotation — in precision-measurement and optical equipment,
for example. The term gonio is from Greek and denotes anything
relating to the expression, measurement, or actuation of angles.
Refer to page 7 of this Design Guide for more on this technology.

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Friction and Load
C
rossed-roller linear bearings come in
a vast array of sizes and variations —
typically from 20 to 1,000 mm long with
rollers a few millimeters in diameter. But no
matter the size, a lack of roller recirculating
in crossed-roller linear bearings limits their
carriage (table) length to a value determined
by the overall roller count. After all, the twin
rails containing its rollers move in opposite
directions ... and then endstops at the furthest
travel reaches limit the stroke (and keep the
assembly intact). That means a crossed-roller
linear bearing must be twice as long as the
required travel length … and the overall design
footprint must accommodate this additional
component volume.
As opposed to travel-limited crossed roller linear bearings,
In contrast, linear-bearing designs such as linear bushings on there are some guides, such as the NB Corporation SER
Miniature crossed-roller linear bearing, that have recirculating
shafts only require that the shaft be as long as the required
cylindrical rollers that do not limit shaft length.
travel. No wonder that linear guide designs based on
recirculating elements are more common on long-stroke axes.

Despite this crossed-roller linear bearing limitation, they’re

Accounting for all these friction sources, the coefficient of a
indispensable for designs requiring stroke lengths to a meter
properly mounted crossed-roller linear bearing is typically quite
or shorter — and often outperform recirculating-element linear
low — between 0.0006 and 0.002.
bearings on these axes. Rollers rather than balls as the load-
carrying elements make for greater load capacity with line A couple caveats regarding friction and load capacity: As
contact with the raceways … and not point contact. This also we’ll explore in more detail, manufacturers of crossed-roller
boosts the rigidity and accuracy of the linear axes into which slides often design and assemble these linear components
they integrate. What’s more, these linear bearings exhibit static with preload to eliminate clearance. Preload helps further
and dynamic frictional resistances that are roughly equal ... reduce linear-guide deflection under load within specified load
even when lightly loaded. That’s another feature that makes capacities ... but affects other linear-bearing values.
crossed-roller linear bearings useful on short-stroke axes
demanding precision. Also note that some component manufacturers do indeed sell
crossed-roller linear bearings that recirculate cylindrical rollers
A linear bearing’s running resistance includes the bearing through a circuit. Elsewhere the rollers aren’t crisscrossed but
elements’ rolling and sliding friction as well as: rather ganged in two pairs of roller circuits holding the rollers
• Sliding-contact friction at the cage-and-roller contact points in opposing (complementary) roller orientations. Such designs
deliver long travel and high stiffness and load capacity.
• Drag from end seals and lubricant wipers on the carriage
(table) ends
• Lubricant drag and churning effects

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 Terminology related to
▼

crossed-roller linear designs

D
epending on the exact permutation of the base and
carriage, precision linear-bearing designs incorporating
the crossed-roller arrangement have various names.

• Crossed-roller linear rail most precisely refers to the actual

working surfaces (raceways) upon which the rollers in a cross-
roller linear-bearing assembly ride. Some manufacturers
refer to each side of the V-shaped channel as a rail for
two rails (raceways) per each channel; others refer to the
V-shaped channel (including both its sides) as one rail.
Further complicating the taxonomy is that in some contexts,
crossed-roller linear rail refers to the more integrated
adaptations of this linear-motion technology.

• Crossed-roller linear ways or slide ways are terms that

most typically refer to assemblies with a single array of
crossed rollers between a matching mirrored pair of narrow
monolithic bars — each with one V-shaped pair of rails.
Many (though certainly not all) manufacturers use the
terms linear slide to indicate linear-motion guide elements
that ultimately integrate into builds complete with some
mechanical drive.
This linear crossed-roller linear slide integrates a
• Crossed-roller linear bearing guides is a term used by composite cage. Image courtesy NB Corp. of America
industry to refer to slide-type designs as well as assemblies
that combine one long narrow monolithic bar with a short
and relatively blocky carriage. Used in industry as a catchall
term, linear guide most precisely indicates a standalone
• Crossed-roller linear slides can be identified by how they
mechanism for guiding loads.
combine a linear-bearing base with a short and relatively
blocky carriage. Unlike linear bearing guides, the working
SV TYPE
V-shaped rail surfaces are typically mounted onto the base
— which differs from the way in which the working raceway
Crossed-roller linear
surfaces of linear slide ways are directly machined on the rail.
bearings use cylindrical
rollers for rigid and Then the mating carriage (through the crossed-roller array)
accurate load bearing. rides on this base.
The cylindrical rollers
operate between two • Crossed-roller linear tables are much like linear slides in
parallel rails consisting that they include a monolithic base with V-shaped rails and
of V-grooved raceways relatively blocky carriage that (through the crossed-roller
that nestle the rollers
in complementary
array) rides on this base. In addition, the tables include
orientations. mounting holes and other geometry for easy integration into
larger motion-system assemblies ... as well as the assembly
of load elements on the carriage.

NV TYPE
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 What are goniometer stages?
▼ ▼

Shown here is a Rigaku

Oxford Diffraction SuperNova
single crystal diffractometer
used by structural biologists
to screen protein crystals. At
its core is a kappa geometry
goniometer that allows data
scan speeds to 10° per sec.
Kappa goniometers combine
two rotational stages.

T
he term goniometer can refer to a type of device that positioning, worm gear versions use very high ratios — in the
measures angles ... or to a device that rotates objects range of 300:1 — and can be driven by hand with a micrometer
to a precise angular position. Those for measuring or with a stepper or servo motor. Similarly, ball and lead screw
angles are widely used in physical therapy to measure the versions use very small leads, and these are often driven by servo
or stepper motors. Goniometer stages with crossed roller guides
range of motion of joints such as wrists or knees. This type of
and piezo motors can provide ultra-high resolution for small
goniometer also has applications in science, for measuring the
ranges of motion to meet the needs of micro- or nano-positioning
angles between crystal faces or for positioning samples and applications.
detectors for X-ray diffraction.
One of the benefits of such a wide variety of designs is that
In contrast, goniometers for rotating objects around a fixed goniometer stages can be used in a broad range of applications,
axis are similar to linear stages ... but instead of providing linear including cleanrooms and vacuum environments.
motion in the X and Y and Z axes, a goniometer stage produces
partial rotation around a fixed point or axis above the stage. Most goniometer stages are designed to allow stacking of
Rotation angles can range from as little as a few arc-seconds to as multiple stages, providing orthogonal rotation around a common
much as 90°. point. In many cases, manufacturers of goniometer stages also
manufacture linear stages and have made it easy to integrate the
Common industrial uses for goniometer stages include two types from a mounting and control standpoint, presenting
micromachining applications and the alignment of mirrors for designers with a pre-engineered solution that provides both linear
inspection systems. In laboratory applications, they’re often used and rotational movement.
for directing lasers and aligning mirrors or lenses in microscopy
equipment, such as transmission electron and scanning electron
microscopes.
CROSSED-ROLLER
CURVED GUIDES
Like linear stages, goniometer stages come in a wide variety of
designs, but every design incorporates a low-friction guide and a
high-precision drive mechanism. The guide mechanism can be a
curved dovetail bearing, a curved crossed-roller linear guide, or
even an air bearing. In some designs, bearing races are machined
directly into the stage to form the equivalent of a partial, single- RAIL

row rotary bearing that supports and guides the load. ROLLER
CAGE RAIL

The drive mechanism can be a high-ratio worm gear, a ballscrew,

or lead screw (typically with an anti-backlash nut) or a direct- Curved crossed-roller linear guides are common in
drive motor. Because goniometers are often used for very fine goniometers. Image courtesy NB Corp.

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 Three benefits of cylindrical
▼

rollers in linear bearings

L
inear bearings with roller (not ball) bearing elements Crossed-roller slides help boost the performance of
first found widespread use in demanding machine-tool general automation, microprocessor manufacturing,
applications. But the performance benefits that rollers and linear axes on diagnostic equipment. In fact,
bring to machining centers are now indispensable in crossed-roller guides impart high load capacity as
well as high stiffness and travel accuracy. Stainless-
other applications as well. Consider these three advantages
steel linear bearing image courtesy NB Corp.
that roller-based linear bearings offer.
Higher load capacity: When subjected to a load, rollers form
line contact with the guide surface, which is much larger than the
point contact that is formed when balls are subjected to a load.
For example, a size 25 ball rail guide with a load capacity of
This gives roller rail guides higher load capacities than ball rail
20,000 N and an applied force of 2,000 N has a dynamic travel
guides of the same size.
life of 100,000 km. A roller-rail guide of the same size and 24,000
This higher load capacity is further amplified by the bearing life N load capacity (and 2,000 N applied force) has a dynamic travel
equation for rollers. Rather than being raised to the 1/3 power life of 395,600 km. A roller rail guide of the same size with load
as with ball rail guides, the life equation for roller rail guides is capacity of 24,000 N and applied force of 2,000 N has a life of
raised to the 10/3 power. This means that even a small premium 395,600 km.
in load capacity for a roller bearing versus a ball bearing
In applications where ball rail guides would fail to provide
translates to a much higher travel life for the roller version.
sufficient life, or where the required size would be too large to
Ball rail guide life equation: be practical, roller rail guides can provide a viable solution.
Consider an injection-molding application implementing
automated part loading and unloading, but with a machine
design allowing limited equipment access. Here, roller-based rail
guides might support the axis’ linear motor from the bottom to
Roller rail guide life equation: open the top area to more loading and unloading access. In fact,
roller rail guides might be the only linear bearing option with
sufficient load capacity and travel life.

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 MOTION DESIGN GUIDE I CROSSED-ROLLER LINEAR GUIDES

(continued)
Three benefits of cylindrical
rollers in linear bearings GUIDE RACEWAY
AND CARRIAGE DEFLECTION
Fdown
δdown
Ability to downsize: As the previous example illustrates,
the higher load capacity and longer life of roller bearings
mean that designers can often use roller bearings that are
one or two sizes smaller (for example size 25 rather than size
45) than the ball bearings that would be needed to get an
equivalent travel life.
Downsizing of the linear bearings can be especially
beneficial in multi-axis or gantry applications, where
weight saved on one axis has a trickle-down effect on the
supporting axes, potentially saving tens of thousands of
dollars in component costs.
In a three-axis Cartesian or gantry system, reducing the mass Fliftoff δup
of the Z axis reduces the static and dynamic forces on the
Y axis — so the Y axis can potentially be downsized. In the
same way, reducing the mass of the Y and Z axes may allow
downsizing of the X axis because it’s seeing lower force
acting on it. This downsizing applies to the linear guides
and drive mechanism (whether linear motor, ball screw, or
otherwise) and motor along with other components such
as couplings, gearboxes, and cable carriers. This provides
LIFTING LOAD AS IN A
savings in material cost, energy usage, and space. SUSPENDED ARRANGEMENT
Higher rigidity: As we’ve briefly mentioned earlier, the line
contact formed by rollers also provides higher rigidity than
the point contact formed by balls ... which is the primary
reason that roller rail linear guides are so widely adopted in Fside
machine tools.
In fact, printing processes that involve pressing (such as
flexographic printing and narrow web printing) also
benefit from the rigidity of roller rail guides. Less deflection
of the guide block means less deflection of the printing
head, resulting in a higher quality print. Some in the
woodworking industry use roller rail guides for their higher
rigidity, especially in processes with high shock loads such δside
as veneering.
SIDE LOAD
Of course, sealing is even more critical for roller rail guides
than for ball rail guides. This is because in a ball rail guide,
the balls can plow debris out and away from the contact
zone ... as the balls only have point contact with the raceway.
Deflection can be caused by downward, upward, or sideways
In contrast, the line contact that rollers maintain with the forces. The increased contact area of rollers gives crossed-
raceway leaves nowhere for the debris to go outside the roller designs higher stiffness (and therefore less tendency
load zone. Therefore, any amount of debris that makes its to exhibit deflection under load) than recirculating-ball linear
way into the bearing will degrade life and performance. guides in all directions.

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More on how cages in crossed-
roller linear guides work

A Studroller anti-creep mechanism from NB Corp. consists of a

studded wheel that engages a line of divots. Integrated into the
linear bearing’s roller cage, these Studrollers are about half as costly
as gear-based anti-creep mechanisms and exterior control anti-creep
devices. Plus the mechanism is compact, so doesn’t change the
geometry of the linear bearing … and incurs no redesign costs when
a Studroller-equipped linear bearing replaces a standard slideway.

A
s we’ve outlined, crossed-roller guides are non- more closely … allowing more rollers to be used in a given length.
recirculating linear bearings in which rollers are Plastic or resin cages also allow more of the roller to be exposed
oriented in a crisscross pattern. Because the rollers for contact with the raceway, which increases load capacity. The
don’t recirculate, these guides provide high load capacity and main limitation is that composite roller-retainer cages (and the
good stiffness, with smoother motion than their recirculating lubricants used with them) are generally limited to operating
bearing counterparts. Just like the ball-cage designs of some temperatures of -25° C to +85° C. Settings and applications
recirculating linear guides, crossed-roller guides also use cages. subjecting the linear bearing’s inner workings to temperatures
beyond that range can actually soften the cage material and
Cages in crossed-roller linear-bearing arrangements: limit its load capacity as well as its ability to hold the assembly
• Contain the rollers to tolerances so core to overall linear-bearing accuracy.

• Prevent metal-to-metal contact between rollers Regardless of the cage type, crossed-roller guides can
• Control the roller movement. experience what is termed cage creep. The two guides move
relative to each other and the cage floats between them. That
Some crossed-roller linear guides use metal cages to hold the means over time the cage can move or creep from its intended
rollers in two places — top and bottom. Metal cages protect center position. This is especially common in:
against contamination and are suitable for vacuum, cleanroom,
• Vertical applications
and high-temperature applications — even to 130° C in some
instances. But metal cages take up significantly more space than • Applications where the slide makes only partial strokes — not
designs made of resin or engineered plastic. the full length of the guide
• Applications with uneven loading or high acceleration
In fact, engineered-plastic cages can be molded to fit the rollers

CAGE (RETAINER)
AXIAL DISPLACEMENT
Anti-creep-mechanisms reduce axial displacement. More
SANS ANTI-CREEP
DISPLACEMENT (MM)

25 specifically, anti-creep mechanisms eliminate any slippage

MECHANISM of the cage holding the crossed rollers between the two
20 V-grooved rail raceways of the slide way.
15
Besides maintaining precise movement sans creepage,
10 downtime and maintenance and also minimized. Plus
anti-creep mechanisms let engineers use slide ways in
5 any mounting direction and alongside lower-momentum
WITH ANTI-CREEP MECHANISM
motors such as linear motors.
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
DISTANCE TRAVELLED (KM)
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 MOTION DESIGN GUIDE I CROSSED-ROLLER LINEAR GUIDES

(continued)
More on how cages in crossed-
roller linear guides work

When the cage moves from its center position, the slide’s
stroke length is likewise reduced — and the cage will hit the
Cages wrap around crossed-roller guide
rail end stop when the attempted movement exceeds the new
shortened stroke length. This causes the cage and therefore the rollers to maintain their spacing and
rollers to slide or skid as it’s forced back to its center position. prevent skidding, premature wear, and
When components slide rather than roll in this way. The result
is increased friction, heat, and wear. Torque required from the failure.Various anti-creep mechanisms
motor also increases, causing torque spikes at the end of travel. prevent axial uncentering of the cage.
There are two types of mechanisms that can prevent cage creep
in crossed-roller guides. One such anti-creep mechanism uses a
rack and pinion system — mounted internally or externally to the guide —
to maintain the correct position of the cage. Where this anti-creep
attachment is external, it usually features plastic gears outside of the rail.
Those on the inside of the rail are typically designed around metal gears.
The main drawback here is that some of these devices are quite expensive.

The other common anti-creep design uses a studded center roller that
engages with indentations machined into the rail surface to ensure the cage
stays in the correct position.

With an anti-creep mechanism, crossed-roller guides can be used in

applications with unevenly applied loads or with very high acceleration and
deceleration, and in vertical mounting configurations, without a loss of travel or
of load carrying capacity.

ONE MEDICAL-EQUIPMENT APPLICATION EXAMPLE

Linear bearings (with their frictionless motion) are a

natural complement to the digital controls of modern
automation. Consider motion-systems distributor
Motion Solutions, a supplier of electromechanical
components and systems. The distributor
designs and builds custom solutions for
OEMs and other engineering teams
needing to outsource motion designs.

In one project, Motion Solutions designed

and supplied a linear-motor positioning table to
actuate key axes on laser surgery equipment. The machine
builder’s Lasik eye surgery equipment wasn’t moving smoothly
enough, and its running parallelism was insufficient. The problem
was linear-bearing cage slippage. Despite horizontal orientation, the cage
crept as roller-bearing momentum transferred to the cage … especially
when the axis ran at full speed. An anti-cage creep mechanism was the
logical solution, according to Motion Solutions mechanical engineering This is the NB Corp. Studroller mechanism to prevent
supervisor Shawn Hakim. cage (roller retainer) creep.

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 MOTION DESIGN GUIDE I CROSSED-ROLLER LINEAR GUIDES

(continued)
More on how cages in crossed-
roller linear guides work

After comparison tests, Hakim settled on one mechanism

not using a gear. This anti-creep mechanism — the Studroller While many manufacturers’ crossed-
mechanism from NB Corp. — uses a roller with round nodules roller slides are interchangeable (and can
studded around its surface to engage in divots on the linear axis
even replace ball-bearing slides without
and prevent slippage no matter the position (vertical or horizontal)
and even if the linear bearing is subject to uneven loading. It also necessitating design changes) some
has the smoothest tracking of any anti-creep device. mechanisms to prevent cage creep can
Motion Solutions also benefitted from how the Studroller anti- require slide dimensions that deviate
creep design incurs very little additional cost — at almost half the from standard sizes.
price of other more complicated anti-creep devices. “We made
the product more cost competitive and lowered the OEM’s cost objective in the life sciences, medical, and semiconductor
by 17% … and we gave the OEM an equivalent product with manufacturing industries.
better running parallelism and 30% more force,” says Hakim.
“Plus we established processes that let us shorten the lead time The Motion Solutions linear motor table is powered by an ironless
to somewhere between two and three weeks.” core linear motor. This smooth non-contact drive avoids the
problem of force ripple (attraction force or cogging) exhibited by
While the linear motor table was initially incorporated into Lasik iron core motors. Designed for high speed positioning, the linear
eye surgery systems (to focus optics and lasers on the eye) motor tables reaches up to 2,550 mm/sec. End users can choose
its precision is also suitable in other positioning equipment from four motor sizes, three base lengths of 84, 168, or 210 mm,
necessitating high repeatability — a fairly common design and encoder resolutions from 5 μm to 10 nm.

Crossed-roller linear bearings are essential in Lasik eye-surgery

equipment and other machine designs requiring exceptional precision.

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 specifying crossed-
▼

roller linear bearings

Shown here is the assembly and inspection of Motion Solutions

W
hen an application requires a linear guide with high linear stages. These use crossed-roller slides and ironless core linear
load capacity, high stiffness, and good travel accuracy, motors for smooth non-contact actuation — to avoid the attraction
the range of suitable products is typically narrowed force cogging (force ripple) of iron core motors. Designed for high-
speed positioning, the stages reach speeds to 2,550 mm/sec. A
down to two designs: recirculating linear guides and crossed- lightweight aluminum alloy enclosure houses a linear encoder that
roller slides. supporting positioning resolution down to 10 nm.
In contrast with recirculating linear guides employing balls to
support the load, crossed-roller slides use rollers. The rollers
As mentioned earlier, recirculating linear guides are also
ride in V-shaped grooves between two parallel guides and are
available with rollers (in lieu of ball bearing elements) for higher
arranged in a crisscross pattern — each roller is turned at a 90°
load capacities and stiffness. However, such recirculating roller
angle relative to the one next to it. Hence, the term crossed-
linear guides are typically offered only in larger sizes — suitable
roller slide. The rollers are held by a metal or resin cage, similar
for heavy machining and pressing equipment.
to the caged ball or ball chain design of most recirculating
linear guides. Unlike recirculating guides, the static and dynamic coefficients
of friction for crossed-roller slides can be very similar, which
While recirculating guides and crossed-roller slides both provide
minimizes the effects of stiction. This makes crossed-roller slides
high load capacities and rigidity, crossed-roller slides typically
excellent for applications such as cameras and microscopes that
outperform recirculating linear guides in both areas. This is
require minute motions.
due to the line contact that rollers have with the raceways,
as opposed to the point contact that balls experience. The Correctly applied and preloaded linear bearings can deliver
increased contact area of the rollers also gives crossed-roller running speeds to a few m/sec and accelerations to 20 m/sec2
designs higher stiffness and, therefore, less deflection under and beyond. The geometry of the rollers and their cage
load, than recirculating linear guides. However, crossed-roller greatly affect maximum acceleration. For example, some cage
slides are less forgiving of imprecise mounting surfaces. This is and roller geometries allow up to 100 m/sec2 … and even
one reason why crossed-roller designs are well-suited for use higher accelerations and running speeds are possible with
in linear stages — since stages are characterized by precise the appropriately engineered rollers, lubricant, and load and
mounting surfaces and extremely flat and accurate travel. bearing preload.

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 MOTION DESIGN GUIDE I CROSSED-ROLLER LINEAR GUIDES

(continued)
specifying crossed-
roller linear bearings
BEARING HOUSING

As briefly mentioned earlier in this Design Guide, crossed-roller CYLINDRICAL

linear bearings necessitate a light preloading to prevent the ROLLERS
rollers from sliding on the rail raceways. That’s a particularly
likely risk when the axis is very dynamic — and runs at high
accelerations and speeds. BASE

One common industry standard requires a minimum preload that

is 2% of the linear bearing’s dynamic load rating.
Linear-bearing manufacturers publish tables that indicate the
right levels of preload for given applications. These values are
adjustable through setscrews on the linear bearing’s carriage.
A related linear-bearing characteristic is that of rigidity — the
external load to the elastic deflection it causes in N/μm. The In some crossed-roller slides, the bearing carriage housing contains the
linear bearing’s elastic deflection is dictated by system assembly rolling bearing elements that move a finite distance along a base.
geometries and preload, the external load’s magnitude and
direction, and the bearing’s surrounding structure.
The high load capacity and smooth motion of crossed-roller
LINEAR BEARING LOAD RATINGS slides often make them the leading option for short-stroke
applications needing µm or nm positioning — such as axes in
We have covered general equation of effective load ratings for semiconductor and electronics manufacturing machinery and
various linear bearings in previous Design Guides. It should be stages for inspection. Because there’s little difference between
noted that for crossed-roller linear guides, such ratings as well static and dynamic friction coefficients for crossed-roller slides,
as life are typically expressed for a given load orientation and these precision rail guides also excel on axes needing frequent
number of rollers per some unit length. Refer to linearmotiontips. stops and starts while executing very short strokes — as in
com for more on the maximum permissible load as well as iso.org cameras and microscopes, for example. Line contact between
for more information. In general, a linear bearing’s dynamic mean raceway and roller minimizes deformation and boosts load
load should be half (or smaller) its dynamic load rating. Otherwise, capacity for reliable short-stroke operation … even in very
the linear bearing will experience shortened design life. dynamic applications … even to 100 million cycles and beyond.

CROSSED-ROLLER
LINEAR BEARING ASSEMBLY

Crossed-roller
bearings don’t
exhibit the
oscillations and
vibrations associated
with recirculating
bearings entering
and exiting load
zones. This provides
extremely smooth
and quiet motion.

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Abbé error and how it
affects linear systems
W
hen evaluating the accuracy of a linear motion Angular errors — commonly referred to as roll, pitch, and yaw
system, the area of focus is often the positioning — are unwanted motions due to the rotation of a linear system
accuracy and repeatability of the drive mechanism. around its three axes.
But there are many factors that contribute to the accuracy (or
inaccuracy) of a linear system, including linear errors, angular If a system is moving horizontally along the X axis, as shown
errors, and Abbé errors. Of these three types, Abbé errors are below, pitch is defined as rotation around the Y axis, yaw is
probably the most difficult to measure, quantify, and prevent, rotation around the Z axis, and roll is rotation around the X axis.
but they can be the most significant cause of undesirable
Errors in roll, pitch, and yaw typically result from inaccuracies in
results in machining, measuring, and high-precision positioning
the guide system, but mounting surfaces and methods can also
applications.
be sources of angular errors. For example, mounting surfaces
Abbé errors begin as angular errors: Abbé errors are caused that are not precisely machined, components that are not
by the combination of angular errors in the motion system sufficiently fastened, or even varying rates of thermal expansion
and the offset between the point of interest — for tooling or between the system and its mounting surface can all contribute
the transport of load — and the origin of the error such as the to angular errors greater than those inherent in the linear
linear-axis screw or guideway. guides themselves.

ERROR TYPES IN LINEAR ACTUATION

Y

X
LINEAR ERRORS OCCUR ON X ...
AS WELL AS Y AND Z ON CARTESIAN SYSTEMS. Angular errors include roll (rotation
about the X axis) and pitch (rotation
about the Y axis) and yaw (rotation
ABBE ERRORS INCLUDE about the Z axis).
YAW, PITCH, AND ROLL.

THRUST FORCE LOAD

PLANAR ERRORS AFFECT ADJACENT AXES ...

YAW

ROLL STRAIGHTNESS
PITCH

THRUST FORCE
FLATNESS

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 MOTION DESIGN GUIDE I CROSSED-ROLLER LINEAR GUIDES

(continued)
Abbé error and how it
affects linear systems

YAW, PITCH, AND ROLL

120 Manufacturers’ precise machining of
MOMENT ARM (MM)

100 ROLL crossed-roller linear bearings’ top and

bottom mounting surfaces ensure flatness
80 and parallelism … though it falls to the
60 installer to mount crossed-roller slides to
suitably rigid and flat surfaces.
40

20 YAW AND PITCH

0 100 200 300 400 500

FORCE (N)

Note that crossed-roller linear bearings are particularly sensitive For overhung loads, the farther the load is from the cause of
to mounting errors. Their rigidity and accuracy make them the angular error the higher the Abbé error will be. The cause
less forgiving than other options of mounting inaccuracies. of the angular error is typically the guideway or a point on the
That’s why many linear-bearing manufacturers recommend only mounting surface.
mounting crossed-roller variations to honed surfaces expected
to exhibit no more than a few micrometers of deflection. What’s more, Abbé errors for multi-axis configurations are even
more complex because they’re compounded by the presence
Abbé errors are especially problematic because they amplify of angular errors in each axis.
what, in most cases, are very small angular errors, increasing in
magnitude as the distance from the error-causing component The best methods for minimizing Abbé errors are to use high-
(referred to as the Abbé offset) increases. Abbé offset h precision guides and to ensure that mounting surfaces are
dictates the amount of Abbé error δ as expressed: sufficiently machined — so they don’t introduce additional
inaccuracies to the system. Reducing the Abbé offset by
δ = h · tan θ moving the load as close as possible to the center of the system
will also minimize Abbé errors.

Abbé errors are most accurately measured with a laser

Final note: Crossed-roller slides are interferometer or other optical device that is completely
sometimes considered alongside air independent of the system. But laser interferometers aren’t

bearings. Although air bearings deliver

practical for most setups, so linear encoders are used in many
applications where Abbé error is a concern. In this case, the
extremely smooth motion and high load most accurate measurements of Abbé error are achieved when
capacity, they’re incapable of providing the encoder read head is mounted on the point of interest such
the same stiffness as mechanical bearing- as the tooling or the load.

based linear slides. XY tables are less susceptible to Abbé errors than other types
of multi-axis systems such as Cartesian robots. That’s primarily
Air bearings are also fundamentally more because they minimize the amount of cantilevered travel and

expensive and complicated to operate,

typically operate with the load located at the center of the Y
axis carriage.
requiring multiple components (such as
compressors, filters, tubing, and fittings)
to handle air preparation and delivery to
the bearing surface.

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TOPBALL® Ultimate´s Advantages

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Toll Free: (800) 521-2045 Toll Free: (888) 562-4175 Toll Free: (800) 981-8190

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