Course on Transport Phenomena

Professor Sunando DasGupta

Department of Chemical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Module No 2
Lecture 09
Equations of Change for Isothermal Systems

We are going to start with something new this morning. So far what we have seen is that using a
simplified shell momentum balance it is possible to account for all the forces acting on the
different surfaces of the shell and we can express the convective momentum that comes into the
system, the conductive momentum, in other words, the molecular transport of momentum or the
shear stress which is acting on the lateral surfaces of the of the control volume. We have also
identified that the forces which can act on such a control volume would be the surface forces and
body forces. And in our example so far we have seen pressure force is the only surface force and
gravity as the body force. If the system is at steady state, then we understand that the sum total of
all these, that is rate of momentum in by two different mechanisms, minus rate of momentum out
plus some of all forces acting on the system must be zero in order to maintain the steady state.

So this gives us a different situation where the smaller dimension is allowed to approach zero. In
other words we have used the definition of the 1st derivative when let’s say ∆x → 0 . The
definition of the 1st derivative would give rise to a differential equation too. So that differential
equation describes the laminar motion of fluid layers slipping past one another. It’s at steady-
state and there are no unbalanced forces acting on the system. Many of our everyday examples
are at steady-state and it is possible to use this shell momentum balance to obtain concrete
expressions for velocity for such systems. We have used the case of flow through a pipe, and we
have seen how the velocity varies as the function of radius. All these cases that we have analyzed
are one-dimensional flow.

So for example in the case of flow through a vertical tube, on the application of pressure
difference and gravity, the velocity was a function of radius but it was not a function of the axial
distance which is z. So velocity at a fixed r location and velocity at some other value of z at the
same r location, these two velocities are same. So the velocity does not vary axially, it only
varies radially. And we have also found out that the velocity distribution was parabolic in nature
with the maximum at the central line and from the expression of the velocity, when we get the
parameter of interest, in this case at every point in the flow domain we could differentiate this
velocity profile and if this is a Newtonian fluid, then we understand that the shear stress is simply
going to be τ =− µ × velocity gradient at some specific value of R, where R is the radius of the
tube

So with this approach, we did find what is the wall shear stress exerted by the fluid on the walls
of the tube. And we also derived what will be the formula for average velocity. This is axial
average velocity, velocity across an area which is perpendicular to the direction of motion. So
it’s the cross-sectional area of the tube across which we average the velocity and we have
obtained an expression for the average velocity. This average velocity profile multiplied by the
area would give us the volumetric flow rate. That’s the well-known Hagen-Poiseuille equation.
So there are some few other examples that we have solved in previous classes- the flow along an
inclined plate or the flow along the outer wall of a tube where the flow comes from below,
comes to the top of the tube, spills over and starts to fall along the outer side walls of the tube.

Progressively what we have seen is that the approach that we have used so far is appropriate for
simple systems, where the flow is one-dimensional, laminar, steady and the geometry is rather
straightforward but the problems soon start to creep in when these conditions are not met. So we
have increasingly felt the need to formalize our treatment of transport through any system even
at unsteady state cases. In order to do that, one must first start with some of 2 or 3 basic
definitions of how do we define the derivatives of a system in this class and the next class, I will
talk about what is going to be the partial time derivative, the total time derivative and the
substantial time derivative. These are important concepts which must be clarified before we get
into the next part which is the simple continuity equation. I will not talk about the entire
derivation in this class, I will tell you the textbook where its available. And then we will go into
the equation of motion or a special form of equation of motion of a fluid which is known as the
Navier Stokes equation. Now once we have been Navier Stokes equations with us, then we
would see that all the problems that we have handled so far can be handled quite easily by
choosing the appropriate Navier Stokes equation for the flow situation. And once that’s done, we
will solve a few more involved problems and then move into the next chapter.
We will now start the topic of our today’s lecture, the equations of change for isothermal
systems. Now when we talk about equations of change, there are certain definition which needs
to be clarified. You are trying to measure something as a function of time and depending on
where you are, what are you doing, the values of the quantity that you measure as a function of
time can greatly vary. So I will try to give you an example so that you can have a clearer
understanding of these different derivatives.

Let’s see, you pick the busiest intersection of some place in your town where roads have come
from all sides at that crossing. Now you are standing right at the centre of this intersection and
you have been told that please count the number of people who are wearing a blue shirt. So you
are standing at the middle of a crossing and counting people who are wearing blue shirt. You are
static at that point and you are measuring the number of such people as a function of time. So
every second you try to see how many blue shirts you can see while you are stuck at a position.
So you are at the centre of the reference frame which is static and any quantity that you measure
∂c
as a function of time is known as the partial time derivative, where c denotes the number of
∂t
persons who are wearing a blue shirt, variation of that with respect to time where x, y, z are
constant. You are right at the centre of the intersection and measuring what is the value of c.
Now let’s say you are, while standing there for some time, you are definitely bound to get bored.
So you get bored and you have decided that you are not going to be at that intersection for a long
time. I need to walk around a bit in the area where I am trying to count the number of persons
with a blue shirt. So you start to move around. You have a velocity of your own. So you can go
in any direction that you want with some velocity. You would still being a very conscious
walker, counting the number of persons with a blue shirt. But since now you have a velocity of
your own, the numbers that you are counting would definitely be different had you been struck to
the place where x, y, z are constant. So if you measure the number of people while standing at
the intersection and if you measure the number of people while you start to move around with a
velocity of your own, these two numbers must be different. So when you measure the variation
of the number of people wearing blue shirt as a function of time while you have a velocity of
dc
your own, by definition its known as the total time derivative which is denoted by and this
dt
dc dc ∂c ∂c dx ∂c dy ∂c dz dx dy dy
is simply expressed as =+ + + where , and are the
dt dt ∂t ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt dt dt dt
components of your velocity. Obviously the velocity of you will have an impact on the numbers
dc
that you count and that’s why it is called the total time derivative and expressed as .
dt

The next one is just an extension of the previous one. How long you can stand so you decided to
move with a velocity. How long you can move around? At some point of time, you get tired and
being a busy intersection, there is a lot of crowd which is going in all possible directions. So at
some point of time, you decide that I had enough, let’s I will simply float with the crowd. No
matter which way the maximum number of people are moving, I will move with them with their
average velocity and I will always move with the velocity of the prevailing crowd at that point of
time. But you are still counting the number of persons with the blue shirt. So now you do not
have a velocity of your own. Whatever be the local fluid velocity, that is the velocity of the
reference frame and the numbers that you are counting is some sort of time derivative of the
number of persons where the reference frame moves with the fluid with its average velocity. Or
it can also be said that it is a derivative following the motion. So this is generally called the
substantial time derivative. In essence, it is a derivative following the the motion of the fluid and
Dc ∂c ∂c ∂c ∂c
it is expressed as = + vx + vy + vz where vx, vy, and vz are the velocities of the fluid
Dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
at that instant of time.
 dx dy dy
So mark the difference between these two. So , and are velocities of you and you have
dt dt dt
decided to move with these velocities whereas vx, vy, and vz are that of the fluid surrounding you,
so you let go yourself and float with the fluid and the numbers that you count are now known as
the substantial time derivative or the derivative following the motion. So the concepts are
important in our subsequent development where we find out what is partial time derivative where
this stationary frame is fixed, the total time derivative where the reference frame has a velocity
of its own and the substantial time derivative where the reference frame has the velocity as that
of the fluid.

Now we are in a position to derive what is going to be the equation of continuity. An equation of
continuity is nothing but a statement of conservation of mass. So if I define a control volume in
space, fixed in space and allow fluid to come in and go out through all the possible faces, then
the rate of mass of fluid coming in − the rate of mass of fluid that is going out =
the rate of accumulation of mass

inside the control volume. So this is nothing but the statement of conservation of mass and we
are going to derive the equation of continuity for a system with a Cartesian coordinate system
and the dimensions of the volume is simply going to be del x, del y and del z. So it’s a box
where, whose dimensions are ∆x∆y∆z . It’s placed in a flow and the liquid is coming in through
the x face, y face and z face and through the faces x + ∆x, y + ∆y, z + ∆z , the fluid leaves the
control volume. And as a result of this, there’s going to be some amount of mass accumulation, if
possible, within the system. So we are going to write the balance equation for such a system and
derive the equation of continuity.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:07)

In order to derive the equation of continuity, the way we are going to start it, we define a
coordinate system x, y, z and we have, as I mentioned before, a box and the area of the box is
let’s say ∆x∆y∆z . So some amount of mass is coming in here through the x face and the mass is
going out through x + ∆x face. So the x face is defined as the face which has area ∆y∆z .
Similarly the face whose area is ∆x∆z is known as the y face and I have a y + ∆y face on the
other side and the z face has areas of ∆x∆y .

So we are going to write the amount of mass which comes in through all these faces. The rate of
mass in through x face can simply be obtained as ρ vx x ∆y∆z , has unit of kg/s. Therefore this

quantity gives you the time rate of mass in through the x face and the rate of mass out through
the face would be ρ vx x +∆x
∆y∆z , kg/s. So ρ vx is the mass flux, kg/m2s. So this mass flux when

multiplied by the corresponding area, would give you kg/s or the rate of mass coming in to the
control volume. As a result of so you are going to have three in terms and the three out terms.
The in are at x, y and z face, the out are going to be at x + ∆x, y + ∆y, z + ∆z faces. There would
be some amount of accumulation inside the system. So your governing equation is
rate of mass=
accumulation rate of mass in − rate of mass out .

What is rate of mass accumulation? In order to have a mass circulation inside the system, the
∂ρ
density of it must change. So this is the change in density of the fluid contained within the
∂t
 ∂ρ
control volume. The unit of is kg/m3s. So this must be multiplied with ∆x∆y∆z to make it
∂t
∂ρ
kg/s. Therefore, ∆x∆y∆z gives you the time rate of mass accumulation of inside the control
∂t
volume.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:41)

So the left-hand side is going to be equated to the right-hand side and what you get is

∂ρ
∆x∆y∆z =∆y∆z ( ρ vx ) x − ( ρ vx ) x +∆x  + ∆x∆z ( ρ v y ) − ( ρ v y )  + ∆x∆y ( ρ v ) − ( ρ v )


z z +∆z 
∂t  y 
y +∆y 
z z

So in difference term, this is essentially what is known as the conservation of mass. So the
obvious next step would be to divide both sides by ∆x∆y∆z and taking the limit when all
∆x∆y∆z → 0 . You get the definition of the 1st derivative and the expression would simply

∂ρ ∂ ∂ ∂ 
be −  ( ρ vx ) + ( ρ v y ) + ( ρ vz )  . Please note that I did not take the ρ outside because
=
∂t  ∂x ∂y ∂z 
I did not yet put the special condition that the flow is incompressible. So I am allowing the flow
to be both either compressible or incompressible. Now this expression can be expressed in a
∂ρ
more compact form which is =−( ρ∇v) , ρ is kg/m3 and v is m/s. So this is essentially kg/m2s
∂t
which is the mass flux, a vector. So this is the divergence of mass flux vector that must be equal
to the time rate of change of density inside the control volume. So that’s one way of expressing
the equation of continuity or the conservation of mass.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:45)

If you can expand the terms of the equation of continuity

∂ρ ∂ ∂ ∂ 
−  ( ρ vx ) + ( ρ v y ) + ( ρ vz )  ,
= the expression will be
∂t  ∂x ∂y ∂z 

∂ρ  ∂ρ ∂v ∂ρ ∂v ∂ρ ∂v 
=
−  vx + ρ x + vy + ρ y + vz + ρ z  by expanding the derivatives.
∂t  ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z 

∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ
Now if I bring the terms vx , vy and vz to the left-hand side, it would simply be
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ  ∂v ∂v y ∂vz 
+ vx + vy + vz −ρ  x +
= +  . If you look at the left-hand side carefully, it
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z  ∂x ∂y ∂z 
is nothing but what we have written as the expression for the substantial time derivative,
Dc ∂c ∂c ∂c ∂c
= + vx + vy + vz , replace c by ρ and you will get this expression. So the expanded
Dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
Dρ
continuity equation can be expressed as =− ρ (∇v) . This is another form of equation of
Dt
continuity where the ρ is expressed in substantial derivative form.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:16)

So the two common forms that you would get for the case of equation of continuity, one is
∂ρ
=−( ρ∇v) which is partial time derivative and is equal to the divergence of the mass flux
∂t
Dρ
vector and the other one is =− ρ (∇v) , the substantial derivative of density is equal to
Dt
− ρ (∇v) . So this continuity equation plays a very important role in transport phenomena
because it tells you about nothing but a statement of conservation of mass. So
rate of mass=
accumulation rate of mass in − rate of mass out inside the control volume.

But there is a special form of equation of continuity with which we are mostly concerned, which
are more common, they are known as the equation of continuity for an incompressible fluid. An
incompressible fluid is the one in which the density (ρ) remains constant. It is not a function of x,
y or z. So if the density is constant, an incompressible fluid, then if you look at the expression
Dρ ∂v ∂v ∂v
=− ρ (∇v) , it would give you (∇v) =
0 or in other words, x + y + z =
0 . So this is the
Dt ∂x ∂y ∂z
form of the continuity equation for incompressible fluid where ρ is a constant.

So we have done the equation of continuity. In the coming class we are going to do the equation
of motion and once we have the equation of continuity and equation of motion clear in your
mind, then you would be able to solve almost any problem of momentum transfer, at least you
will be able to formulate the problem. Whether or not an analytic solution is possible that we
have to see on a case-by-case basis. For each case, it may not be possible to obtain an analytic
solution and we may have to resort to other techniques including numerical techniques but this
would give you the tool at least to get the the governing equation correct. And the expression for
continuity equation which I have shown you is basically for the Cartesian coordinate systems.
You have seen similar such relations of equation of continuity for cylindrical systems and for
spherical systems. So if you look at any textbook, you would see the expression for equation of
continuity in all three possible coordinate systems. This part what I am teaching you right now is
clearly mentioned in Bird, Stewart and Lightfoot book on transport phenomena. So the equation
of continuity in cartesian coordinate as well as in cylindrical coordinate and in spherical
coordinate, they all are provided in this this text and whatever be your system, depending on that,
we choose the appropriate expression for the equation of continuity. So next class, we will get
into the equation of motion.