MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING DESIGN, ART AND TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF CONSTRUCTION ECONOMICS AND

MANAGEMENT

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN QUANTITY SURVEYING

QUS 4105: CONSTRUCTION PROJECT MANAGEMENT

YEAR FOUR

FACILITATOR: MR. AINOMUGISHA SAFIK

GROUP TWO

NAME REGISTRATION NUMBER

ALELE PHILLIPS 20/U/0574

OYEET ERIDADI 20/U/0578

KASOZ RIDHA 20/U/21382/PS

SEMUJJU ALLAN 20/U/2126/PS

PABIRE DERICK GANDHI 20/U/2106/PS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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TABLE OF FIGURES.....................................................................................................................2

1.0 PROJECT CONTROL SYSTEMS............................................................................................1

1.1 Activities under project control.................................................................................................1

1.2 Key elements of control.............................................................................................................2

1.3 Benefits of project controls........................................................................................................3

1.4 Planning.....................................................................................................................................4

1.4.1 Planning methodologies..........................................................................................................5

1.4.2 The planning process..............................................................................................................6

1.5 Organizing.................................................................................................................................7

1.5.1 Organization Structure............................................................................................................7

1.6 Motivation..................................................................................................................................9

1.6.1 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation........................................................................................10

1.6.2 Nature and characteristics of motivation..............................................................................10

1.6.3 Types of motivation..............................................................................................................11

1.6.4 Motivation theories...............................................................................................................12

1.7 Cost control..............................................................................................................................13

1.7.1 Purpose of cost control.........................................................................................................14

1.7.2 Main aspects of cost control.................................................................................................14

1.7.3 Enablers of project cost control............................................................................................14

1.7.4 Cost control process and activities.......................................................................................16

1.7.5 Cost Control techniques........................................................................................................17

1.9.1 Time Control Process...........................................................................................................28

1.9.2 Time Planning and Control Technique.................................................................................29

1.9.3 Factors that influence poor time management on construction sites....................................30

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 1.10 How control systems would be applied by a construction manager to renovate Makerere
university main building................................................................................................................31

1.10.1 Background.........................................................................................................................31

1.10.2 Solution to the question......................................................................................................31

APPENDICES...............................................................................................................................35

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 TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1: The functional structure...................................................................................................8
Figure 2: The Divisional structure...................................................................................................8
Figure 3: The Matrix Structure........................................................................................................9
Figure 5:Network Structure.............................................................................................................9
Figure 6 showing the main aspects of cost control........................................................................22
Figure 7showing cost control enablers..........................................................................................23
Figure 8 Showing mostly used cost control techniques.................................................................24
Figure 9 Showing a Gantt chart.....................................................................................................24
Figure 10Showing a PERT/COST.................................................................................................25
Figure 11 Showing a graph of earned value analysis....................................................................25
Figure 12 showing earned value analysis......................................................................................26
Figure 13 showing a graph of earned value analysis.....................................................................26

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 1.0 PROJECT CONTROL SYSTEMS
Project control can be defined as the application of processes to measure project performance
against the project plan, to enable variances, to be identified and corrected, so that project
objectives are achieved. Project controls are repeatable processes for measuring project
status, forecasting likely outcomes based on those measurements and then improving project
performance if those projected outcomes are unacceptable.

In terms of construction projects, time and cost are two of the essential areas that stand out when
it comes to control (Cooke & Williams, 2004). The main objective of project control is to
minimize the variance in costs and schedule from what was originally planned.

Project Control Systems are the data collecting, data management and analytical procedures used
to guess, acknowledge, and constructively impact the time and cost outcomes of a project or
program; through the communication of information in formats that evaluate actual management
and decision making.

A project control system aims to minimize the gap between project planning and project
execution in order to achieve project aims that is cost, time, and quality.

In construction projects, the aim of project control is to ensure projects finish on time, within
budget, and achieve other project objectives.

Over time, numerous project control methods have been developed and adopted by project
managers in practice. These however focus on describing what the processes and tasks of project
control and not necessarily how they should be conducted. Also a potential gap between
principles that underlies these methods and project control practice exist thus time and cost
overruns are still common in construction projects.

1.1 Activities under project control

 Aligning projects with organization goals and objectives.

 Developing a work-breakdown structure (WBS).

 Collaborating on initial project schedules

 Developing a risk management plan.

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 Project budgeting and forecasting.

 Monitoring project costs.

 Feedback and reporting.

 Optimizing project strategies to enable better outcomes in the future.

1.2 Key elements of control

On this basis the elements of Project Control systems are to do with calculating and monitoring
controlling variables, these are generally cost and time aspects:

 Planning and Scheduling

 Risk Management (includes identification & assessment)

 Cost estimating and management

 Scope and Change Management

 Earned Value Management (EVM) is a way to measure and monitor the level of work
completed on a project against the plan.

 Document Control

 Supplier Performance

 Maintaining the project baseline

 Reporting

Other project variables include

Quality: Quality control must be performed throughout the life cycle of a project. It ensures that
the performance of a project conforms to specifications and meets the requirements and
expectations of the project stakeholders and participants. The objective of quality control is to
minimize deviation from project plans.

Resources: Resource inputs at the project site which produce outputs in the form of work
include: men, materials, machinery and money. The success of a project depends upon the

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performance of these input resources when controlling costs. The clients should do everything
possible to avoid unnecessary delays as it is one of the leading causes of cost escalation.

One of the big problems on most building sites is the large amount of materials wastage due to
varying circumstances. This problem requires a supervisor to constantly be on the lookout for the
losses. Study reveals that, wastage of materials can take place during the procurement process,
storage, and during utilization.

Performance. According to Adedeji Badiru (2012), as much as measurement of performance is

not always possible, we must still attempt to measure project characteristics so as to apply
control actions where needed.

Performance control involves three separate sets of procedures each labelled as a different sub-
specialty. That is Performance analysis that encompasses a set of diagnostic exercises
performed on information obtained during performance recording. Change optimization uses the
assessments reached during performance analysis to identify and select appropriate responses to
changes in scope, conditions, or execution approach.

Whether the full impact of such changes is transparent at the site level, performance analysis will
reveal their presence. Performance advisement entails the communication of those decisions in
the form of performance control reports and consulting. Techniques for measuring project
performance include the following;

 Work study: The Systematic examination of tasks so as to improve the effective use of human
and other material resources.

 Work measurement: It’s the measurement of time required to perform a task so that an output
standard of production for a worker and or a machine can be established.

 Method study: It’s a technique used to record work procedures to provide systems of
analysis and develop improvements in the application of the methodology.

1.3 Benefits of project controls

 Reduced project costs through ability to make timely decisions using key performance
indicators.

 Increased project predictability for cost and completion date.

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 Increased visibility into the financial health of the project as it progresses.

 Ability to mitigate project scope creep.

 Meaningful benchmarking data for future projects via well-structured projects.

 Competitive advantage over organizations with less mature project management capabilities.

 Increased job satisfaction for project team members.

1.4 Planning
Planning is a managerial function that involves deciding in advance what to be done that is
looking ahead. Planning is the process of devising a workable scheme of operations that, when
put into action, will accomplish an established objective (Sears & Et al, 2008).

Planning is concerned with the determination of the objectives to be achieved and course of
action to be followed to achieve them. Before any operative action takes place it is necessary to
decide what, where, when and who shall do the things. Planning determines both long-term and
short-term objectives and also of the individual departments as well as the entire organization
(Murthy, Management principles and practices, 2007).

Planning requires an intimate knowledge of construction methods combined with the ability to
visualize discrete work elements and to establish their mutual interdependencies. Planning
involves a depth and thoroughness of study that gives the construction team an invaluable
understanding and appreciation of job requirements.

Construction Planning is a fundamental & challenging activity in the management & execution
of construction projects. A good construction plan is the basis for developing the budget &
schedule for work. For example the extent to which sub-contractors will be used on a project is
often determined during construction planning.

Construction planning, as well as scheduling, must be done by people who are experienced in,
and thoroughly familiar with, the type of field work involved. Therefore, the people doing the
planning are in the best position to manage the work.

A plan is a predetermined course of action to achieve a specified goal. It is a statement of

objectives to be achieved by certain means in the future. In short, it is a blueprint for action.

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In construction, plans may exist at several levels: corporate strategic plans, pre-tender plans, pre-
contract plans, short-term construction plans, and long-term construction plans. These plans are
different from each other; however, all these plans involve five main steps as indicated below
(Sears & Et al, 2008).

i. A determination of the general approach to the project.

ii. Breakdown of the project into job steps or ‘‘activities’’ that must be performed.

iii. Ascertainment of the sequential relationships among these activities.

iv. Graphic presentation of this planning information in the form of a network.

v. Endorsement by the project team.

1.4.1 Planning methodologies

1.4.1.1 Beginning-end planning

This breaks the job into steps or activities, starting with mobilization of the project, and proceeds
step by step through the project to completion. This method presumes some level of detail from
the beginning or starts with limited detail and adds detail as planning proceeds.

For many practitioners, projects are visualized in the order in which they will be built. Therefore,
in planning a project, it is natural to start with mobilization and proceed step by step through the
project to final inspection. This method of planning from beginning to end typically requires a
predetermination of who will be using the network and the level of detail they will require.

For example in a highway bridge project, a project team would probably begin with the field
operations, then move in followed by excavation of abutment then Pile driving abutment. Soon a
series of procurement activities is required to provide the materials necessary for construction
and so on (Sears & Et al, 2008).

1.4.1.2 Top-down planning

Top-down planning or work breakdown structure, starts with the overall project, breaking it into
its major pieces, then breaking the major pieces into their component pieces. This process
continues until the pieces are of sufficient detail to satisfy the complexity of the project. Both

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methods arrive at the same result or job activities that can be used to form a graphical logic
diagram (Rodolfo siles, 2004)

Top-down planning starts with an examination of the project from an overall perspective. In the
case of the Example Project, it would be viewed first as a dam project. The dam project is made
up of a number of major segments: the earth dam, Highway Bridge, and pipeline relocation. The
earth dam is made up of a number of segments including borrow pit development, haul road
construction, river diversion, and others (Sears & Et al, 2008). Top-down planning is often
accomplished using a project outline called a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS), which can be
made manually or with the use of a computer outliner in the scheduling software, a spreadsheet,
or a word processing program.

1.4.2 The planning process

 Determination of Objectives which must be smart and clear in that every member of the
organization should be familiar with these objectives.

 Forecasting: Forecasting is a systematic attempt to probe into the future by inference from
known facts relating to the past and the present. Scientific techniques of data collection,
analysis and inference can be used to predict the future.

 Determining Alternative course of Action that could also be applied to the same situation.

 Evaluating Alternative Courses: Having sought out alternative courses and examined their
strong and weak points, the next step is to evaluate them by weighing the various factors.

 Selecting the Best: The next step - selecting the course of action is the point at which the plan
is adopted. It is the real point of decision-making.

 Establishing the sequence of activities: After the best program. Is decided upon, the next task
is to work out its details and formulate the steps in full sequences.

 Formulation of Action Programs: There are three important constituents of an action plan
that is the time-limit of performance, the allocation of tasks to individual employees. The
time-table or schedule of work so that the functional objectives are achieved within the
predetermined period.

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 Reviewing the planning process: Through feedback mechanism, an attempt is made to
compare the actual performance with the plan and then taking necessary correction action.

1.5 Organizing
According to (Murthy, Management Principles and Practice, 2009), Louis A. Allen defined
organizing as a process that involves the identification, grouping, and distribution of the
activities to be carried out among the individuals and establishment of authority and
responsibility. It is the role of the Project manager to perform the task of organizing every aspect
of the project.

The division of labor among individuals requires coordination of their efforts in order to attain
predetermined goals and carry out predetermined strategies. Several crucial measures are
required in order to build a strong organization within the construction sector. The project's
objectives, including its aims and desired results, must first and foremost be clearly defined.
After that, tasks, processes, and workflows are carefully categorized to ensure effective project
management. After that, roles are assigned to people or groups to make it clear who is in charge
of what part of the project. A streamlined decision-making process and agile project execution
are promoted at the same time by delegation of authority to enable these accountable
stakeholders to act as decision-makers within the parameters of their assigned tasks. These
actions taken together lay the groundwork for a strong construction organization, optimizing
performance and ensuring project success.

1.5.1 Organization Structure

By indicating who reports to whom, an organizational structure demonstrates the connections of
authority and responsibility among the various positions within the organization. Establishing a
suitable structure for the actions aimed at achieving goals is part of an organization. There is a
well-established pattern of interaction between the organization's parts. (Murthy, Management
Principles and Practice, 2009)

There are five ways in which an organizational structure can be laid and they are briefly
discussed below:

1.5.1.1 Functional structure

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The functional structure divides workers into groups according to their areas of specialization
and job duties, such as marketing, finance, or production. Benefits include easy supervision,
clear career routes, and effective use of specialist skills. However, it may result in departmental
silos, poor communication, and a lack of emphasis on the broader objectives of the firm. Making
decisions can take time, and there might not be much leeway to change course when
circumstances change.

Figure 1: The functional structure

1.5.1.2 Divisional structure

Because managers in large companies may have difficulty keeping track of all their company’s
products and activities, specialized departments may develop. The grouping of these departments
is called a Divisional structure. Divisional structures divide the business into independent
divisions, each in charge of a certain product line, geographic area, or consumer segment. This
organizational structure encourages innovation and specialization within divisions, enabling
them to quickly adapt to regional market conditions. The fact that each division could have its
own resources and tasks, nevertheless, can lead to duplication and inefficiency. Activities
between divisions might be difficult to coordinate, and this could encourage rivalry rather than
collaboration.

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 Figure 2: The Divisional structure

1.5.1.3 Matrix structure

Matrix structures combine divisional and functional elements to offer flexibility and knowledge.
Functional managers and project or product managers both receive reports from the workforce.
This organizational structure encourages resource management that is effective across functional
boundaries. The downsides include additional administrative burden, disagreements between the
dual reporting lines, and a misunderstanding of duties and responsibilities. Some employees may
be overwhelmed by the matrix's complexity.

Figure 3: The Matrix Structure

Figure.4: Typical Matrix structure (Source (H arold Kerzner, 2017))

1.5.1.4 Network structure

Network structures depend on specialist teams and outside alliances. This strategy may result in
cost savings and provide access to specialized knowledge. Because firms can easily adjust by
creating or severing partnerships, it promotes agility and scalability. However, it could lead to

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diminished control over outside partners, difficulty keeping a consistent organizational culture,
and difficulties coordinating partner interests with the organization's objectives. In a networked
setting, coordination and communication can both be challenging.

Figure 5: Network Structure

1.6 Motivation
Motivation is the force that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-directed behaviors. It is a
fundamental aspect of human psychology and has a direct influence on one's ability to plan and
organize tasks efficiently. In this article, we will discuss the ways in which motivation serves as
a tool for effective planning and organizing.

Motivation is the process of stimulating people to perform their tasks with enthusiasm and
commitment. It can influence the quality, productivity, and satisfaction of project team members
and stakeholders (Kerzner, 2017).

It can therefore be deduced that Motivation plays a crucial role in managing construction tasks,
projects, and activities. It serves as a driving force that encourages individuals to set goals,
allocate resources effectively, and maintain focus on their objectives

Motivation can be affected by various factors, such as individual needs, goals, expectations,
rewards, recognition, feedback, autonomy, empowerment, and leadership style (Kerzner, 2017).

Motivation can be classified into two types: intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation comes
from within the individual, such as personal interest, enjoyment, or challenge. Extrinsic
motivation comes from external sources, such as money, praise, or punishment (Kerzner, 2017).

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1.6.1 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic motivation refers to the internal drive and satisfaction individuals derive from
completing a task or achieving a goal. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation stems from
external rewards or pressures, such as monetary incentives or social recognition. Both intrinsic
and extrinsic motivation can be harnessed to enhance planning and organization.

1.6.2 Nature and characteristics of motivation

Psychologists generally agree that all behavior is motivated, and that people have reasons for
doing the things they do or for behaving in the manner that they do. Motivating is the work a
manager performs to inspire, encourage and impel people to take required action.

According to Aquinas (2007), the process of motivation is characterized by the following:-

 Motivation is an Internal Feeling: Motivation is a psychological phenomenon which

generates in the mind of an individual the feeling that he lacks certain things and needs those
things. Motivation is a force within an individual that drives him to behave in a certain way.

 Motivation is Related to Needs: Needs are deficiencies which are created whenever there is
a physiological or psychological imbalance. In order to motivate a person, we have to
understand his needs that call for satisfaction.

 Motivation Produces Goal-Directed Behavior: Goals are anything which will alleviate a
need and reduce a drive. An individual's behavior is directed towards a goal.

 Motivation can be either Positive or Negative: Positive or incentive motivation is generally

based on reward. Positive motivation is a process of attempting to influence others to do your
will through the possibility of gain or reward. Negative or fear motivation is based on force
and fear. Fear causes people to act in a certain way because they are afraid of the
consequences if they don't.

1.6.3 Types of motivation

If a manager wants to get work done by his employees, he may either hold out a promise of a
reward (positive motivation) or he may install fear (negative motivation). Both these types are
widely used by managements.

1.6.3.1 Positive or Incentive Motivation

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This type of motivation is generally based on reward. A positive motivation involves the
possibility of increased motive satisfaction. Positive motivation is a process of attempting to
influence others to do your will through the possibility of gain or reward". Incentive motivation
is the "pull" mechanism. The receipt of awards, due recognition and praise for work-well done
definitely lead to good team spirit, co-operation and a feeling of happiness. ( Aquinas, 2007)

Positive motivation include:-

 Praise and credit for work done

 Wages and Salaries

 Appreciation

 A sincere interest in subordinates as individuals

 Delegation of authority and responsibility

1.6.3.2 Negative or Fear Motivation

This type of motivation is based on force and fear. Fear causes persons to act in a certain way
because they fear the consequences. Negative motivation involves the possibility of decreased
motive satisfaction. It is a "push" mechanism ( Aquinas, 2007)

The imposition of punishment frequently results in frustration among those punished, leading to
the development of maladaptive behavior. It also creates a hostile state of mind and an
unfavorable attitude to the job. However, there is no management which has not used the
negative motivation at some time or the other. ( Aquinas, 2007)

1.6.4 Motivation theories

 McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y: This theory suggests that there are two types of
workers: Theory X workers who are lazy, irresponsible, and need constant supervision and
control; and Theory Y workers who are self-motivated, responsible, and seek opportunities
for growth and development. Managers should adopt different leadership styles according to
the type of workers they have (Kerzner, 2017).

 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: This theory proposes that there are five levels of human
needs: physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization. People are motivated to

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 satisfy their lower-level needs before moving to higher-level needs. Managers should provide
a supportive environment that meets the diverse needs of their team members (Kerzner,
2017).

 Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory: This theory distinguishes between two types of factors that
affect motivation: hygiene factors and motivators. Hygiene factors are the basic conditions
that prevent dissatisfaction, such as salary, working conditions, policies, and security.
Motivators are the factors that increase satisfaction, such as achievement, recognition,
responsibility, and growth. Managers should ensure that hygiene factors are adequate and
provide more motivators to their team members (Kerzner, 2017).

 Expectancy Theory: This theory states that people are motivated by the expected outcomes
of their actions. The outcomes depend on three factors: expectancy (the belief that one's
effort will lead to performance), instrumentality (the belief that one's performance will lead
to rewards), and valence (the value or attractiveness of the rewards). Managers should align
the goals and rewards of their team members with the project objectives and provide clear
feedback on their performance (Kerzner, 2017).

 Goal Setting Theory: This theory suggests that people are motivated by specific,
challenging, and attainable goals. Goals provide direction, focus, and feedback for
performance improvement. Managers should involve their team members in setting SMART
(specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound) goals and monitor their progress
(Kerzner, 2017).

Motivation can be applied as a tool for planning and organizing in construction projects by using
various techniques, such as:

 Communicating the project vision, mission, objectives, and benefits to the team members and
stakeholders.

 Creating a positive work environment that fosters trust, respect, collaboration, and
innovation.

 Providing adequate resources, tools, training, and support to the team members

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 Delegating tasks and authority to the team members according to their skills, interests, and
preferences .

 Recognizing and rewarding the team members for their achievements and contributions.

 Encouraging feedback and suggestions from the team members and stakeholders.

 Celebrating milestones and successes with the team members and stakeholders.

1.7 Cost control

Cost control in construction project management involves a comprehensive set of strategies,
practices, and methodologies aimed at minimizing the risk of cost overruns while optimizing
project performance (Buchner, 2015). Cost control is a process where the construction cost of the
project is managed through the best methods and techniques so that the contractor does not suffer
losses when carrying out the activities of the project.

1.7.1 Purpose of cost control

• To provide a means of comparing actual with budgeted expenses and thus draw attention,
in a timely manner, to operations that are deviating from the project budget

• To develop a database of productivity and cost-performance data for use in estimating the
costs of subsequent projects;

• To generate data for valuing variations and changes to the contract and potential claims
for additional payments.

1.7.2 Main aspects of cost control

According to Hoi and Sutrisna (2022) The main aspects include:

Establishing a cost budget baseline: involves estimating the total cost of the project, breaking
down the cost into smaller components, and allocating the budget to each component. This helps
to track and control the cost performance of the project.

Measuring actual cost: involves collecting and reporting the actual cost data of the project
activities, using metrics such as earned value, actual cost, and planned value. This helps to
compare the actual cost with the budget and identify any deviations or problems.

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Predicting variations: involves analyzing the cost performance data, using indexes such as cost
variance, schedule variance, cost performance index, and schedule performance index. This
helps to forecast the future cost and schedule outcomes of the project and determine the root
causes of any variations.

Taking corrective actions: involves identifying and implementing actions to address any cost or
schedule issues, using techniques such as trend analysis, lessons sharing, and change
management. This helps to improve the project performance and achieve the project objectives.

1.7.3 Enablers of project cost control

These enablers include (An Thi Hoai Le, 2022)

Design quality: High design quality can reduce the need for costly rework and changes during
project execution, ultimately lowering project costs.

Historical data management system: Effective management of historical project data allows for
better cost estimation, benchmarking, and learning from past mistakes, leading to improved cost
control.

Integration of cost and time during project control: Integrating cost and time management
ensures that project schedules and budgets are closely aligned, facilitating real-time cost
monitoring and control.

Project risk management plan: A well-defined risk management plan helps identify and mitigate
potential cost overruns caused by unforeseen events, ensuring better cost control.

Define roles and responsibilities in the project control team: Clear roles and responsibilities
within the project control team ensure that cost-related tasks are assigned and executed
efficiently, minimizing cost discrepancies.

Project control training program: Training team members in project control methodologies and
tools enhances their ability to manage costs effectively, reducing errors and cost overruns.

Skilled and experienced project control team members: Having experienced and skilled team
members improves the accuracy of cost estimates, risk assessment, and overall cost control
efforts.

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Communication among project parties: Effective communication fosters collaboration among
project stakeholders, enabling timely identification and resolution of cost-related issues.

Performance of sub-contractors and suppliers: Monitoring and evaluating the performance of

subcontractors and suppliers ensures that they meet cost and quality standards, minimizing cost
deviations.

Top management's support: Strong support from top management ensures that cost control
strategies are prioritized, resourced, and implemented effectively throughout the organization.

Systematic cost analysis reports to recognize trends and issues: Regularly analyzing cost data
and generating reports helps identify cost trends, anomalies, and potential issues, enabling
proactive cost control measures.

1.7.4 Cost control process and activities

The cost control process involves a series of activities aimed at managing and controlling project
costs throughout its lifecycle (An Thi Hoai Le, 2022). These activities can be categorized into
three phases: Pre-Control, In-Control, and Post-Control.

Pre-Control Phase:

In this phase, the focus is on setting up the groundwork for effective cost control.

Identify cost control deliverables of the project: This activity involves identifying what specific
aspects of the project's costs need to be controlled. It sets the scope for cost control efforts.

Establish the detailed cost accounts for all tasks/groups of tasks: Detailed cost accounts are
created to track costs associated with individual tasks or groups of tasks. This breakdown
provides granularity for cost monitoring.

Establish the baseline budget/original budget for the work planned: The baseline budget is the
initial budget plan against which all future cost performance will be measured. It serves as a
reference point for cost control.

Determine techniques for collecting and analyzing cost data: This activity involves selecting
methods and tools for gathering cost data throughout the project's lifecycle. It ensures that data
collection is systematic and accurate.

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Determine cost performance reporting templates and systems: Setting up reporting templates and
systems helps in standardized reporting of cost performance information to stakeholders.

In-Control Phase:

During this phase, the project is actively monitored and controlled.

Organize regular meetings to update project progress: Regular meetings help in keeping all
stakeholders informed about the project's progress, including cost performance updates.

Collect actual costs of the work performed: This involves gathering data on the actual costs
incurred during the project, including labor, materials, and other expenses.

Measure cost performance against the baseline: Cost performance is assessed by comparing
actual costs with the baseline budget. This helps in identifying if the project is over or under
budget.

Monitor the payment of actual work completed: Tracking payments ensures that expenses are
accounted for accurately and align with the work completed.

Identify the variations and analyze their root cause: Variations between actual and planned costs
are investigated to determine their root causes, which can include scope changes, resource issues,
or unexpected events.

Post-Control Phase:

After the project is completed or at key milestones, a final assessment is made.

Implement corrective actions to realign the cost with the plan: If cost variations are detected,
corrective actions are taken to bring costs back in line with the baseline budget.

Re-calculate the current budget and estimate at completion: This involves updating the project's
budget and estimating the final cost based on the project's current status and any corrective
actions taken.

Deliver/document cost analysis report and recognize lessons: A comprehensive cost analysis
report is prepared, summarizing the project's cost performance, variations, and lessons learned
for future projects.

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Identify ongoing or potential issues for the project control: Any ongoing or potential cost-related
issues are documented for future reference and continuous improvement.

1.7.5 Cost Control techniques.

According to a research carried out by George, Fiona and Michael (George Otim). The following
cost control techniques were used.

1.7.5.1 Work Programs

Work programs, like schedules or Gantt charts, are crucial in construction project management,
guiding activities, durations, and resources, enabling contractors to monitor progress, identify
delays, control costs, and measure Earned Value.

1.7.5.2 Inspection of Works

Inspection of works is a crucial process for quality control and cost control in construction
projects. It involves comparing completed work to the project's budget, identifying deviations
and ensuring compliance with specifications.

1.7.5.3 Project Budget Adherence

Maintaining budget adherence throughout the project lifecycle emerges as a fundamental and
effective approach to cost control. Project budgets are fundamental to cost control as they
allocate costs to various responsibility centers or work packages within a construction project.
Project managers can identify cost overruns by tracking costs at the responsibility center level
and comparing them to budgeted amounts, aiding in cost control and timely decision-making.

1.7.5.4 Site Meetings

Site meetings involve stakeholders reviewing progress, expenditures, and cost control, assessing
project track, discussing challenges, and promptly addressing issues to ensure project success.

1.7.5.5 Record Keeping

Record keeping is crucial for project management, ensuring accurate tracking of activities and
financial transactions, enabling cost control and identifying trends and patterns in expenditures
and scope changes.

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1.7.5.6 Evaluation of Works Carried Out

Evaluation involves quantifying completed work and comparing it to estimated costs, providing
a comprehensive assessment of work performance. This helps project managers ensure
expenditures align with progress, preventing overpaying for completed work.

According to Hatim , Omar and Ahmed Mohammed (2021), the following cost control
techniques were used on mega construction projects

1.7.5.7 Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT/COST)

PERT/COST is a project management technique that integrates scheduling with cost estimation
and control. It breaks down projects into smaller activities, estimates costs, and creates a network
diagram for effective tracking and resource allocation.

1.7.5.8 Building Information Modeling (BIM)

Building Information Modeling (BIM) is a digital representation of a construction project that

integrates various project data and information. BIM enables project stakeholders to collaborate,
visualize, and analyze cost-related aspects throughout the project lifecycle. BIM aids in cost
planning, estimation, and control processes by providing detailed project information,
automating quantities and cost reports, and optimizing control outcomes.

1.7.5.9 Earned Value Analysis

Earned value analysis (EVA) is a project evaluation and financial analysis method that integrates
cost and schedule control, allowing trend analysis, 'S' curve formation, and cost/schedule
variances. EVA compares project performance by comparing planned value, earned value, and
actual cost. Key performance indicators like Schedule Variance and Cost Variance help project
managers track and control costs, identify overruns, and take corrective actions.

1.7.5.10 calculating the earned value

EVA involves calculating three key values for each activity:

1. The planned value (PV): formerly known as the budgeted cost of work scheduled (BCWS) –
that portion of the approved cost estimate planned to be spent on the given activity during a
given period;

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2. The actual cost (AC): formerly known as the actual cost of work performed (ACWP) – the
total of costs incurred in accomplishing work on the activity in a given period. The actual cost
must correspond to whatever was budgeted for in the PV and earned value (EV) (e.g. all labor,
materials, construction equipment and indirect costs).

3. The earned value (EV): formerly known as the budget cost of work performed (BCWP) – the
value of the work actually completed. EV can never be more than the BAC

EV = BAC x Physical % Complete

These three values are combined to determine at that point in time whether or not work is being
accomplished as planned. The most commonly used measures are the cost variance and the
schedule variance:

Cost variance (CV) = EV- AC

Similarly the cost of impact of schedule slippage, the schedule variance in terms of cost, may be
determined.

Schedule variance (SV) = EV - PV

The same data can be expressed as ratios that give an indication of value for money. If work is
proceeding to, or better than plan, these ratios will be equal to or greater than 1.0. Conversely
unfavorable variances will be less than 1.0.

How are we doing on money?

Cost performance index (CPI) = EV/AC

How well are we doing on time?

Schedule performance index (SPI) = EV/PV

Earned Value Management Example Problem 1

Compute Estimate at Completion (EAC) and Variance at Completion (VAC) if both SPI and CPI
influence the project work when given variables are

Data

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Budget at Completion (BAC) = $22,000

Earned Value (EV) = $13,000

Planned Value (PV) = $14,000

Actual Cost (AC) = $15,000

Solution to EVM Problem 1

EAC (if the both SPI and CPI influence the project work) = AC + [(BAC – EV) / (CPI x SPI)]

Schedule Performance Index (SPI)

= EV/PV

= $13,000/$14,000 = 0.93

Since SPI is less than 1, this indicates that the project is behind schedule

Cost Performance Index (CPI)

= EV/AC

= $13,000/$15,000 = 0.87 Since CPI is less than 1, this indicates that the project is over budget.

Estimate at completion

EAC = AC+ (BAC-EV)/CPI

= $15000 + [($22,000 – $13,000)/(0.93 X 0.87)]

= $26,123

Variance at completion

VAC = BAC – EAC

= $22,000 – $26,123

= -$4,123 the project is experiencing a budget overrun of -$4,123.

Example 2

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You have a project that is scheduled to be completed in 10 days at a budgeted cost of $100,000.
At the end of day 6 you do an analysis and you determine the job is 70% complete and you have
spent $65,000. Assumption: For the EAC, this report uses the EAC formula of EAC =
BAC/CPI, which is one of the EAC formulas; assuming the current trend of the cost performance
will be typical of the project going forward.

1. What is the project’s earned value? At Day 6th, EV = $70,000.00

2. What is the project’s budget at completion? BAC = $100,000.00

3. Is the project ahead, behind schedule or on time? Ahead of schedule.

4. Is the project expected to complete on budget, under or over budget? Under budget.

5. What is the project’s SPI? At Day 6th, SPI = 1.17

6. What is the project’s CPI? At Day 6th, CPI = 1.08

EAC= $ 92,857.14

VAC= $ 7,142.86

ETC =$ 27,857.14

Earned Value Management Example Problem 3

For the following project calculate SV, CV, SPI and CPI at the end of second month.

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Month 1 2 3 4

Planned Value $1,110,000 $ 600,000 $ 2,500,000 $ 800,000

Earned Value $1,000,000 $ 750,000

Actual Cost $ 1,250,000 $ 500,000

Solution to EVM Problem 2

First calculate cumulative data

Month 1 2 3 4

Planned Value $ 1,110,000 $ 600,000 $ 2,500,000 $ 800,000

(PV) cumulative $ 1,110,000 $ 1,710,000

Earned Value $ 1,000,000 $ 750,000

(EV) cumulative $ 1,000,000 $ 1,750,000

Actual Cost $ 1,250,000 $ 500,000

(AC) cumulative $ 1,250,000 $ 1.750,000

Schedule Variance (SV)

= EV – PV

= ($ 1,750,000 – $ 1,710,000)

$ 40,000

Schedule Performance Index (SPI)

= EV / PV

= ($ 1,750,000 / $ 1,710,000)

= 1.0233918

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Cost Variance (CV)

= EV – AC

= ($ 1,750,000 – $ 1,750,000)

= $0

Cost Performance Index (CPI)

= EV / AC

= ($ 1,750,000 / $ 17,50,000)

=1

Since SV is positive and SPI is greater than zero the above project is ahead of schedule.

As CV is equal to zero and CPI is equal to one the project is on budget.

Earned Value Management Example Problem 4

You are managing a project which is into six months of its execution. You are now reviewing the
project status and you have ascertained that project is behind schedule. The actual cost of
Activity A is $ 200,000 and that of Activity B is $ 100,000. The planned value of these activities
are $ 180,000 and $ 80,000 respectively. The Activity A is 100% complete. However, Activity B
is only 75% complete. Calculate the schedule performance index and cost performance index of
the project on the review date.

Solution to EVM Problem 3

First tabulate the data provided in the problem

Tasks Planned Value (PV) Actual Cost (AC) % Completion

Activity A $ 180,000 $ 200,000 100%

Activity B $ 80,000 $ 100,000 75%

Since we have percentage completion data of each activity we can calculate the earned value. In
order to calculate earned value of each activity multiply % completion and the planned value.

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Therefore, 100% x 180,000 = 180,000

And 75% x 80,000 = 60,000/-

Tasks Planned Value (PV) Actual Cost (AC) % Completion Earned Value (EV)

Activity A $ 180,000 $ 200,000 100% $ 180,000

Activity B $ 80,000 $ 100,000 75% $ 60,000

Now, calculate the cumulative data for the period. Thereafter add planned value, actual costs and
earned value of both the activities.

Tasks Planned Value (PV) Actual Cost (AC) % Completion Earned Value (EV)

Activity A $ 180,000 $ 200,000 100% $ 180,000

Activity B $ 80,000 $ 100,000 75% $ 60,000

Cumulative $ 260,000 $ 300,000 – $ 240,000

Therefore, Schedule Performance Index (SPI)

= EV/PV

= 240,000/260,000

= 0.92

And, Cost Performance Index (CPI)

= EV/AC

= 240,000/300,000

= 0.8

Schedule Performance Index (SPI)

= 0.92

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Cost Performance Index (CPI)

= 0.8

Since both SPI and CPI are less than one, the project is behind schedule and is experiencing cost
overrun

1.7.5.10 Performance Recording Contract

A Performance Recording Contract (PRC) is a contractual arrangement where project payments

are based on the performance and achievement of specific project objectives. A PRC aligns
project costs with performance outcomes, promoting cost control and efficient resource
utilization. It records progress, evaluates performance, and rewards contractors for cost-effective
strategies.

1.7.5.11 Contract Variance - Unit Costing

In this system costs of various types of work, such as driving piles, or concrete work are
recorded separately. The actual costs are divided by the quantity of work of each type that has
been done. This provides unit costs, which can be compared with those in the tender. The
monthly cost report compares work value to cost, identifying problem areas and trends. It
forecasts project profit/loss and recommends corrective action for loss-prone cost centers.
Effective for repetitive contracts, it's suitable for civil engineering work with high-value
components. It's less effective on non-repetitive contracts.

1.7.5.12 Cost-Value Reconciliation

Cost-value reconciliation (CVR) brings together the established totals for cost and value to
illustrate the profitability of a contractor. Its intention is to ensure that the profits shown in the
contractor’s accounts are accurate and realistically display the current financial position. Cost-
Value Reconciliation is a technique used to evaluate a project's cost efficiency and productivity,
enabling managers to identify discrepancies and implement cost control measures for improved
profitability.

1.7.5.13 To-Complete Performance Index (TCPI)

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The To-Complete Performance Index (TCPI) is a measure used to assess the future performance
required to achieve project cost objectives. The Total Cost of Project (TCPI) is a tool used by
project managers to assess the remaining work value against the budgeted cost, enabling
proactive cost control measures to avoid overruns and ensure cost control.

1.7.5.14 Reserve Analysis

Reserve Analysis involves setting aside contingency reserves to account for unforeseen events or
risks that may impact project costs. Reserve analysis helps project managers manage cost
overruns by identifying potential risks, estimating impact, and allocating appropriate funds,
ensuring cost control and effective response to uncertainties.

1.7.5.15 Just-in-Time Method

The Just-in-Time (JIT) method focuses on optimizing the delivery of materials and resources to
the construction site, minimizing inventory costs and waste. JIT principles help project managers
reduce storage costs, improve cash flow, and enhance cost control by streamlining the supply
chain, coordinating material delivery schedules, and minimizing inventory-related expenses.

1.7.5.16 Activity-Based Costing Method

Activity-Based Costing (ABC) is a cost allocation method that assigns project costs based on the
activities performed, providing a detailed analysis of cost drivers. This method helps project
managers make informed decisions, identify cost reduction opportunities, and implement
targeted cost control measures.

1.7.5.17 Forecasting Method

Forecasting methods use historical data, trends, and predictive modeling to estimate future
project costs. They help project managers anticipate cost fluctuations, identify potential overruns,
and develop proactive cost control strategies, ensuring timely actions throughout the project
lifecycle.

Lastly, according to Lee Chan (Chan, 2023) the following cost control measures are used:

1.7.5.18 Value Engineering

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Value engineering emerges as a proactive approach to cost control, offering a systematic method
to optimize project costs while preserving functionality and quality. By critically evaluating
project components and identifying areas where cost savings can be realized, value engineering
contributes to the efficient allocation of resources. This strategy empowers project teams to
streamline expenses without compromising the project's core objectives.

1.7.5.19 Change Management

Change management is crucial for controlling project costs by evaluating proposed changes,
ensuring scope modifications don't cause unforeseen budgetary burdens, and implementing an
organized process with transparent communication.

1.9 Time Control

Project time control is that element of a project that keeps it on- truck, on- time and within
budget. Project time control begins early in the project with planning and ends late in the project
with post-implementation review, having a thorough involvement of each step in the process
according to (Project time control in building construction building Project topics, n.d.)

In the construction industry, the aim of project control is to ensure the projects finish on time,
within budget and achieving other project objectives. It is a complex task undertaken by project
managers in practice, which involves constantly measuring progress, evaluating plans, and taking
corrective actions when required.

During the last few decades, numerous project control methods, such as Gant Bar chart, Program
Evaluation and review Technique (PERT) and Critical Path Method (CPM) have been developed
and a variety of software packages have become available to support the application of these
project control methods, for example Microsoft project, Asta power point according to (Olawale,
2010)

1.9.1 Time Control Process

i Developing a foundational plan that outlines how the project scope will be completed on
schedule. The project begins as soon as the customer accepts this basic plan.

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 ii Regularly gathering data from the project itself. It is important to set a consistent
reporting schedule. Depending on the project's complexity and duration, this schedule
may be daily, weekly, or monthly.

iii To make sure the project is on track, compare the performance that was achieved with
what was anticipated.

iv If required, take urgent corrective action.

1.9.2 Time Planning and Control Technique

According to (Aquins, 2007) the following are some of the time planning and control technique.

1.9.2.1 Critical Path Method (CPM)

A critical path is made up of those tasks that are interdependent on one another and take the
largest combined amount of time to perform. A CPM chart can outline several equally important
courses. It is important to identify the tasks that are on the critical route so that they can receive
extra attention.

Tasks, which fall on the critical path, should receive special attention by both the project
manager and the personnel assigned to them.

1.9.2.2 Gantt chart

A Gantt chart is a matrix, which lists on the vertical axis all the tasks to be performed. Each row
contains a single task identification, which usually consists of a number and name. The
horizontal axis is headed by columns indicating estimated task duration, skill level needed to
perform the task and the name of the person assigned to the task, followed by one column for
each period in the project's duration. Each period may be expressed in hours, days, weeks,
months and other time units.

A set of markers is usually used to indicate estimated and actual start and end. Each bar on a
separate line and the name of each person assigned to the task, is on a separate line. They provide
a simple visualization of the project tasks associated with the construction project.

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1.9.2.3 Programme Evaluation and Review Technique

Program evaluation and review technique (PERT) is a variation on Critical Path Analysis that
takes a slightly more skeptical view of time estimates made for each project stage. it is used to
estimate the shortest possible time each activity will take, the most likely length of time and the
longest time that might be taken if the activity takes longer than expected.

1.9.2.4 Precedence Network Diagram

This is a graphical representation used in project management to illustrate the relationships

between tasks or activities in a project. It’s a tool that assists in planning, scheduling, and
managing complex projects by visually representing task relationships and dependencies.

1.9.2.5 Finish To Finish (Ff), Start To Start (Ss) and Start to Finish (Sf)

These task dependencies, along with the more common Finish-to-Start relationship where task A
must finish before task B can start, help project managers define the sequence of activities and
how they are interrelated within a project schedule. Understanding these dependencies is crucial
for effective project planning, scheduling, and tracking to ensure that tasks are completed in the
correct order and that the project goals are achieved on time.

1.9.3 Factors that influence poor time management on construction sites

Inadequate Planning: Incomplete or insufficient project planning can lead to poor time
management. Lack of a well-defined schedule, scope, and clear objectives can result in confusion
and delays.

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 Scope Changes: Frequent changes in project scope or design alterations can disrupt the
construction schedule. These changes may occur due to client requests, design errors, or
unforeseen site conditions.

Poor Communication: Ineffective communication between project stakeholders, including

owners, contractors, subcontractors, and suppliers, can lead to misunderstandings, delays in
decision-making, and coordination issues.

Resource Constraints: Limited availability of skilled labor, equipment, or materials can slow
down construction progress. Delays in the delivery of essential resources can have a cascading
effect on the project timeline.

Weather Conditions: Weather-related factors such as extreme heat, rain, snow, or storms can
disrupt construction activities and lead to schedule delays, especially for outdoor projects.

Site Conditions: Unforeseen site conditions, such as soil instability, environmental issues, or
unexpected utilities, can result in delays as the construction team must adapt to these challenges.
Inefficient Workflow: Poorly organized work processes, inefficient workflows, and suboptimal
sequencing of tasks can extend project timelines.

Unrealistic Timelines: Setting overly ambitious or unrealistic project timelines can put undue
pressure on the construction team, leading to rushed work, mistakes, and missed deadlines.

1.10 How control systems would be applied by a construction manager to renovate

Makerere university main building
1.10.1 Background
The reconstruction of the Main Administration Building of Makerere University that was gutted
by fire in September 2020 officially kicked off on Monday 14th March 2022 with the site
handover to the contractor Excel Construction Limited Excel which submitted the winning bid
worth UGX 20.5 Billion.

The reconstruction is fully funded by the Government of Uganda which committed UGX 21
billion. The reconstruction is adopting modern building methods, with a reinforced concrete
frame as opposed to the original block work structure, while maintaining its distinct outward
appearance. The contractor was under instruction to use every resource at their disposal to ensure

31
that the main external works are completed by 8th October 2022. According to reports, new
facilities will been introduced that will enhance the functionality of building. The building upon
completion is expected to be modern, energy efficient and well aerated.

1.10.2 Solution to the question

As a construction manager having been appointed to carry out the renovation and rehabilitation
works of this project, I would utilize the project control systems that is planning, organizing,
motivating, and cost control and time control techniques so as to deliver the project on timely
schedule. The greatest challenge to this particular project is time as the project was at first
expected to be completed before the centennial celebration. So the current project progress
indicates a deviation on the project delivery time. The contributing factors to this delay are
mainly due to scope creep, for example the demolition and ferrying off the debris took a lot of
time as compared to the anticipated duration which is the greatest point of concern at this point.

The Construction manager acting in the capacity of the contractor’s representative should first
establish the project objectives which in this case is completing the project within the timeline,
budget and the expected quality.

Then he or she has to lay down a realistic plan that is the course of action to be followed to
achieve this objective. In planning the construction manager can use the work break down
structure technique where he or she views the entire project as a whole and divide the project
into sub-elements up to the smallest level of detail for example the construction manager plan on
how to arrange for site preliminaries, source for materials and labor. Also develop a planned
scheduled for every item of activities , assign them the start and finish time and generating a
Gantt chart that clearly depict how the project tasks are to be executed till completion. Using
Microsoft project to perform critical path analysis that will establish the interdependence of
project activities. These developed plans are to be used as benchmark on which the project
milestones will be based.

Applying organizing as key control tool to this particular project is as well very important. The
manager would ensure the project team is well organized in that there would be a well-organized
structure showing the line of authority as well as responsibilities of each participant. By doing
that, all the participants would know what to do, who to report to, as well as who to receive

32
instructions from. As a result, there would be minimal conflicts on the project. The preferred
organization structure would be matrix structure since the company doing the construction is a
big one. Having formally organized the site, informal organization should not be forgotten. It is
important to note that it is very vital to understand each other, their attitudes, abilities, and more
as these aid in the smooth enforcement of the formal structure. These are well catered for or
addressed through motivation of workers.

Having understood that the informal structure is important, motivation of participants becomes
very important as well as a key control tool. Recognition of outstanding workers could be done
during site meetings or briefs. Giving bonus to workers when they perform well. Those are a few
of the many things that be done to ensure the workers work towards achieving the timely
delivery of the building.

Now effect cost control system and strategies must be implemented. Firstly, work program
should be developed, encompassing task schedules, resource allocation, and dependencies, with
tools like Gantt charts aiding in visualizing project timelines. Regular inspections of the work
ensure adherence to quality standards and identify any deviations, allowing for swift
rectification.

Strict budget adherence allocates costs to specific project segments, enabling continuous cost
tracking and prompt intervention in case of overruns. Site meetings facilitate collaboration and
issue resolution, while rigorous record-keeping to ensure accurate financial and activity tracking
and regular evaluation of completed work to help align expenditures with progress, preventing
overpayment for completed tasks.

With time control comprehensive project plan that outlines the renovation scope and schedule,
aligned with the client's objectives. Regular data gathering and reporting are essential, with a
consistent reporting schedule to monitor progress, resource utilization, and any project issues.
Performance monitoring, including critical path analysis and Gantt charts, helps identify critical
tasks and visualize the project's timeline. Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)
and precedence network diagrams aid in estimating task durations and understanding task
dependencies.

33
Resource management ensures that an adequate workforce, equipment, and materials are
available as needed, while effective communication among stakeholders facilitates quick
decision-making and issue resolution. Contingency planning for potential risks like weather
conditions or unforeseen site issues should be in place, along with realistic project timelines that
account for complexity and challenges. Regular project reviews and adjustments are crucial to
keeping the renovation on track and ensuring it meets its objectives while staying within budget
and on schedule.

In conclusion an integrated approach where all these control systems are applied in a manner
described above will aid in ensuring that renovation and rehabilitation works of the main
building is done within the timeline.

REFERENCES

Aquinas. (2007). Principles of Management. New Delhi: Excel Books Private Limited.

Adedeji Badiru, T. K. (2012). Statistical Techniques for Project Control. New York,USA: CRC
Press pg 135.

An Thi Hoai Le, M. S. (2022). Emerald Publishing Limited.

Aquins. (2007). Management Principles and Practice & Organisational Behaviour.

Buchner, E. (2015). Project Cost Management.

Chan, L. (2023). Cost Control Measures for Successful Construction Project. Hong Kong.

Cooke, B., & Williams, P. (2004). Construction planning, programming and control. Blackwell.

George Otim, F. N. (n.d.). Cost Control Techniques Used On Building Construction Sites in
Uganda. Second International Conference on Advances in Engineering and Technology.
Kampala.

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H arold Kerzner. (2017). Project management : a systems approach to planning, scheduling, and
controlling. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Hatim Rashid, O. A.-j. (2021). New cost control techniques in mega construction projects.
Periodicals of Engineering and Natural Sciences, 454-461.

Kerzner, H. (2017). project management: a systems approach to planning, scheduling and

controlling. New Jersey: John Wiley& sons.inc.

Murthy. (2007). Management principles and practices. New Delhi: Excel Books Private limited.

Murthy. (2009). Management Principles and Practice. Organisational behaviour, 331.

Olawale. (2010). Cost and time control of construction projects. Retrieved from Aston
University.

Project time control in building construction building Project topics. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://iproject.com.ng

Rodolfo siles. (2004). Project management information systems.

Sears, K., & Et al. (2008). Construction project management. New Jersey: John Wiley & sons.

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 APPENDICES

Figure 6 Showing mostly used cost control techniques

Figure 7 Showing a Gantt chart

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Figure 8Showing a PERT/COST

Figure 9 showing a graph of earned value analysis

37
Figure 10 showing a graph of earned value analysis

38