FAMOUS PROBLEMS or ELEMENTARY GEOMETRY THE DUPLICATION OF THE CUBE THE TRISECTION OF AN ANGLI THE QUADRATURE OF THE CIR AN avrnors yorrricr Uwer svsor AUSGEAR TRANSLATION OF F, KLEIN'S RGROMETRIE RY WOOSTER WOODRUFF BEMAN Provessox ov Matunmatics 1 tue UxiveRsiny oF MicmiGay DAVID EUGENE SMITH Proresson of MarHunatics sx tue Micutoan Sxare Nowat. Connor GINN & COMPANY ‘ON - NEW YORK » CHICAGO - LONDON,Copvnient, 1897, ny Wooster Wooprvrr BEMAN AND Davi EUGENE SMITE ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 39.12 The Atheneum Dress GINN & COMPANY - PRO- PRIBTORS » BOSTON - USA.PREFACE. ‘Tue more precise definitions and more rigorous methods of re looked upon by the mass of gymnasium professors as abstruse and demonstration developed by modern mathemati excessively abstract, and accordingly as of importance only for the small circle of specialists. With a view to counteract- ing this tendency it gave me pleasure to set forth last summer in a brief course of lectures before a larger audience than usual what modern science has to say regarding the possibility of elementary geometric constructions, Some time before, I had had oceasion to present a sketch of these lectures in an Easter v: to take great interes confirmed by the experience of the summer semester. I yen- ion course at Gottingen. ‘The audience seemed in them, and this impression has been ture therefore to present a short exposition of my lectures to the Association for the Advancement of the Teaching of Math- ematics and the Natural Sciences, for the meeting to be held at Gottingen. This exposition has been prepared by Oberlehrer Tagert, of Ems, who attended the vacation course just men- tioned. He also had at his disposal the lecture notes written out under my supervision by several of my summer semester students. I hope that this unpr tending little book may con- tribute to promote the useful work of the association. ¥. KLEIN. Gérrincen, Waster, 1895.TRANSLATORS’ PREFACE, Ar the Gottingen meeting of the German Association for the Advancement of the Teaching of Mathematics and the Natural Sciences, Professor Felix Klein presented a discus- sion of the three famous geometric problems of antiquity, —the duplication of the cube, the trisection of an angle, and the quadrature of the circle, as viewed in the light of modern research. This was done with the avowed purpose of bringing the study of mathematics in the university into closer touch with the work of the gymnasium. That Professor Klein is likely to succeed in this effort is shown by the favorable reception accorded his lectures by the association, the uniform commen- dation of the educational journals, and the fact that transla. tions into French and Italian have already appeared. ‘The treatment of the subject is clementary, not even a Imowledge of the differential and integral required. Among the questions answered are such as these: valeulus being Under what circumstances is a geometrie construction pos- sible? By what means can it be effected? What are tran- scendental numbers? How ean we prove that e and x are transcendental ? With the belief that an English presentation of so impor- tant a work would appeal to many unable to read the original,vi TRANSLATORS PREFACE. Professor Klein’s consent to a translation was sought and readily secured. In its preparation the authors have also made free use of the French translation by Professor J. Griess, of Algiers, following its modifications where it seemed advisable. They desire further to thank Professor Ziwet for assist- ance in improving the translation and in reading the proof- sheets. W. W. BEMAN. August, 1897, D. E. SMITH.CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. Practica, anp Tuxorertcan Consrructions . . es 2 Sraremenr or THE Proprem i AvcEsrarc Form... 3 PART I. ‘The Possibility of the Construction of Algebraic Expressions. Cuarrer I. Avcesraic Equations Sorvasiy py Squane Roors. 1-4. Structure of the expression x to be constructed... B 5,6. Normalformofx 2... ee 6 7, 8. Conjugate values. 6 a5 0 oY 9. ‘The corresponding equation F(x)=0 =. ee 8 10, Other rational equations f(x)= 0. =... eB 11, 12. The irreducible equation g(x)=o . . 10 13, 14. The degree of the irreducible equation a power of 2... Tt Cuarrer I, Tue Dentan Prontem anp tHe TRIsecrion oF THE ANGLE. 1. The impossibility of solving the Delian problem with straight fede) wn compasses eee fete eeeee ee 15) 2. The general equation x? = c crane lo) 3. ‘The impossibility of trisecting an angle with straight edge andcompasses. . 0). Cuarrer I Tae Division or raz Cmere rvro Equan Parrs. 1. History ofthe problem. =... se 16 24. Gauss’s prime numbers... eT 5. The cyclotomic equation =... 8 6. Gauss’s Lemma. 5 2 foe 8 1, 8. The irreducibility of the cyclotomic equation... 21viii CONTENTS. Cuarter IV. Tue Construction or THe Recuran Porrcoy oF 17 Sues. raon 1. Algebraic statement of the problem, 9. =... 24. The periods formed irom the roots See BB 5,6. ‘The quadratic equations satisfied by the periods =. 7 7. Historical account of constructions with straight edge and Ce 6) Gg 59 og 6 9 5 6g 6 8, 9. Von Staudt’s construction of the regular polygon of 17 sides 34 Cuarren V. Gexrrat Consiperations ox ALGERRAIC ConsTRUCTIONS, 1. Paperfolding 2. a 2. The conic sections. . . . . . . . 42 B, The Cissoid of Diocles . coe 4. The Conchoid of Nicomedes . 7 . . . . 45 5, Mechanicaldeviees =... twee PART II. ‘Transcendental Numbers and the Quadrature of the Circle. Cuarren I. Canror’s Demonstration or THe Existence oF ‘TRanscenpentaL Nummers. 1. Definition of algebraic and of transcendental numbers. 49 2. Arrangement of algebraic numbers according to height «50 3. Demonstration of the existence of transcendental numbers 63 Cuarrer II Historica, Survey or tHe Arremprs ar tue Com PUTATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF 1. ‘The empirical stage eee eee eo 2, The Greek mathematicians =. 8B 3, Modern analysis from 1670 to1770, sess 8 4, 5. Revival of critical rigor since 1770. a) Cuarrer IIL Tre Transcennence or tHe Numsex e. 1. Outline of the demonstration =... ss The symbol hr and the function (x) =. see 3. Hermite’sTheorem =... ewes 8CONTENTS. ix Curren IV. Tuw Transcenpence or tus Number 7. 1. Outline of the demonstration... 0. 2. The function ¥(x) Bo 6 6 6 6 6 og ow 3. Lindemann's Theorem =. ew swe 4, Lindemann's Gorollary =. ewes Th 5, The transcendence ofr . . . . . . . 7 6. The transcendence ofy=ex. 6. ee TT 7. The transcendence of y KO, ae 1 Cuarrer V. Tue Ivrecrarm axp tHe Gromereie Construction or 1. The impossibility of the quadrature of the circle with straight edgeandcompasses . . ., ss OB 2. Prineiple of the integraph = ss TB 3. Geometric construction of...INTRODUCTION. Tis course of lectures is due to the desire on my part to bring the study of mathematics in the university into closer touch with the needs of the secondary schools. Still it is not intended for beginners, since the matters under discussion are treated from a higher standpoint than that of the schools. On the other hand, it presupposes but little preliminary work, only the elements of analysis being required, as, for example, in the development of the exponential function into a series, We propose to treat of geometrical constructions, and our object will not be so much to find the solution suited to cach case as to determine the possibility or impossibility of a solution. Three problems, the object of much research in ancient times, will prove to be of special interest. ‘They are 1. The problem of the duplication of the cube (also called the Delian problem). 2. The tris 3. The quadrature of the circle, i.c., the construction of 7. ion of an arbitrary angle. In all these problems the ancients sought in vain for a solution with straight edge and compasses, and the celebrity of these problems is due chiefly to the fact that their solution seemed to demand the use of appliances of a higher order. In fact, we propose to show that a solution by the use of straight edge and compasses is impossible,2 INTRODUCTION. The impossibility of the solution of the third problem was demonstrated only very recently. That of the first and second is implicitly involved in the Galois theory as presented to-day in treatises on higher algebra. On the other hand, we find no explicit demonstration in elementary form unless it be in Petersen’s text-books, works which are also noteworthy in other respects. At the outset we must insist upon the difference between practical and theoretical constructions. For example, if we need a divided circle as a measuring instrument, we construct it simply on trial. ‘Theoretically, in earlier times, it was possible (i.e., by the use of straight edge and compasses) only to divide the circle into a number of parts represented by 2", 3, and 5, and their products. Gauss added other cases by showing the possibility of the division into parts where p is a prime number of the form p=2" + 1, and the impos- sibility for all other numbers. No practical advantage is derived from these results; the significance of Gauss’s de- velopments is purely theoretical. The same is true of all the discussions of the present course. Our fundamental problem may be stated: What geometrical constructions are, and what are not, theoretically possible? To define sharply the meaning of the word “construction,” we must designate the instruments which we propose to use in each case. We shall consider 1. Straight edge and compasses, 2. Compasses alone, 3. Straight edge alone, 4. Other instruments used in connection with straight edge and compasses. The singular thing is that elementary geometry furnishes no answer to the question, We must fall back upon algebra and the higher an The question then arises: HowINTRODUCTION. 3 shall we use the language of these sciences to express the employment of straight edge and compasses? This new method of attack is rendered necessary because elementary geometry possesses no general method, no algorithm, as do the last two sciences. In analysis we have first rational operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. ‘These operations can be directly effected geometrically upon two given s ments by the aid of proportions, if, in the ease of multiplica- tion and division, we introduce an auxiliary unit-segment. Further, there are irrational operations, subilivided into algebraic and transcendental. The simplest algebraic opera- tions are the extraction of square and higher roots, and the solution of algebraic equations not solvable by radicals, such as those of the fifth and higher degrees. As we know how to construct Vab, rational operations in general, and irrational operations involving only square roots, can be constructed. On the other hand, every individual geometrical construction which can be reduced to the intersection of two straight lines, a straight line and a circle, or two cireles, is equivalent to a rational operation or the extraction of a square root. In the higher irrational operations the construction is therefore impossible, unless we can find a way of effecting it by the aid of square roots. In all these constructions it is obvious that the number of operations must be limited. We may therefore state the following fundamental theorem : The necessary and sufficient condition that an analytic expres- sion cun be constructed with straight edge and compasses is that it can be derived from the known quantities by a finite number of rational operations and square roots. Accordingly, if we wish to show that a quantity cannot be constructed with straight edge and compasses, we must prove that the corresponding equation is not solvable by a finite number of square roots.4 INTRODUCTION. A fortiori the solution is impossible when the problem has no corresponding algebraic equation. An expression which satisfies no algebraic equation is called a transcenden- tal number. ‘his case occurs, as we shall show, with the number 7.PART I. THE POSSIBILITY OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS. CHAPTER I. Algebraic Equations Solvable by Square Roots. The following propositions taken from the theory of alge- braic equations are probably known to the reader, yet to secure greater clearness of view we shall give brief demon- strations. If x, the quantity to be constructed, depends only upon rational expressions and square roots, it is a root of an irreducible equa- tion f (x) =0, whose degree is always a power of 2. 1. *'Lo get a clear idea of the structure of the quantity x, suppose it, e.g., of the form VatveFel +/+ vb, pt+va, Vat+vi Ve where a, b, c, d, e, f, p, q, r are rational expressions. 2. The number of radicals one over another occurring in any term of x is called the order of the term; the preceding expression contains terms of orders 0, 1, 2. 3. Let p designate the maximum order, so that no term can have more than p radicals one over another.6 FAMOUS PROBLEMS. 4, In the example x= V2+V3+ V6, we have three expressions of the first order, but as it may be written x=V24+V3+ v2: v3, it really depends on only two distinet expressions. We shall suppose that this reduction has been made in all the terms of x, so that among the n terms of order p none can be expressed rationally as a function of any other terms of order p or of lower order. We shall make the same supposition regarding terms of the order p—1 or of lower order, whether these plicitly or implicitly. This hypothesis is obviously a very natural one and of great importance in later discussions. cour ex- 5. Norman Form or x. IE the expression x is a sum of terms with different denom- inators we may reduce them to the same denominator and thus obtain x as the quotient of two integral functions. Suppose VQ one of the terms of x of order pj; it can occur in x only explicitly, since p is the maximum order. Sinee, further, the powers of VQ may be expressed as functions of VQ and Q, which is a term of lower order, we may put —2tbvQ etd va’ where a, b, ¢, d contain no more than n—1 terms of order p, besides terms of lower order. Multiplying both terms of the fraction by c—d VQ, VQ disappears from the denominator, and we may write Geo— bay +d oO 2) VQ _ i pve where a and f contain no more than n —1 terms of order p. For a second term of order p we have, in a similar manner, a; + Bi VQ, ete.ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS. if The x may, therefore, be transformed so as to contain a term of given order yt only in its numerator and there only linearly. We observe, however, that products of terms of order p may oveur, for a and £ still depend upon n— 1 terms of order yp. We may, then, put a=an+ay VQ, B=Bu+t Bu VQ, and hence x= (a tan VQ) + (Bu + Bi VQ) VQ. 6. We proceed in a similar way with the different terms of order »—1, which occur explicitly and in Q, Q,, ete., so that each of these quantities becomes an integral linear func- tion of the term of order »—1 under consideration. We then pass on to terms of lower order and finally obtain x, or rather its terms of different orders, under the form of rational integral linear functions of the individual radical expressions which occur explicitly. We then say that x is reduced to the normal form. 7. Let m be the total number of independent (4) square roots occurring in this normal form. Giving the double sign to these square roots and combining them in all possible ways, we obtain a system of 2" values Xiy Kay se + Xoo which we shall call conjugate values. We must now investigate the equation admitting these conjugate values as roots. 8. These values are not necessarily all distinct; thus, if we have x=\/atvb+/a—Vb, this expression is not changed when we change the sign of vb.8 FAMOUS PROBLEMS. 9. If x is an arbitrary quantity and we form the poly- nomial F (x) = (K— m1) (KH) 2+ (X= Xym)s F (x) =0 is clearly an equation having as roots these con- jugate values. It is of degree 2", but may have equal roots (8). The coefficients of the polynomial F (x) arranged with respect to x are rational. Vor let us change the sign of one of the square roots ; this will permute two roots, say x and xy, since the roots of F (x) =0 are precisely all the conjugate values. As these roots enter F (x) only under the form of the produet (x= Xa) = Xn)s we merely change the order of the factors of F(x). Hence the polynomial is not changed. F (x) remains, then, invariable when we change the sign of any one of the square roots ; it therefore contains only their squares ; and hence F (x) has only rational coefficients. 10. When any one of the conjugate values satisfies a given equation with rational coefficients, f(x) =0, the sume is true of all the others. F(x) is not nec roots besides the x/s. _ Let x; =a+ VQ be one of the conjugate values; VQ, a term of order »; a and 8 now depend only upon other terms of order p and terms of lower order. There must, then, be a conjugate value ily equal to F (x), and may admit other x! =a—BVQ. Let us now form the equation f(x,)=0. f(x) may be put into the normal form with respect to VQ, fm) =A+ BGALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS. 9 this expression can equal zero only when A and B are simul- taneously zero. Otherwise we should have vQ=-3; ie. VQ could be expressed rationally as a function of terms of order p and of terms of lower order contained in A and B, which is contrary to the hypothesis of the independence of all the square roots (4). But we evidently have f(x) =A—B VO; 0, so also f (x;') =0. hence if F (x; Whence the following proposition : If x, satisfies the equation f (x) =0, the same is true of all the conjugate values derived from x, by changing the signs of the roots of order p. ‘The proof for the other conjugate values is obtained in an analogous manner, Suppose, for example, as may be done without affecting the generality of the reasoning, that the expression x, depends on only two terms of order p, VQ and VQ’. (4) may be reduced to the following normal form : (a) f(m)=p+qVQ4r VY +s VQ-VQ=0. If x, depended on more than two terms of order p, we should only have to add to the preceding expression a greater num- ber of terms of analogous structure. Equation (a) is possible only when we have separately () p=0, q=0, r=0, s=0. Otherwise VQ and VQ' would be connected by a rational relation, contrary to our hypothesi Let now VR, VR‘... be the terms of order »—1 on Which x, depends; they occur in p, q, r, s; then can the quantities p,q, r,s, in which they occur, be reduced to the10 FAMOUS PROBLEMS. normal form with respect to VR and VR’; and if, for the sake of simplicity, we take only two quantities, VR and VR’, we have © p=mtAVR +a VR + VR.VR'=0, and three analogous equations for q, r, s- The hypothesis, already used several times, of the inde- pendence of the roots, furnishes the equations @ «=0, A=0, p=0, v=0. Hence equations (¢) and consequently f (x) =0 are satisfied when for x, we substitute the conjugate values deduced by changing the signs of VR and VR’. Therefore the equation (x) =0 és also satisfied by all the conjugate values deduced from x, by changing the signs of the roots of order p—1. The same reasoning is applicable to the terms of order »—2, p—8,... and our theorem is completely proved. 11. We have so far considered two equations F(xy=0 and f()=0. Both have rational coefficients and contain the x,’s as roots. F (x) is of degree 2" and may have multiple roots ; f(x) may have other roots besides the x’s. We now introduce a third equation, (x) =0, defined as the equation of lowest degree, with rational coefficients, admitting the root x, and conse- quently all the x/s (10). 12, Properties or tim Equation ¢ (x) =0. L. $(x) =0 is an irreducible equation, i.e., (x) cannot be resolved into two rational polynomial factors. This irreduei- bility is due to the hypothesis that ¢ (x) =0 is the rational equation of lowest degree satisfied by the x/s. For if we had $OM=¥ Ox,ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS. 1 then $ (x) =0 would require either y (x1) =0, or x (x) =0, or both. But since these equations are fied by all the conjugate values (10), $ (x) =0 would not then be the equa- tion of lowest degree satistied by the x/s. TL. $(x) =0 has no multiple roots. Otherwise $ (x) could be decomposed into rational factors by the well-known meth- ods of Algebra, and $ (x) =0 would not be irreducible. TIL. $(x) =0 has no other roots than the x's. Otherwise F (x) and $ (x) would admit a highest common divisor, which could be determined rationally. We could then decompose ¢ (x) into rational factors, and ¢ (x) would not be irreducible. IV. Let M be the number of x,’s which have distinct values, and let Xa Xay s+ Xa be these quantities. We shall then have oh (x) = C (x = x1) (Ke) oR — Xp) For ¢ (x) =0 is satisfied by the quantities x, and it has no multiple roots. ‘The polynomial ¢ (x) is then determined save for a constant factor whose value has no effect upon ¢ (x) =0. V. $(x)=0 ts the only irreducible equation with rational coefficients satisfied by the x's. For if f (x) =0 were another rational irreducible equation satisfied by x, and consequently by the x/s, f(x) would be divisible by $(x) and therefore would not be irreducible. By reason of the five properties of @ (x) =0 thus estab- lished, we may designate this equation, in short, as the irre- aucible equation satisfied by the x/s. 18. Let us now compare F (x) and @ (x). ‘These two poly- nomials have the x's as their only roots, and $(x) has no multiple roots. F (x) is, then, divisible by @ (x); that is, FO) = Fi) $().12 FAMOUS PROBLEMS. F, (x) necessarily has rational coefficients, since it is the quo- tient obtained by dividing F(x) by (x). If Fi(x) is not a constant it admits roots belonging to F(x); and admitting one it admits all the x’s (10). Hence F, (x) is also divisible by ¢ (x), and F, (x) = Fa(x) d(x). If F, (x) is not a constant the same reasoning still holds, the degree of the quotient being lowered by each operation. Hence at the end of a limited number of divisions we reach an equation of the form Fri) = Cio), Fo=C- Lem). The polynomial F (x) is then a power of the polynomial of minimum degree (x), except for a constant factor. and for F (x), 14. We can now determine the degree M of (x). F (x) is of degree 2"; further, it is the rth power of g(x). Hence omy M, Therefore M is also a pawer of 2 and we obtain the following theorem : ‘The degree of the irreducible equation satisfied by an expres- sion composed of square roots only is always a power of 2. 15. Since, on the other hand, there is only one irreducible equation satisfied by all the x/s (12, V.), we have the converse theorem: If an irreducible equation is not of degree 2, it cannot be solved by square roots.CHAPTER IL. The Delian Problem and the Trisection of the Angle. 1. Let us now apply the general theorem of the preceding chapter to the Delian problem, ie., to the problem of the duplication of the cube, The equation of the problem is manifestly x= 2. This is irreducible, since otherwise V2 would have a rational value. For an equation of the third degree which is reducible must have a rational linear factor. Further, the degree of the equation is not of the form 2"; hence it cannot be solved by means of square roots, and the geometric con- struetion with straight edge and compasses is impossible. 2. Next let us consider the more general equation oy d designating a parameter which may be a complex quantity of the form a+ ib. This equation furnishes us the analyt- ical expressions for the geometrical problems of the multi- plication of the cube and the trisection of an arbitrary angle. The question arises whether this equation is reducible, i. whether one of its roots can be expressed as a rational fune- tion of A. It should be remarked that the irreducibility of an expression always depends upon the values of the quan- tities supposed to be known. In the case x°=2, we were dealing with numerical quantiti , and the question was ys whether V2 could have a rational numerical value. In the we ask whether a root can be represented by jon of A. In the first case, the so-called equation x* a rational funeti14 FAMOUS PROBLEMS. domain of rationality comprehends the totality of rational numbers ; in the second, it is made up of the rational fune- tions of a parameter. If no limitation is placed upon this . X parameter we see at once that no expression of the form wR: in which (A) and ¥(A) are polynomials, can satisfy our equation. Under our hypothesis the equation is therefore irreducible, and since its degree is not of the form 2%, it can- not be solved by square roots. 3. Let us now restrict the variability of X. Assume y a As r(cos +i sin g) ; + whence Yi=Vr Veos $+isin d. Our problem resolves itself into two, to 0 XK extract the cube root of a real number and also that of a complex number of the form cos #+i sin ¢, both numbers being regarded as arbitrary. We shall treat these separately. I. The roots of the equation x*=r are Vi, Vn ed Ve representing by «and & the complex cube roots of unity ttivs , —1-iv3 a 3 Taking for the domain of rationality the totality of rational functions of r, we know by the previous reasoning that the equation x*=r is irreducible. Hence the problem of the multiplication of the eube does not admit, in general, of a construction by means of straight edge and compasses. IL The roots of the equation cos # isin b are, by De Moivre’s formula, Fla. 1, xTHE TRISECTION OF THE ANGLE. 15 x= eos $4 i sin & These roots are represented geometrically by the vertices of an equilateral triangle inscribed in the circle with radius unity and center at the origin. ‘The figure shows that to the root x, cor- responds the argument $ Hence the equation v= 208 +i sin is the analytic expression of the problem of the trisection of the angle. Té this equation were reducible, one, at least, of its roots could be represented as a rational function of cos ¢ and sin ¢, its value remaining unchanged on substituting ¢ + 2n for g. But if we effect this change by a continuous variation of the angle $, we see that the roots x1, Xa, Xs undergo a cyclic permutation, Hence no root can be represented as a rational function of cos @ and sin >. The equation under consideration is irreducible and therefore cannot be solved by the aid of a finite number of square roots. Hence the trisection of the angle cannot be effected with straight edge and compasses. This demonstration and the general theorem evidently hold good only when ¢ is an arbitrary angle ; but for certain spe- cial values of @ the construction may prove to be possible, Fia. 2. anges when b= 5.CHAPTER III. The Division of the Circle into Equal Parts. 1. The problem of dividing a given circle into n equal parts has come down from antiquity ; for a long time we have known the possibility of solving it when n= 24, 3, 5, or the product of any two or three of these numbers. In his Disquisitiones Arithmeticae, Gauss extended this series of numbers by showing that the division is possible for every prime number of the form p= 2% +1 but impossible for all other prime numbers and their powers. If in p= 2" +1 we make p=0 and 1, we get p=3 and 5, cases already known to the ancients. For p=2we get p=2"+1=17, a case completely discussed by Gauss. For p= 3 we get p= 2" + 1 = 257, likewise a prime num- ber. The regular polygon of 257 sides can be constructed. Similarly for «= 4, since 2% -- 1 = w=5, w=6, p==7 give no prime numbers. For «=8 no one has found out whether we have a prime number or not. ‘The proof that the large numbers corresponding to z= 5, 6, T are not prime has required a large expenditure of labor and ingenuity. It is, therefore, quite possible that »=4 is the last number for which a solution can be effected. Upon the regular polygon of 257 sides Richelot published an extended investigation. in Crelle’s Journal, IX, 1832, pp. 1-26, 146-161, 209-230, 337-356. The title of the ir is: De resolutions algebraica aequationis x =1, sive vireuli per bisectionem angult 7 is a prime number, ipties vepetitam in partes 257 inter se aequales commentatio coronata,THE DIVISION OF THE CIRCLE. AT To the regular polygon of 65537 sides Professor Hermes of Lingen devoted ten years of his life, examining with care all the roots furnished by Gauss’s method. His MSS. are preserved in the collection of the mathematical seminary in Gdttingen. (Compare a communication of Professor Hermes in No. 3 of the Gittinger Nachrichten for 1894.) 2. We may restrict the problem of the division of the circle into n equal parts to the cases where n is a prime num- ber p or a power p* of such a mumber., For if n is a com- posite number and if wand y are factors of n, prime to each other, we can always find integers a and b, positive or nega- tive, such that 1=au+by; whenee eres pe # into py =n equal parts it is sufficient to know how to divide it into » and y equal parts respectively. Thus, for n= 15, we have To divide the cir 8. As will appear, the division into p equal parts (p being a prime number) is possible only when p is of the form p=2"+1. We shall next show that a prime number ean be of this form only when h=2*, For this we shall make use of Fermat’s Theorem : If p isa prime number and aan integer not divisible by p, these numbers satisfy the congruence +1 (mod. p). ily the lowest exponent which, for a given value of a, satisfies the congruence. If s is the lowest exponent it may be shown that s is a divisor of p—1. In particular, if s= p —1 we say that a is a primitive root of p, a?18 FAMOUS PROBLEMS, and notice that for every prime number p there is a primitive root. We shall make use of this notion further on, Suppose, then, p a prime number such that @) p=241, and s the least integer satisfying 2) 2°= +1 (mod. p). From (1) 2" p. sh (1) shows that h is the least integer satisfying the congruence (3) a 1 (mod. p). From (2) and (8), by division, gen (A) sahth From (3), by squaring, 2 = 1 (mod. p). Comparing with (2) and observing that s is the least expo- nent satisfying congruences of the form 2*= 1 (mod. p), we have @) We have observed that s is a divisor of p—1=2"; the same is true of h, which is, therefore, a power of 2. Hence prime numbers of the form 2"41 are necessarily of the form oP 4. 4. This conclusion may be established otherwise. Sup- pose that h is divisible by an odd number, so that h=h'(2n-++1); then, by reason of the formula OU Le (Kb) Tf xD),THE CYCLOTOMIC EQUATION. 1g p=2"@+)44 is divisible by 2" +1, and hence is not a prime number. 5. We now reach our fundamental proposi p being a prime number, the division of the circle into p equal parts by the straight edge and compasses is impossible unless p is of the form p=2+1=2" 41, Let us trace in the zplane (z = x + iy) a circle of radins 1. To divide this circle into n equal parts, beginning at z= 1, is the same as to solve the equation z—1=0. ‘This eqnation admits the root z= 1; let us suppress this root by dividing by z—1, which is the same geometrically as to disregard the initial point of the division. We thus obtain the equation Bopp. +z +1=0, which may be called the cyclotomic equation, As noticed above, we may confine our attention to the cases where n is a prime number or a power of a prime number. We shall The essential point of the proof is to show that the above equation is For since, as we have scen, irreducible equations solved by means of square roots in finite number when their degree is a power of 2, a division into p parts is always im- possible when p—1 is not equal to a power of 2, i, when pee +1 42" 41. Thus we see why Gauss’s prime numbers occupy such an exceptional position. first investigate the case when n reducible. n only be 6. At this point we introduce a lemma known as Gauss’s Lemma. If F(z) =z" Az? Bem? Lz + M,20 FAMOUS PROBLEMS. where A, B,... are integers, and F(z) can be resolved into two rational factors f(z) and ¢ (z), so that F (2) =F (2) +b (2) = (2™ $f agz™ 1} ayz™ (+ Bizt 1+ B+. .), then must the a’s and f’s also be integers. In other words : Lf an integral expression can be resolved into rational factors these factors must be integral expressions. Let us suppose the a’s and ’s to be fractional, In each factor reduce all the coefficients to the least common denom- inator. Let ay and by be these common denominators. Finally multiply both members of our equation by ayby. It takes the form aoboF (2) = fr (2) #1 (2) = (ao2™ + az™—2+...) (by2™" + biz”... The a’s are integral and prime to one another, as also the b's, since a) and by are the least common denominators. Suppose ay and by different from unity and let q be a prime divisor of ayby. Further, let a; be the first coefficient of f; (2) and by the first coeflicient of $1 (z) not divisible by q. Let us develop the produet: f; (z) #1 (z) and consider the coefficient of zm +m'—i-k Tt will be aide bay iby + ayabde pet es tag ibea + aged ot... According to our hypotheses, all the terns after the first are divisible by q, but the first is not. Hence this coefficient is not Now the coefficient of 2™+""—I-* in the first smember i ible by ayby, te, by q. Henee if the identity is true it is impossible for a coefficient not divisible by q to oceur in each polynomial. ‘The coefticients of one at least of the polynomials are then all divisible by q. Here is another absurdity, since we have seen that all the coefficients are oe)THE CYCLOTOMIC EQUATION. 2 prime to one another. Hence we cannot suppose ay and by different from 1, and consequently the a’s and fs are in- tegral. 7. In order to show that the cyclotomic equation is irre- ducible, it i8 sufficient to show by Gauss’s Lemma that the first member cannot be resolved into factors with integral coefficients. ‘To this end we shall employ the simple method due to Eisenstein, in Crelle’s Journal, XXXIX, p. 167, which depends upon the substitution x1. We obtain = 30-1 pera. P Dt pao, All the coefficients of the expanded member except the first are divisible by p; the last coefficient is always p itself, by hypothesis a prime number. An expression of this class is always irreducible. For if this were not the case we should have FEL =(e™ fax 4... fay ixta,) (0 bye Ef Eby ax Byes where the a’s and b’s are integers. Since the term of zero degree in the above expression of f(z) is p, we have aybyy p being prime, one of the fac- tors of a,b,’ must be unity. Suppose, then, 1. an = Py bes Equating the coefficients of the terms in x, we have 1 Bay AmByy’ 1622 FAMOUS PROBLEMS. ‘The first member and the second term of the second being divisible by p, arb,’ must be so also. Since byw=+1, a1 is divisible by p. Equating the coefficients of the terms in x2 we may show that a, is divisible by p. Similarly we show that all of the remaining coellicients of the factor x" fay... fag ix-bay are divisible by p. But this cannot be true of the coefficient of x", which is 1. ‘The assumed equality is impossible and hence the eyclo- tomic equation is irreducible when p is a ‘prime. 8. We now consider the case where n is a power of a prime number, say n=p% We propose to show that when p> 2 the division of the circle into p? equal parts is impos- sible. The general problem will then be solved, since the division into p* equal parts evidently includes the division into p? equal parts. The cyclotomic equation is now Tt admits as roots extraneous to the problem those which come from the division into p equal parts, ie., the roots of the equation oi z—-1 0. Sappressing these roots by division we obtain as the cyclotomic equation, This may be written 2HO-D 4 2-9 Ff PL =O, ‘Transforming by the substitution z=x+1, we have (eF LPO-D$ (FPP + Ati =THE CYCLOTOMIC EQUATION. 23 ‘The number of terms being p, the term independent of x after development will be equal to p, and the sum will take the form EBX, where x(x) is a polynomial with integral coefficients whose constant term is 1. We have just shown that such an expres- sion is always irreducible. Consequently the new cyclotomic equation is also irredueibl The degree of this equation is p(p—1). On the other hand an irreducible equation is solvable by square roots only when its degree is a power of 2, Hence a circle is divisible into p* equal parts only when p ==2, p being assumed to be a prime. The same is true, as already noted, for the division into p= equal parts when a> 2.CHAPTER Iv. The Construction of the Regular Polygon of 17 Sides. 1. We have just seen that the division of the circle into equal parts by the straight edge and compasses is possible only for the prime numbers studied by Gauss. It will now be of interest to learn how the construction can actually be effected. The purpose of this chapter, then, will be to show in an elementary way how to inscribe in the cirele the regular poly- gon of 17 sides. Since we possess as yet no method of construction based upon considerations purely geometrical, we must follow the path indicated by our general discussions. We consider, first of all, the roots of the eyelotomic equation xh xb pt x $10, and construct geometri roots, deduced from it. We know that the roots can be put into the transcendental form lly the expression, formed of square 2, enn nen) 5 . f= 008 Fo isin FE (x=1, 2... 16); and if that Geometrically, these roots are represented in the complex plane by the vertices, different from 1, of the regular polygon of 17 sides inscribed in a circle of radius 1, having the originTHE REGULAR POLYGON OF 17 SIDES. 25 as center. ‘Lhe selection of ¢ is arbitrary, but for the con- struction it is essential to indicate some ¢ as the point of departure, Having fixed upon e, the angle corresponding to «is x times the angle corresponding to ¢, which completely determines ¢,. 2. The fundamental idea of the solution is the following : Forming a primitive root to the modulus 17 we may arrange the 16 roots of the equation in a eycle in a determinate order. As already stated, a number a is said to be a primitive root to the modulus 17 when the congruence ++ 1 (mod. 17) has for least solution s=17—1—=16. The number 3 pos- sesses this property; for we have Paid B12 Sono 7 gies gp emod 17). Do Let us then arrange the roots ¢, so that their indices are the preceding remainders in order €3y Eos Eto» €13y €Ss E15) Eris €isy E1ay Ear ry Ear Eras Ey Ces Ge Notice that if r is the remainder of 3* (mod. 17), we have a= 1iqt+h whenee g=d=a" If ris the next remainder, we have similarly et eat = (q")*= (6)% Hence in this series of roots each root is the cube of the preceding nposing this eyele into sums containing 8, 4, 2, 1 roots respectively, corresponding to the divisors of 16. Each of these sums is called a period. Gauss’s method consists in d26 FAMOUS PROBLEMS. The periods thus obtained may be calculated successively as roots of certain quadratic equations. The process just outlined is only a particular case of that employed in the general case of the division into p equal parts, The p —1 roots of the cyclotomic equation are cyclic- ally arranged by means of a primitive root of p, and the periods may be calculated as roots of certain auxiliary equa- tions. ‘The degree of these last depends upon the prime fac- tors of p—1, They are not necessarily equations of the second degree. The general case has, of course, been treated in detail by Gauss in his Disquisitiones, and also by Bachmann in his work, Die Lehre von der Kreisteilung (Leipzig, 1872). 3. In our case of the 16 roots the periods may be formed in the following manner: Form two periods of 8 roots by taking in the eyele, first, the roots of even order, then those of odd order. Designate these periods by x; and x, and replace each root by its index. We may then write symbol- ically m=9F13415+164+ 8+44 244, x= 34104 5-114 14474 12+6. Operating upon x; and x, in the same way, we form 4 periods of 4 terms : yi=13+164+ 44 4, y= IF15+ 8+ 2, ye=104+41+4+ 7+ 6, y= B+ 5414412. Operating in the same way upon the y’s, we obtain 8 periods of 2 terms : 2u=16+1, z=ll+ 6, 344, o+ 7, 5+2, 5 +12, u= 9+8, w= 8414,THE REGULAR POLYGON OF 17 SIDES. 27 It now remains to show that these periods can be calculated successively by the aid of square roots. 4. It is readily seen that the sum of the remainders corre- sponding to the roots forming a period z is always equal to 17. ‘These roots are then ¢, and e;_,; Qa -s008 Ze qb isin 72, ey = Grp = 008 (17 — ¥) Hi sin (17 —1) Pp = cos ee isin rem Sos FF — i sin FF. Hence 2 cos a, at Therefore all the mee z are real, and we readily obtain erm eee e Qn m= 2 cos 42%, * 17 2 cos 227. 2 cos Roe %=2 cos 277, 2, == 2 cos B22, 7 Zs 2 eos 82, Moreover, by definition, X= 21+ 2. +254 24, Zs Ze +2 +25 WHA, YoHztzy Ye = Zst 2 Ye= Zr bee 2 cos 5. It will be necessary to determine the relative magnitude of the different periods, For this purpose we shall employ the following artifice : We divide the semicircle of unit radius into 17 equal parts and denote by Si, S:,.. - Sy the distanees28 FAMOUS PROBLEMS. of the consecutive points of division Ay, As... Arr from the initial point of the semicircle, S,; being equal to the diam- eter, ie, equal to 2, The angle Daa A,Au,O has the same measure as the half of the are A,O, which equals ax 34° Hence =2 sin = 2 eos GENT } $,=2 sin $= 2 cos (That this may be identical with 2a 2 608 h 77, we must have 7 4h=17—«, «= 17—4h. ack ae Pua. 3. Giving to h the values 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, we find for « the values 13, 9, 5, 1, —11,—15. Henee ‘The figure shows that S, increases with the index ; hence the order of increasing magnitude of the periods z is Zay Loy 25 Ziy Zap Zay Zap Ziv Moreover, the chord A.A, ,, subtends p divisions of the semi- circuniference and is equal to S, ; the triangle OAAc, » shows that ps Seap< Set Sp and a fortiori Scop < Sear Spare Calculating the differences two and two of the periods y, we easily find