Unit 1: Conjugation

There are three main forms in which verbs are conjugated:

the affirmative, negative and interrogative.
The affirmative.
Simple affirmative sentences can be formed with a subject and a
verb in a single clause. e.g. Moussa shouted / Mariam sneezed.
Auxiliary verbs (be, do, have, modals) can also be included as
part of the verb phrase and an adverbial after the verb (He was
eating in class). We can use verbs with one or two objects, or
without objects. E.g.1. I saw him, E.g.2 He gave him the letter;
E.g.3 She laughed.
1.2. Subject-Verb Agreement
It is the subject that determines whether the verb is singular or plural. It
is the main noun, not the prepositional phrase that makes the verb
singular or plural.
We use singular verbs after indefinite pronouns (everybody, nobody,
etc.) as subjects. We usually use singular verbs after subjects beginning
with none, neither of in formal situations; we sometimes use plural in
informal situations.
E.g.1 : Everybody wants to be with him.
E.g.2: Nobody except his parents was willing to help him.
E.g.3 : None if the candidates has a chance to win / None of you have
the chance.
E.g.4: He was happy that neither of them were willing to stay there.
We use singular verbs after some subjects that seem to be plural : some
nouns ending in -s, phrases describing an amount and some
combinations with and.
E.g.1: The news was given to him / Measles is a disease.
E.g.2 : fifty five euros is too much for this pair of trousers / Twenty
miles is a long distance and two days is not enough time to get there.
E.g.3 : Tom and Jerry is a rather violent cartoon / Fish and fries is not
very expensive.
We can use a group noun to refer to several people with a plural verb, or
to refer to the group as a single unit with a singular verb, depending on
our point of view
E.g.1: the Welsh team are getting tired / the Welsh team is in second
place.
E.g.2 : The committee have not expressed all their views /The
committee has not reached a decision yet.
Other group nouns are audience, class, crowd, enemy, family,
government, orchestra, staff, etc.
Note that in American English group nouns are usually used with a
singular verb.
1.3. State Verbs and Action or Event Verbs
There are action verbs and state verbs. Action verbs are used to describe
actions (what the subject does) and events (what happens).
E.g.. I eat a lot of fruit/ She gave him her salary/ He walks to school
every day.

State verbs are used to describe states, what we think, how we feel and
relationship, especially those concerned with inclusion and possession.

E.g.. I know what you mean/ His parents believe in fate/ My father
hates cucumber in salad/ The leaflet contains information on how to use
the product/ that car belongs to me.
We do not usually use state verbs in the continuous form.
Other state verbs include : consist of, include, exist, matter, own, prefer,
realize, remember, resemble; sometimes weigh and taste can be used as
state verbs: it tastes good/ it weighs 20 kilos
State verbs are usually not used in continuous forms.
2. The negative

2.1 In simple tenses (present and past)

In the simple tenses of all ordinary verbs like the present simple and the
past simple, the negative is formed with the help of the auxiliary do in
its negative form (i.e. with the particle not). Only the auxiliary is
conjugated in the corresponding tense, either present (do not) or past
simple (did not), the main verb remaining in the infinitive or simple
form.

E.g.: He does not know me.

He did not miss classes last term.
2.2. In continuous and perfect tenses
In the continuous and perfect tenses, only the negation particle not is
inserted between the auxiliary and the main verb to mark the negative.
E.g.: My sister is not sleeping now.
Betty has not come to school today.
N.B.: As a rule, in the negative form, when the sentence contains
negative words such as: nobody, none, no-one nowhere, never, no, the
use of another negative structure is forbidden; this is to avoid a double
negation.
E.g.: Nobody has called you today.
However, a double negative is tantamount to an affirmative and
corresponds to a literary usage.
E.g.: Nobody doesn’t ignore the fact = Everybody knows the fact.
3. The interrogative

Interrogative sentences (either simple, continuous or perfect tenses) are

usually formed according to a structure of inversion of the appropriate
auxiliary and the subject, followed by the main verb.
E.g.: Have you seen John anywhere?
Are you coming to the party tonight?
Do you speak Chinese?
But in the case of Wh- questions, when the Wh- word is the subject of
the sentence (who, what, which ), there is no inversion.
E.g.: Who called me during my absence? What is happening here?
 4 The negative interrogative
In the negative interrogative sentence, when the contracted form is not
used, the word order varies according to the nature of the subject
a. If the subject is a noun, the negation particle (not) comes after the
auxiliary verb.
E.g.: Is not this man speaking to you?
b. If the subject is a pronoun, the negation particle (not) comes after the
subject.
E.g.: Is he not speaking to you?
c. When negative words such as nobody, none, no-one, nowhere, never, no,
are part of the sentence, the construction of the sentence follows the simple
interrogative pattern.
E.g.: Did anybody come here?
d. The negative interrogation form of to be at the 1st person singular is:
aren't I? However, amn’t I was possible but not current.
 Unit: 2 The Present tenses

1. The present simple

1. 1. Form
The form of the present tense is the verb in its simple or root form for all
persons, except the third person singular, which takes an s or es ending.
E.g.: I work everyday….You work everyday….He/she works every
day….
1. 2. Use
1. 2. 1. Main use
It is mainly used to express habitual actions or repetitive actions as well
as permanent situations and general truths. With the present simple, the
action is considered from a global perspective, that is, as a whole.
E.g.: John goes to school from Monday to Saturday.
Dogs bark. The English drink tea very much. Girls love chocolate
My parents live in the village.
In keeping with this use, it is often associated with adverbs or
adverbial phrases such as: always, never, occasionally, often,
sometimes, usually, as a rule, every week, on Mondays, twice a week,
etc.
E.g.: Christians go to church on Sundays
Muslims to mosque on Fridays
1. 2. 2. Other uses
a. It is commonly used with the verb to say when the speaker is quoting
from books or notices:
E.g.: What does the book say? ~ It says: "serve your country honestly"
Shakespeare says: "Neither a borrower or a lender be"
Other verbs of communication are used in the same way.
E.g.: Shakespeare advises/ tells us not to borrow or lend.

b. It is used with verbs expressing beliefs, preferences, feelings,

appearance, personal opinion...
E.g.: Africans believe in ghosts.
I don't agree with you.
John's mother looks younger.
I like dancing….
c) It is used when we perform an action by speaking, for example when
we promise to do something.
E.g. : I accept your decision / I promise to be more careful
Other verbs used like this include : admit, apologize, bet, deny, insist,
regret
d. It is normally used with verbs of perception like: to see, to smell, to
feel, to hear.
E.g.: I smell gas in this room.
This little girl feels cool.
e. It is currently used in newspaper headlines.
E.g.: Peace talks fail.
President Trump goes on war against terrorism…
f. It is used in the form of dramatic present to describe the actions on a
stage or in a stage-like context.
E.g.: Carine is in the laboratory ; she switches on the console puts on
the earphones and begins playing a tape.
g. It is used in time clauses in the form of statements introduced by
time adverbs such as: when, as soon as, before...
E.g.: When it stops raining we’ll go out.
She takes the boy to school before she goes to work.
h. It is used to express a future action which corresponds to a regular
schedule (like flight, train or work schedules) or an action which does
not depend on the doer. In this case, it is accompanied by a time
expression indicating the future, and therefore cannot be mixed up with
the case involving a habitual action.
E.g.: Bob leaves tomorrow by the 10 o’clock train.
2. The present continuous
2. 1. Form
The form of the present continuous is: auxiliary is / are + verb in ‘ing’
form.
E.g.: We are doing a lesson on the present continuous tense.
2. 2. Use
2. 2. 1. Main use
It is mainly used for an action in progress at the time of speaking. The
action referred to may be temporary or unusual. With the present
continuous, and in general with all continuous tenses, the action is
considered, not as a whole, but as a sequence of a whole, and that
sequence corresponds to a process.
E.g.: We are doing grammar now.
Bob is teaching at Lycée Bogodogo this year.

2. 2. 2. Other uses
a. It is used with always to express a repetitive action which annoys the
speaker.
E.g.: He is always losing his keys.

b. When used with a verb of perception it modifies its meaning,

changing it from involuntary to voluntary action.
Compare: I smell gas.
& Why are you smelling the room like that? Is something wrong?
N.B. : Voluntary perception is expressed with substitutes like to look at
and to listen which replace to see and to hear.
c. It is also used to express a future action, already planned or intended
by the doer. The action considered is in a process since the moment the
doer started making his decision about it.
E.g.: I am going to Bobo tonight.
3. The present perfect
3. 1. General consideration
By present perfect, the learner should have in mind this:
present perfect = present + perfect, with perfect meaning
accomplished. It expresses an accomplished action in relation to the
present. In fact this action may be completely fulfilled or partly
fulfilled. As it appears, it is a present tense as well as a past tense. The
action referred to is supposed to take place in a period of time which
goes from the past to the present, indefinitely. It would be a mistake to
consider it as the corresponding tense to the French “passé compose”,
which is often expressed with the past simple alongside with the
present perfect. There are two forms of present perfect: the present
perfect simple and the present perfect continuous.
3. 2. The present perfect simple
3. 2. 1. Form
The present perfect is formed as follows: auxiliary have / has + verb in
past participle form.
E.g.: I have grown up mentally.

3. 2. 2. Use
Generally speaking, the present perfect is used to (1) talk about or
describe an action or a situation started in the past which connects to
the present, (2) when we mean 'at any point till now' and (3) with the
state verbs.
More specifically, it is used in the following cases :
a. The time of the action is not over. This is generally marked with time
expressions or adverbs which show the extension to the present time,
such as: today, this year, so far, not …yet, already, ever, never...
E.g.: I have been to the cinema this week.
N. B. The action may be repeated in that period of time.
E.g.: I have been to the cinema three times this month.
b. The action is recently completed . This aspect can be deduced from
the context or explicitly expressed with adverbs such as: just, recently,
lately.
E.g.: He has just arrived.
N.B.: Although ago expresses recentness, it is always used with the past
simple as it gives precision about the time of occurrence.
E.g.: He arrived five minutes ago.
c. The result of a completed action is noticed or faced with in the
present:
E.g.: Oh damn, I've forgotten my keys!
Look! Somebody has taken your seat.

d. The action is not over and its duration is evaluated. In other words, it
is a durative action. The durative nature of the action is generally
expressed with the help of the conjunctions: since and for.
E.g.: How long have you been here?
He has been ill for a week
He has lived here since 2000.
N.B.: The action introduced by since is generally in the present perfect
and the past perfect
(E.g.: He has gone to school since childhood) whereas that introduced
by for can be in the past simple in addition to the present perfect and
past perfect tenses, precisely when a past period of time is referred to.
E.g.: I went to the United Kingdom in 1991 and I stayed there for 9
months.
However since is followed by the past simple tense when the action
concerned marks the beginning of a period of time.
E.g.: My brother has not gone to school since he broke his leg.
3. 3. The present perfect continuous
3. 3. 1. Form
The present perfect continuous is formed according to this pattern:
auxiliary have / has + been + verb in ‘ing’ form.
E.g.: I have been studying all day long.
3. 3. 2. Use
The present perfect continuous is used (1) to talk about an activity in
progress up to the present, (2) and to ask about or describe actions
which go on over a period of time up to the present. In other words, the
continuous form of the present perfect is suitable for expressing a
durative action which is on-going (a combination of two aspects).
E.g.: How long have you been learning English?
I have been learning English since secondary school.
 Unit 3: The past tenses
They comprise the simple past or preterit, the past
continuous, the present perfect, the past perfect simple and
the past perfect continuous.
I. The simple past tense or preterit.
A description of its form and formation rules for regular verbs is already
provided in ch.2. Regarding its use, it mainly serves in the following
cases:
1. An action completed in the past at a definite time. The time can be
expressed explicitly or implicitly.
ex: I met him yesterday (explicit). The train was ten minutes late
(implicit). I bought this jacket in Montreal (implicit).
2. An action completed over a period of time in the past. ex: He worked
for that company for two years.
3. Narration of past events. ex: She put on her hat, looked at herself in
the mirror, took her handbag and went out.
4. In conditional clauses and subjunctive statements, where it is known
as unreal past. ex: If he came now I would/should be surprised. I wish
he stopped disturbing me.
II. The past continuous
It is formed with the simple past of the auxiliary to be + the present
participle form of the verb.
As a rule it is used for an action which was in the middle of happening
at a given time, or when something else happened. ex: At 8:00 he was
having his breakfast; He was having his breakfast when the telephone
rang.
In keeping with this rule, it serves for expressing a gradual
development. ex: It was getting darker when we reached the place.
Note.: How to express the past habit? The past habit can be expressed in
the following ways:
 construction with used to: in the case of a discontinued past habit or a
past situation contrasting with the present one. ex: He used to play
foot-ball; Burkina Faso used to be called Upper Volta.
construction with would: to point out past routine with no instance on
the contrast between the past and the present. ex: When they got
married they would go to the pictures on Sundays;
or to express stubbornness or typical behaviour. She would forget to
switch off the lights.
Besides these usual constructions, two others are noteworthy. They are
formed:
with the simple past in combination with adverbs of frequency such as
always, sometimes, often, rarely, never, . ex: He never drank wine.
with the past continuous sometimes, when one wants to express how a
period of time was spent.
ex: Compare: - what were you doing when I was away?
What did you do when I was away?(impolite, suspicious)
III. The present perfect (simple form only)

It is a tense of the past in that it expresses the completion of an action

regardless of its circumstances, or in unknown circumstances. It may be
referred to as an indefinite past and the simple past as a definite past.
ex: I have seen this man somewhere ; Has anyone read this book?
IV.The past perfect
Generally speaking it is the past equivalent of the present perfect, and as
such it expresses an action which is anterior to another one or anterior to a
given time in the past. ex: When we arrived Tom had just left.
In French it is rendered by the 'plus-que-parfait' or the 'passé antérieur'.
ex: When they got home they found that someone had opened their garden
gate.
Quand ils arrivèrent chez eux ils s'aperçurent que quelqu'un avait ouvert la
porte de leur jardin.
ex: When he had finished his work, he went for a walk
Quand il eut fini son travail, il alla se promener.
Besides when, it is currently used after other time adverbs such as: before,
till/until, after. ex: He refused to go till he had seen the end of the event ;
Before we had walked ten miles he complained of sore feet ;
After he had eaten his dinner he went to bed
V. The past perfect continuous
The past perfect continuous bears the same relation to the past perfect
as the present perfect continuous to the present perfect, with the simple
perfect form expressing a completed action and the perfect continuous
form an incomplete action over given time. In this respect it is used:
when the action began before the time of speaking in the past and
continued up to that time, or stopped just before it. ex: It was now six
and he was tired because he had been working since dawn.
for a repeated action: He had been trying to get her on the phone.
Note that in the two examples, the past perfect simple is possible.
 Unit: 4 The modals

Also known as defective verbs, they consist of auxiliaries such as can,

may/might, must, ought to, should, shall, will, would. As a rule, they
don’t have the infinitive form,
don't take s at the 3rd person singular,
don't have all the tenses,
don't take the complete infinitive but rather the incomplete infinitive.
They serve for expressing difference of mood or point of view such
as that between possibility and actuality, certainty and probability,
obligation and personal consent, etc.
2.1. Can (equivalent: to be able to)
It is used with the following meanings:
a. to express capacity (or ability).
E.g.: Can you lift this heavy suitcase?
In keeping with this meaning it is used:
with verbs of perception.
E.g.: I can hear a noise outside the house.
with verbs expressing reflexes acquired through training. The French
equivalents of these verbs are expressed with the help of “savoir” .
E.g.: I can drive a lorry: je sais conduire un camion
b. to express possibility.
E.g.: We can meet at lunch time; Measles can be dangerous.
c- to express permission. Can is the usual form for expressing
permission with a first subject.
E.g.: I can use my father's motorcycle whenever I want.
It is also used in other persons too to express a less formal or less
polite request.
E.g.: Can I leave now ?; You can take this book home.
On the contrary, the use of could in requests for permission is quite
formal or polite.
E.g.: Could I borrow your car tonight ?

d. – to make requests.
E.g.: Can you do me a favor? Could you do me a favor?
e. In the negative, cannot / could not expresses lack of possibility or
ability
E.g.: I cannot go to school today as it is raining.
You cannot lift this heavy stone.
The negative can also express interdiction or negative deduction.

Ex: You cannot watch TV all day long and not do any studying.
Bob cannot have done the work alone!

2. 2. Could
It is the past or conditional (otherwise known as subjunctive) of Can
a. It is used to express a past possibility or ability, much more in
principle than in fact.
E.g.: During the holiday I could go fishing: Pendant les vacances, je
pouvais aller pêcher.

b. Was able to is used instead to express a fact or a specific case of

ability.
E.g.: Yesterday I was able to go fishing despite the rain: Hier j’ai pu
aller à la pêche malgré la pluie.

c. In the negative there is no difference in meaning between could and

was able to.
E.g.: I could not go fishing = I was not able to go fishing.
d. It is used for polite requests.
E.g.: Could you give me lift home.

2. 3. May (equivalents: to be allowed to / to be likely to)

a. It expresses possibility or probability, either in the present or future
time.
E.g.: Mary may know Bob's address.
In the interrogative form, possibility is normally expressed by a
structure beginning with 'do you think...?' or a construction with 'to be
+ likely' .
E.g.: Do you think John will enter the competition? or: Is the plane
likely to be late?
A construction with could or might is an alternative.
E.g.: Could/might they be waiting for us now?
May cannot introduce the interrogative in this case, although it is
correct to use it in the middle of Wh-questions.
E.g.: May they be waiting now? is incorrect; but When may we expect
you? is correct.
In the perfect forms, may/might expresses speculations about past
actions.
E.g.: He may/might have gone.
More precisely might have expresses a counterfactual situation:
something has not happened but was expected to or was possible.
E.g.: Allan might have got the job but in fact he missed the opportunity
as he was out of town at that time.
b. May expresses permission too, in the two cases, either request for
permission or grant of permission. It is more polite than can.
E.g.: May I come in? ~ Yes, you may!
It is also used with the second person subject when the speaker is giving
permission directly.
E.g.: You may take this book home.
And with the 3rd person subject when the speaker is giving permission
indirectly or is making impersonal statements implying authority and
permission.
E.g.1: He may take my bike;
E.g.2 If convicted, an accused person may appeal.
c. May is appropriate for expressing wishes in a subjunctive
construction.
E.g.: May God bless you!

d. In the negative, may not / might not expresses an improbable action.

E.g.: Alice may not come to the meeting as she was recently out of
town.
May not can also express a formal refusal of permission.
E.g.: May I leave now? No, you may not!
2. 4. Might
a. Might is used alternatively with may to express present or future
possibility or probability, but might slightly increases the doubt, and
seems to be more current.
E.g.: My friend might / may come here this weekend.
b. It is used as the past of may in indirect speech.
E.g.: He said he might travel the following month.
c. It can replace could to express a hypothetical possibility, either past
or present.
E.g.: The dog might / could bite if you provoke it : Le chien pourrait te
mordre si tu le provoques.
The dog might/could have bitten you on your provocation: Le chien
aurait pu te mordre suite à ta provocation.
d. It cannot be used to express permission or a wish, like may.
2. 5. Must (equivalent: to have to)
a. It serves to express obligation or command. Normally, the
fulfillment of this obligation is expected immediately.
E.g.: You must stop disturbing the class !
Generally speaking, must expresses the speaker's authority but if the
speaker is referring to an external authority, to the law or rules, the
structure with have to is appropriate.
E.g.: We will have to leave by six o'clock tomorrow morning.

b. It can be used to express a recommendation or strong advice.

E.g.: If you are in Burkina Faso you must taste their local chicken.
c. It also serves to express deduction or assumption. It therefore
implies logical conclusion, high probability or quasi-certainty.
E.g.: This must be Tom's father (there is no other choice) or Tom
must be ill! (it is the only explanation).
d. In the negative, must not expresses interdiction.
E.g.: You must not disturb the class, moving in and out as you
like.

e. When stating a lack of obligation or necessity, the negative of

the equivalent of must (do not have to) is appropriate.
E.g.: You don’t have to eat eggs if you cannot digest them
I don’t have to go to school on week-ends, as I have no class.
Lack of necessity can also be expressed with: need not + verb (in
incomplete infinitive), or do not need + verb (in the complete
infinitive).
E.g.: You need not translate the documents into French, they all
understand English.
You do not need to translate the documents into French, they all
understand English.

f. There is no past form of must. In the past, the equivalent ‘had to’ is
used instead.
E.g.: Yesterday I had to visit my uncle (not Yesterday, I must visit…)
2. 6. Shall
a. Shall is used to give orders solemnly or peremptorily.
E.g.: You shall leave the room at once for your disturbance !
b. In the negative, it serves to express a formal interdiction.
E.g.: Students shall not communicate while writing exams.
In keeping with the above meanings, it is currently used to give formal
instructions and, in the Christian Holy Scriptures, to express God's
commandments.
E.g.: Students shall not let their cell phones ring in class
Thou shall not kill.
The Vice Chancellor shall be elected every five years
c. Shall also expresses the speaker’s determination.
E.g.: I shall succeed in my studies!
d. It is used in interrogative sentences with the first persons singular or
plural to make a suggestion or an offer.
E.g.: Shall we go to a Chinese restaurant tonight ? I want to eat the
Chinese spicy soup
Shall I bring you some water ?
2. 7. Will
a. It derives from an archaic verb to will, borrowed from German, and
meaning to want. Therefore it is used to express personal consent or
will.
E.g.: Will you take Mr. Ouédraogo / Miss Sanogo for your wedded
husband/wife?
b. It also expresses assumption about present actions or future actions
in the forms of either the future simple, future continuous or future
perfect.
E.g.: - Bring his food, he will be hungry now;
He will be waiting for us,
He will have finished his supper by 8:00.

c. It also serves to indicate a typical or exasperating behaviour.

E.g. : He will always come late: il faut toujours qu’il vienne en retard.
d. It is used to express habit in place of the present simple when you
insist more on the characteristics of the performer of the action than on
the action performed.
E.g.: An Englishman will have dinner at 5:00 : Un Anglais prend
toujours son dîner à 5:00.

e. It is used to express an exasperated request or command.

E.g.: Will you please keep quiet ?
f. It is used in the case when there is no premeditated decision.
E.g.: The phone is ringing. I will answer it.
g. In the negative, it expresses personal refusal.
E.g.: I will not do what you want me to do
It can also express a negative assumption.
E.g.: If you call now he will not be in his office. Call later!
2. 8. Would

a. It is the past of will. This is the case in indirect speech or narration.

E.g.: I didn’t know that he would accept to do me such a favour.
The teacher made it clear to the students that there would be a test half
way through the lesson.

b. It is also used to express a past habit.

E.g.: During summer holiday, every morning I would get up late.
In this respect, the structure 'used to' is used as its substitute, but the
other way round is not always possible. In other words, "used to"
cannot always be replaced by "would"
c. It also serves to indicate a typical or exasperating behaviour in the
past context.
E.g.: He would leave the lights on when he left the room.

d. Together with should it serves to express the subjunctive, a mood in

which the “content of the clause is being doubted, supposed, feared
true rather than asserted”.
E.g.: I should/would say that this boy listens to his parents; for that he
is admirable.
He would not do you the favour if you asked him.
However should is less current in modern English, with respect to this
use.
e. Would serves to express a polite request.
E.g.: I would be grateful if you would do me a favour.
2. 9. Should / Ought to
a. Should used to be presented as the past of shall. But the
compulsory tone of shall tends to be lost in favour of a softened or
suggestive one. Hence it appears to stand much more for the
conditional or subjunctive mood.
E.g.: "I should succeed in my studies" is not quite the past equivalent
of "I shall succeed in my studies".
In this example, the first sentence conveys what is right for me, or
constitutes a moral obligation for me whereas the second one
expresses a strong will to achieve my goal.
Likewise: He said they should meet the following day tends to mean
more than the past of : We shall meet tomorrow as it may appear in a
reported speech.
b. In bearing a milder or reduced meaning should is currently used
alternatively with ought to. They are similar in meaning but should is
more usual than ought to.
c. Should / ought to are used to express the subject's obligation or duty
or to indicate a correct or sensible action.
E.g.: You should / ought to revise your class notes regularly.
d. The obligation here being dependent on the subject, it is not as
mandatory as the obligation expressed with must or shall. It stands as a
suggestion or mere advice.
Compare: You must go to Paris now to stay with your family. (strong
advice)
You should go to Paris now to stay with your family. (suggestion)

e. They are also used to express assumption about present or future

actions, in either the simple , continuous or perfect forms:
E.g.: We should arrive by 3:00
The plane should be landing now
The parcel should have been delivered by now.
2. 10. The past of modals

In addition to could, might, should, would that express the past of the
modals can, may, shall, will, with a limited use, the past of modals is
more widely formed with the adjunction of the perfect infinitive of the
main verb. Here are some current constructions and what they mean:
a. should / would / might / could + perfect infinitive: to form the perfect
conditional tense which is used to speculate about past events:
E.g. : He should have already reached home, if he had left on time, but
he didn’t.
or to regret past actions.
E.g.: If I had been her I should/would have spoken to her to prevent her
from taking this radical decision.
b. should / ought to + perfect infinitive: to express unfulfilled
obligation;
E.g.: We should have helped them
or, in the negative, to express a wrong or foolish action.
E.g.: he shouldn't have lied to her.
c. could / might + perfect infinitive: to express unused ability or past
possibility.
E.g.: We could have done this work.
She might have told him.
d. may / might + perfect infinitive: to express speculation about a past
action.
E.g.: They may/might have left.
e. can't / couldn't + perfect infinitive: to express a negative deduction.
E.g.: She can't/couldn't have cooked all this food alone .

f. must + perfect infinitive: to express affirmative deduction or high

probability.
E.g.: There must have been a celebration here.

3. The Semi-modals
They consist of need, dare. There is a tendency to rank used to in this
category. They function either as auxiliaries or as ordinary verbs.
3. 1. Need, Need to, Need not, Needn't
a. When need is used as auxiliary it keeps a unique form ( no s ending
at the 3rd person singular) like other modals, and it is generally
followed by an incomplete infinitive and is mainly used in negative
and interrogative forms. It is seldom used in the affirmative form,
except when preceded by an interrogative or negative phrase:
E.g. : Do you think I need translate this into French? = Need I translate
this into French ?
E.g. : I'll need to have a car (Not I'll need have a car)
‘Need to’ to say that something is necessary or not necessary
E.g. :Peter needs to tell his father about it
You don't need to call before coming)
b. Need not, needn't
The negative form "need not" expresses a lack of necessity and, alter-
natively with do not have to, serves as the opposite of must. Need not
= there is no need; must = there is a need.
E.g.: You needn't go on a diet, but you must eat sensibly = You don’t
have to go on a diet, but you must eat sensibly.
We can use "needn't" or "need not" (without to) to say that something is
not necessary on a particular occasion
E.g. : You needn't do this work now
E.g. Students do not need to pay to use the library (not students needn't
pay to use the library)
I don't need to wear a coat
N. B. : In American English, only don't need to (not needn't) is used
c. The past of need "need + perfect infinitive" expresses unnecessary past
action.
E.g.: You needn't have cooked it. We could have eaten it raw.
An alternative to this construction is : did not need + complete infinitive.
You didn’t need to cook it….

3. 2. Dare
a. When used as an auxiliary dare is followed by the incomplete
infinitive. When the subject is nobody / no-one, it is optional to use the
complete infinitive or the incomplete one.
E.g.: Nobody dare (to) speak.
b. In a modern use, mainly American, at the third person singular, dare
takes an s when used as an auxiliary.
E.g.: Nobody dares (to) speak.
He dares not speak

c. In an interrogative sentence it expresses indignation or anger.

E.g.: How dare you open my letter?
d. In a negative sentence, it expresses a challenge. ex: You dare not
beat him.
3. 3. Used to
a. It is only used in the past. For its negative and interrogative, it
usually follows the auxiliary pattern.
E.g.: I used not /usedn't to go to the movies often.
b. Although technically used to has no infinitive, the forms didn't use
to... and did he/you use to...? are quite often used.
E.g.: You used to live in the village, didn't you?
To conclude this chapter on the auxiliaries, here is a recapitulatory
presentation of the modalities expressed by the modals :
Prediction : will, would, be going to, shall
Willingness, habits and preferences : will and would
Ability : can, could, be able to
Permission : can, could, may, might, be allowed to
Possibility : may, might, can, could
Necessity : must, have to, have got to, need to, needn't
Deduction : must, have to, have got to, can't and couldn't
Obligation and advice : should, ought to, be supposed to, had better