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Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK
The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers

Open-loop groundwater
222 Balham High Road, London, SW12 9BS
+44 (0)20 8675 5211
www.cibse.org

source heat pumps:

The Ground Source Heat Pump Association
39 Dryburgh Road, London SW15 1BN
+44 (0) 20 8785 4887
www.gshp.org.uk

The Heat Pump Association

2 Waltham Court, Milley Lane, Hare Hatch, Reading, RG10 9TH
+44 (0)118 940 3416
Code of Practice for the UK
www.heatpumps.org.uk

Harnessing energy for heating and cooling

from water in the ground

ISBN 978-1-912034-44-4

CP3
2019
CP3

9 781912 034444
This publication is supplied by CIBSE for the sole use of the person making the download. The content remains the copyright property of CIBSE
Harnessing energy from water in the ground
Code of Practice for the UK
Open-loop groundwater
source heat pumps:

for heating and cooling

 The rights of publication or translation are reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or

transmitted in any form or by any means without prior permission.
This publication is supplied by CIBSE for the sole use of the person making the download. The content remains the copyright property of CIBSE

© May 2019 Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE), London;

Heat Pump Association (HPA), Reading; Ground Source Heat Pump Association
(GSHPA), London

CIBSE registered charity number: 278104

ISBN 978-1-912034-44-4 (book)

ISBN 978-1-912034-45-1 (PDF)

This document is based on the best knowledge available at the time of publication.
However no responsibility of any kind for any injury, death, loss, damage or delay
however caused resulting from the use of these recommendations can be accepted
by CIBSE, HPA, GSHPA, the authors or others involved in its publication. In adopting
these recommendations for use each adopter by doing so agrees to accept full
responsibility for any personal injury, death, loss, damage or delay arising out of or in
connection with their use by or on behalf of such adopter irrespective of the cause or
reason therefore and agrees to defend, indemnify and hold harmless CIBSE, HPA,
GSHPA, the authors and others involved in their publication from any and all liability
arising out of or in connection with such use as aforesaid and irrespective of any
negligence on the part of those indemnified.

Design, layout and typesetting by CIBSE Publications

Printed in Great Britain by Page Bros (Norwich) Ltd., Norwich, NR6 6SA, Norfolk

Information reproduced from Government publications is licensed under Open

Government Licence v3.0. To view this licence, visit http://www.nationalarchives.gov.
uk/doc/open-government-licence

Note from the publisher

This publication is not intended to be exhaustive or definitive and it will be necessary
for users to consult appropriate guidance and to exercise their own professional
judgement when applying the standards contained in the Code.

Any commercial products depicted or described within this publication are included
for the purposes of illustration only and their inclusion does not constitute
endorsement or recommendation by CIBSE, HPA or GSHPA.
Foreword
This Code of Practice has been produced as a joint project between the Chartered
Institution of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE) and the Ground Source Heat Pump

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Association (GSHPA) with the backing of the Heat Pump Association (HPA). The work
has been supported by the UK Department for Business, Energy and Industrial
Strategy (BEIS).

Groundwater source heat pumps (GWSHPs) have huge potential and are an under-
used technology in the UK. Harnessing renewable energy from water wells and mine
water represents a huge opportunity to provide low carbon heating and/or cooling to
buildings. However, if GWSHPs are to form a significant part of our future low carbon
energy infrastructure they need to be designed, built, operated and maintained to a
high quality to deliver customer satisfaction. This Code of Practice has been produced
to help achieve these aims by raising standards right across the supply chain and to
encourage adoption of the technology.

Setting minimum requirements (and recommending best practice) should provide

greater confidence for specifiers and developers. This Code of Practice can also be
included in the tendering/contracting process to specify minimum requirements for a
project. The adoption of this Code of Practice by developers could ultimately be used
to provide assurance to customers and property purchasers that their GWSHP scheme
has followed a set of design, installation and commissioning standards. This Code of
Practice should therefore have a significant effect on the GWSHP market by boosting
confidence in the technology.

CIBSE, GSHPA and HPA are also working to develop compliance checklists and
training to ensure the skills necessary to implement the Code of Practice are available
across the sector.

Phil Jones
Chair, CP3 Steering Committee; Chair, CIBSE CHP and District Heating Group

John Findlay
Past Chair, Ground Source Heat Pump Association (GSHPA)

Authors
The draft of this Code of Practice was prepared by a consortium led by Themba
Technology Ltd. under contract to CIBSE and in association with HPA and GSHPA.

Lead authors

Nic Wincott, Jen Billings

Steering Committee
Project Team

Phil Jones (Building Energy Solutions) (Chair)

David Matthews (Themba Technology Ltd.)
Eileen Bell (CIBSE)

Steering Committee members

Corinna Abesser (British Geological Survey)
Dave Banks (Holymoor Consultancy Ltd.)
Mark Barson (Vaillant)
Nick Boid (IFTech Ltd.)
 Anthony Coumidis (McBains Cooper)
Chris Davidson (GeniusEnergyLab)
James Dickinson (Buro Happold)
John Findlay (Carbon Zero Consulting)
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Graham Hazell (Heat Pump Association)

Roger Hitchin (BRE and CIBSE)
Ross Lowrie (Environment Agency)
Robert Mack (Glen Dimplex Heating and Ventilation)
Tommy Moody (BEIS)
Matthew Maskell (Glen Dimplex Heating and Ventilation)
Colin Pearson (BSRIA)
Mark Trevaskis (Lowara Xylem)
Guus van Gelder (Groenholland UK Ltd.)

Acknowledgements
Comments were received from corresponding members, including:
Michael Crane (GI Energy)
Geoff Ellison (Dragon Drilling)
Sasha Krstanovic (Aecom)
Martin Preene (Preene Groundwater Consulting)

Public consultation

The draft of this document was made available for public consultation between
22 January and 21 February 2018.

Referees
Robin Curtis (GeoScience Ltd.)
James Dickinson (Buro Happold)
Roger Macklin (Hoare Lea LLP)

Editors
Eileen Bell
Ken Butcher

CIBSE Head of Knowledge

Nick Peake

Units for temperature

Temperatures are described in this Code of Practice as degrees Celsius (°C).
However, it should be noted that the Kelvin scale, K (which is the strictly correct SI
unit for temperature), is widely used in practice, often interchangeably with
degrees Celsius. This substitution is acceptable for these applications because the
magnitude of the degree Celsius is exactly equal to that of the kelvin. Subtracting
273.16 K from the temperature of the triple point of water (0.01 °C) makes
absolute zero (0 K) equivalent to −273.15 °C.
Contents

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Part A: How to use this Code

A1 Introduction 2
A1.1 Strategic purpose 2
A1.2 What is an open-loop groundwater source heat pump? 3
A1.3 Why install an open-loop groundwater source heat pump? 3
A2 Readership and scope of the Code of practice 5
A2.1 Readership 5
A2.2 Scope 5
A3 Structure of the Code of Practice 6
A3.1 Themes 7
(A) To deliver low environmental impact 7
(B) To deliver a high-performance system with a high coefficient
of performance 7
(C) To achieve optimum flow and return temperatures 7
(D) To deliver a practical and compliant system using engineering
solutions to overcome technical barriers 7
(E) To deliver a cost effective reliable system with a long life
and low maintenance requirements 9
(F) To deliver effective metering/monitoring of the GWSHP 9
(G) To deliver a safe, high quality scheme where risks are managed 9
A3.2 Responsibilities 9

Part B: Challenges and opportunities

B1 The heat pump 14

B1.1 Types of heat pump 14
B1.2 Heating and cooling 15
B1.3 Key design issues 18
B2 Groundwater sources and their characteristics 24
B2.1 Aquifers: the occurrence of groundwater in the subsurface 24
B2.2 Water wells and boreholes 27
B2.3 Groundwater from flooded mines and quarries 29
B3 Types of installation 31
B3.1 Open-loop doublet systems: abstraction with injection to aquifer 32
B3.2 Open-loop systems: abstraction only with discharge to surface
water or sewer 36
B3.3 Standing column wells (SCWs): abstraction and injection to the
same well or shaft 36
B3.4 Hybrid and mixed technologies 39
B4 Challenges and opportunities 41
B4.1 41
B4.2 Source side networks (SSN) 41
B4.3 Multivector and multivalent systems 42
 B4.4 Retrofit installations 43
B4.5 Free cooling and heating 44
B4.6 Aquifer thermal energy storage (ATES) 48
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Part C: The Requirements

C1 Stage 1: Preparation and briefing

C1.1 Objective 1.1: To commission the project in accordance with
the Code of Practice 54
C1.2 Objective 1.2: To develop the specification/project brief 54

C2 Stage 2: Feasibility
C2.1 Objective 2.1: To identify and quantify the groundwater source 58
C2.2 Objective 2.2: To determine what permissions are necessary to
access the groundwater 60
C2.3 Objective 2.3: To determine heat pump location and groundwater
abstraction and discharge details, including cost estimates 62
C2.4 Objective 2.4: To accurately estimate peak and seasonal heating
and cooling demands 63
C2.5 Objective 2.5: To agree suitable load-side operating flow rates,
temperatures and control strategies 65
C2.6 Objective 2.6: To select the most appropriate heat pump system 66
C2.7 Objective 2.7: To assess operation and maintenance needs
and costs 70
C2.8 Objective 2.8: To conduct a financial analysis to comprehensively
evaluate the installation options 71
C2.9 Objective 2.9: To assess environmental impacts and benefits 72
C2.10 Objective 2.10: To analyse risks and carry out a sensitivity analysis 73

Stage 3: Design
C3.1 Objective 3.1: To design for safety in construction, operation
and maintenance 77
C3.2 Objective 3.2: To accurately determine peak heating and cooling
demands and seasonal energy consumption profiles 78
C3.3 Objective 3.3: To accurately test and quantify the groundwater
supply 80
C3.4 Objective 3.4: To design the groundwater abstraction and
discharge details 81
C3.5 Objective 3.5: To apply for the permissions necessary to access
the groundwater 83
C3.6 Objective 3.6: To specify the most appropriate heat pump system 84
C3.7 Objective 3.7: To design an efficient load-side hydraulic system
interface 85
C3.8 Objective 3.8: To evaluate environmental impacts and benefits 86
C3.9 Objective 3.9: To design a data collection system to accurately
record performance 88
C3.10 Objective 3.10: To update and refine the risk register and
sensitivity analysis 90
C3.11 Objective 3.11: To confirm a cost statement for the main system
elements of the project 91
Stage 4: Construction and installation
C4.1 Objective 4.1: To reduce adverse environmental impacts of
construction 94
C4.2 Objective 4.2: To reduce health and safety risks 95

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C4.3 Objective 4.3: To install the groundwater abstraction and
discharge system in accordance with the design 96
C4.4 Objective 4.4: To pressure test, flush clean, purge and fill all
pipework and plant 97
Stage 5: Commissioning
C5.1 Objective 5.1: To follow a structured commissioning
management plan 100
C5.2 Objective 5.2: To commission the source side of the heat
pump installation 101
C5.3 Objective 5.3: To commission the heat pump and immediate
supply-side equipment 102
C5.4 Objective 5.4: To commission and calibrate the performance
data collection system 103
C5.5 Objective 5.5: To carry out a formal handover and provide
appropriate and comprehensive information to the operations
team 104
Stage 6: Operation and maintenance
C6.1 Objective 6.1: To reduce health and safety risks to staff, customers
and the general public in operation and maintenance 108
C6.2 Objective 6.2: To minimise environmental impacts of operation
and maintenance 108
C6.3 Objective 6.3: To deliver a maintenance schedule that maximises
system efficiency, reliability and asset life 110
C6.4 Objective 6.4: To provide appropriate monitoring and reporting,
including reliability and CO2 emissions 111
Stage 7: Decommissioning
C7.1 Objective 7.1: To decommission the heat pump 114
C7.2 Objective 7.2: To decommission the source side 115
Appendices
Appendix A: Glossary of terms and acronyms 118
Appendix B: Key legislation 121
Appendix C: Useful contacts 127
Appendix D: Calculating system efficiency 129
Appendix E: Environmental best practice checklist 132
Appendix F: References and further reading 133
Index 145
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Part A: How to use this Code

How to use this Code Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

A1 Introduction

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A1.1 Strategic purpose

Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps (GWSHPs), which use groundwater as a

thermal resource to provide heating or cooling, will play an important part in the
UK’s future energy strategy. The 2008 Climate Change Act established the world’s
first legally binding climate change target; the aim is to reduce the UK’s greenhouse
gas emissions by at least 80% (from the 1990 baseline) by 2050. Moving to a more
energy efficient, low-carbon economy will help to meet this target, reduce local
emissions and improve air quality. It will also ensure the UK becomes less reliant on
fossil fuels and consequently less vulnerable to energy price rises.

The Clean Growth Strategy (BEIS, 2017) states that heating our homes, businesses
and industry accounts for almost half of all energy used in the UK and a third of
carbon emissions. About 70% of this heat is produced from natural gas. Meeting the
target of reducing emissions by at least 80% by 2050 implies decarbonising nearly all
heating and cooling used by buildings and industrial processes.

There is a range of low-carbon heating technologies with the potential to support the
scale of change needed, including the electrification of the heating of buildings using
heat pump technologies, such as GWSHPs, instead of gas or oil boilers.

As electricity generation from fossil fuels, especially coal, is phased out and
renewable generation is increased, the carbon intensity of the grid will fall (see http://
www.gshp.org.uk/Gridwatch.html). This decarbonisation of the grid, combined with
the increasing electrification of heat, will directly reduce the carbon produced by
heating and cooling buildings in the UK.

The Clean Growth Strategy also sets an ambition to phase out the installation of
high-carbon fossil fuel heating such as oil and coal in buildings off the gas grid
during the 2020s. This is a sizeable opportunity for decarbonisation and heat pumps
will have a key role to play.

This Code of Practice follows on from CP2: Surface water source heat pumps: Code
of Practice for the UK (CIBSE, 2016), which was published in April 2016 and
supported by the Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC). This Code of
Practice (CP3) focuses on open-loop groundwater source heat pumps and has been
supported by the Department of Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy (BEIS).

Open-loop GWSHPs have the potential to provide heating and cooling on a large
scale and there are an ever-increasing number of examples of open-loop GWSHP
systems in the UK, although it is yet to be considered a mainstream technology (see
sections B2 and B3).

The strategic aims for the deployment of GWSHP systems are:

(1) to reduce CO2 and other greenhouse gas emissions

(2) to reduce the overall cost of providing heating and/or cooling.

(3) to use natural resources sustainably

2 (4) to reduce or replace the consumption of fossil fuels.

 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

This Code of Practice, which has been developed with support from BEIS, is therefore

How to use this Code

written to:

—— improve the quality of feasibility studies, design, construction, commissioning

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and operation by setting minimum requirements and identifying best practice

—— deliver energy efficiency and environmental benefits

—— promote long-lasting open-loop GWSHPs in which customers and investors can

have confidence

—— prevent environmental harm by the introduction of open-loop GWSHPs.

The Environment Agency (EA) is the statutory body for England responsible for
regulating open-loop GWSHP installations. The equivalent bodies for the other parts
of the UK are the Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA), Natural Resources
Wales (NRW) and the Northern Ireland Environment Agency (NIEA). The EA supports
the deployment of sustainable, low carbon heating and cooling GWSHP systems. As a
result, this means that systems must be designed and operated to protect the
environment, with features that mitigate risks of unacceptable impacts on the
groundwater environment and to prevent contamination.

Both CP2 and CP3 are written to complement CP1: Heat Networks: Code of Practice
for the UK (CIBSE/ADE, 2015).

A1.2 What is an open-loop groundwater source heat pump?

Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps utilise groundwater abstracted from an
aquifer via a water well as a thermal resource to provide heating or cooling. After
use, the water is returned directly to the ground via an injection borehole or
soakaway (non-consumptive) or diverted elsewhere for use as a private water supply,
to a sewer or a watercourse (consumptive).

The advantage over surface water source heat pumps (SWSHPs) is that groundwater
temperatures at 10–15 m below the surface are usually reliable and predictable
throughout the year (approximating to the mean annual air temperature at that
location) and increase with depth according to the local geothermal gradient (UK
average 2.6 ºC per 100 m depth). Predictable source temperatures simplify the design
process and can enhance heat pump performance.

An open-loop GWSHP is similar to shallow ground source or surface water source

heat pumps but set up or modified to maximise the benefit of the reliable and
predictable source temperature. Different methods are used by manufacturers to
safeguard their units for groundwater use. Integrating a heat exchanger into the
source-side pipework being the most common.

A1.3 Why install an open-loop groundwater source heat pump?

Open-loop GWSHPs provide an efficient and low carbon means of using renewable
heat from groundwater, i.e. water found underground in aquifers, mines and
caverns. There are a number of advantages to using this technology over other heat
pump systems, such as reduction in land area required and the reliable and
predictable temperature of the groundwater supply, which simplifies the design.

Although heat pump systems can be more expensive to install than conventional oil
or gas combustion technology, they can deliver a cost effective return on investment,
with significant benefits to the client. Following the requirements in this Code of
Practice will help to achieve well-engineered installations that provide lower running
3
costs and carbon emissions.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Economic benefit
How to use this Code

In many cases a motivating factor for installing GWSHP systems could be financial
benefit through reduced energy bills and other incentives including the following:

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—— The UK Government’s heat strategy identifies an important role for heat pumps
and so there are various grants and incentives to encourage uptake of this
technology (see Appendix B).

—— The increased capital cost of the heat pump system should be compensated by
the operating and maintenance cost savings, which can be substantial when
accrued over the whole life of the building.

—— They can have an indirect economic benefit by delivering least cost compliance
with Building Regulations and/or planning requirements.

—— Use of a heat pump can bring additional cost savings and some of these are
often overlooked. For example, a gas supply and flue are not required.

—— As heat pump systems can be used for heating and cooling simultaneously they
can be designed to allow thermal energy to be economically re-used within the
same system rather than generated or rejected.

—— GWSHP systems are usually more compact and may be located in a basement
plantroom. The roof space released can be extremely valuable.

Environmental and reputational benefit

Open-loop GWSHPs are a low-carbon alternative to using fossil fuels and so benefit
the environment. GWSHPs do not generate local air pollution, therefore local air
quality is not impacted as with fossil fuel heat generation technologies. Local
authorities are seeking ways to reduce local emissions of NOx etc. and heat pumps
can play a significant role in achieving this.

Heat pump systems are therefore an excellent opportunity for individuals or

organisations to reduce their carbon footprint and demonstrate corporate social
responsibility, bringing associated reputational benefit. Heat pumps can also be used
to decarbonise buildings that are off the gas grid by replacing high-carbon oil or LPG
boilers.

Legislative requirements

There is an increasing amount of national and international legislation aimed at

decarbonising UK heat supply, such as the Clean Growth Strategy (BEIS, 2017), the
Climate Change Act 2008, the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD), the
Renewable Energy Sources Directive (RES), the Climate Change Levy (CCL) and
Building Regulations. Heat pumps can play a key role in the decarbonisation of heat
and cooling in meeting associated legislation.

The Microgeneration Certification Scheme (MCS) is a nationally recognised quality

assurance scheme, supported by the Department for Business, Energy and Industrial
Strategy (see https://www.microgenerationcertification.org). The MCS certifies
microgeneration technologies used to produce electricity and heat from renewable
sources.

Planning regulations often require new developments to include a proportion of

renewable technology to reduce carbon emissions. Where developments are near a
4 source of groundwater it presents opportunities for GWSHPs.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

How to use this Code

A2 Readership and scope of the Code of Practice
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A2.1 Readership
The Code of Practice is aimed at owners and developers (referred to as ‘the client’),
designers, installers and operators of larger GWSHP systems; architects, consultants
and engineers specifying larger GWSHP systems; and main and subcontractors
involved with installer companies supplying larger GWSHP systems or designs. The
Code of Practice should also prove useful to regulatory organisations, such as the
Environment Agency, and for anyone considering a GWSHP installation.

Clients can specify the use of this Code of Practice in contracts or tender documents,
for entire projects or for specific stages (e.g. construction). It is not necessary to be a
technical expert in GWSHP systems to use the Code for procurement or contractual
purposes — it has been designed (following extensive industry-wide consultation and
in collaboration with BEIS) to give clients and developers confidence that commonly
agreed minimum standards are being followed, and to allow clear communication
between different parties in the supply chain. Using the Code can provide confidence
that:

—— a carefully considered design framework will have been followed

—— legislative and regulatory requirements will have been identified and should
have been met

—— reporting and information handover will allow effective oversight of the

project.

A2.2 Scope
The Code of Practice is intended to be used for larger scale projects. It is not intended
for single domestic dwellings. However, information in the Code may be of interest to
those involved with smaller scale projects.

The Code of Practice addresses and supports open-loop heat pump systems that use
groundwater as their thermal resource to supply heating and/or cooling or to store
heat. This includes water found in mines and caverns as well as aquifers.

The Code of Practice does not address warm water ‘geothermal’ aquifers, wells and
springs.

Information on evaluating the best option for a particular site is addressed at Stage
2: Feasibility (see Objective 2.2).

This Code of Practice is not intended to provide specific design guidance; rather it
aims to set minimum requirements for the technical application of GWSHPs. See
‘References’ and ‘Further reading’ for information about available guidance
documents.

The Code of Practice aims to ensure there is no detrimental impact on the

environment.

The Code of Practice does not consider how a heat pump works in any detail (a brief
overview is provided in section B1) but focuses on the use of groundwater as a
thermal resource and other issues that may have a direct effect on this application. It
does not cover surface water, see CP2: Surface water source heat pumps: A Code of
5
Practice for the UK (CIBSE, 2016).
How to use this Code Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

A3 Structure of the Code of Practice

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The Code of Practice is written to cover all stages of the development cycle from
preparation and briefing through feasibility, design, construction and installation,
commissioning, operation and maintenance, and finally decommissioning.

The Code of Practice is structured by:

—— the typical sequence of a project by stage

—— for each project stage a number of objectives are set

—— for each objective a number of minimum requirements are defined to achieve

the objective.

All of the minimum requirements will need to be met if the project is to fully follow
this Code of Practice. It may be used only for a particular stage (and for this reason
there may be some duplication between stages), but the greatest value will be gained
when it is followed for all stages of the project.

The project stages are outlined in the open-loop GWSHP Plan of Work (see Figure 1)
and are colour coded throughout the document. The Plan of Work also shows the key
responsibilities (see Figure 1 for further detail) and how these relate to the major
themes set out below.

The project stages broadly follow the generic RIBA Plan of Work 2013 (RIBA, 2013)
template (https://www.ribaplanofwork.com). If necessary, to achieve better alignment
this may be customised via an on-line tool (see https://www.ribaplanofwork.com/
CreatePlan.aspx).

The Code of Practice is designed to be prescriptive and minimum requirements are

set to achieve minimum acceptable standards. Best practice has been identified for a
number of objectives and should be considered.

The terminology used throughout the Code of Practice follows the ISO International
Standards and other normative ISO deliverables, such as TS, PAS, IWA:

—— ‘shall’ indicates a requirement

—— ‘should’ indicates a recommendation

—— ‘may’ is used to indicate that something is permitted

—— ‘can’ is used to indicate that something is possible; for example, that an

organization or individual is able to do something.

In section 3.3.3 of ISO/IEC Directives, Part 2: Principles and rules for the structure and
drafting of ISO and IEC documents (8th edition) (ISO/IEC, 2018), a requirement is
defined as an ‘expression, in the content of a document, that conveys objectively
verifiable criteria to be fulfilled and from which no deviation is permitted if
conformance with the document is to be claimed’.

In section 3.3.4 of the same document, a recommendation is defined as an

‘expression, in the content of a document, conveying a suggested possible choice or
course of action deemed to be particularly suitable without necessarily mentioning or
6 excluding others’.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

At the beginning of each stage, key support tasks and typical information exchanges

How to use this Code

are identified. The key support tasks listed are not mandatory. However, they do
provide an appropriate level of management and assist in achieving the objectives at
each stage. The information exchange provides guidance on information that would
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typically be delivered at the end of each stage. These tasks are in line with the RIBA
Plan of Work.

Each stage of the project will have complied with the Code of Practice when it has
been demonstrated that all minimum requirements have been met.

A successful open-loop GWSHP project is often made more difficult by the

fragmented nature of the industry and complex procurement processes. It is common
to find the feasibility work is carried out by a consultant, the detailed design and
construction by a design-and-build contractor and the operation and maintenance by
an unrelated facilities management company. The procurement approach adopted
should consider the risks involved in this fragmentation and lack of incentives for
each party involved to deliver an optimal scheme. Where such separation cannot be
avoided, the Code of Practice can assist in achieving a more integrated design that
ensures operational costs are fully taken into account in the design/development
stages, that the system is correctly commissioned and subsequently maintained and
operated by informed and competent engineers.

The client should provide feedback to CIBSE/GSHPA on the operation of the Code of
Practice to ensure the Code of Practice may be progressively improved.

A3.1 Themes
The principal ways in which the high-level aims are achieved is through a number of
overarching themes, which need to be considered at each stage of the project.

(A) To deliver low environmental impact

Although the principal aim of a GWSHP system is to benefit the global environment
and help move to a more energy efficient, low-carbon economy, the impact on the
local environment needs to be carefully managed. The relevant environmental agency
and other regulatory bodies set requirements which must be followed to ensure the
risk of any negative impact is mitigated.

(B) To deliver a high-performance system with a high coefficient

of performance

To ensure the GWSHP system is energy efficient, the distribution temperatures should
be as low as possible in heating and as high as possible in cooling to maximise
performance. In addition, great care shall be taken to ensure all parasitic energy
loads, such as circulating pumps, are minimised and the energy source has adequate
capacity to cover the requirements of the installation.

(C) To achieve optimum flow and return temperatures

GWSHP systems work most efficiently when the temperature difference (DT) between
the source and load is minimised. Heat pumps typically have lower DT compared to
combustion-based systems.

(D) To deliver a practical and compliant system using engineering solutions to
overcome technical barriers

The technical barriers to the installation of a GWSHP system include water availability,
water quality, ground conditions and pumping distances between the source and
7
load. Space during construction and space for maintenance during operation can
 How to use this Code
8

Figure 1 Typical Plan of Work for an open-loop GWSHP project (courtesy of Phil Jones)

Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Themes
A. To deliver low environmental impact

B. To deliver a high performance system

with a high coefficient of performance

C. To achieve optimum flow

and return temperatures

D. To deliver a practical and compliant

system which effectively uses engineering Strategic
solutions to overcome technical barriers
E. To deliver a cost-effective reliable aims:
system with a long life and low
maintenance requirements To reduce CO2
F. To deliver effective metering/ and other
monitoring of the GWSHP
greenhouse gas
G. To deliver a safe, high quality emissions
scheme where risks are managed

To reduce the
Not
overall cost of
applicable        providing
Of some Preparation Operation & De- heating and/or
importance/
relevance
Stages & brief
Feasibility Design Construction Commissioning maintenance commissioning cooling

Important/
relevant
To use natural
resources
Highly
important/ sustainably to
relevant reduce or
Responsibilities replace
consumption of
Client fossil fuels

Designer

Constructor

Operator

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 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

also be a major technical barrier. In many cases, an engineering solution can

How to use this Code

overcome these barriers and examples can be found throughout the Code of Practice.

(E) To deliver a cost effective reliable system with a long life and low
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maintenance requirements

A cost-effective open-loop GWSHP systems shall be specified to have a long life and
require minimum regular maintenance. To ensure this is achieved, the source side
needs to be carefully designed and the whole life costs taken into account.

(F) To deliver effective metering/monitoring of the GWSHP

Instrumentation such as flow, temperature and pressure sensors together with

associated monitoring hardware and software is required in all open-loop GWSHP
installations. This information should be used to monitor and record the performance
of the installation and to control the system to ensure optimum efficiency and
minimum downtime.

(G) To deliver a safe, high quality scheme where risks are managed

At all stages of the scheme safety, quality and risk need to be addressed and the
adoption of national and international standards is required, including:

—— BS ISO 9001 (BSI, 2015a) for quality management

—— BS EN ISO 14001 (BSI, 2015b) for environmental management

—— BS ISO 45001 (BSI, 2018a) for occupational safety

—— BS ISO 31000 (BSI, 2018b) for risk management

—— BS ISO 55000 (BSI, 2014a) for asset management.

A3.2 Responsibilities
A typical project involves several parties who need to work together. The
responsibilities of the parties should be made clear for each stage of the project. The
Code of Practice should be adopted by all involved in the project and should not be a
contractual requirement limited to just one party.

Although each project will be different, Table 1 (below) describes the typical
responsibilities that may be carried out by each party. Please note some roles may be
combined.

9
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Table 1 Typical roles and responsibilities

How to use this Code

Organisation Responsibility
Central and local government Central government sets overall policy, develops appropriate
incentive mechanisms and works to remove barriers.

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Local government promotes the strategic vision and develops and
implements supporting policies at a local level including planning
approval and the enforcement of building regulations.
Environment Agency (EA), Responsible for:
Natural Resources Wales (NRW),
Scottish Environmental • groundwater quality and resources
Protection Agency (SEPA), • conservation and ecology
Northern Ireland Environment • aquifer capacity
Agency (NIEA) and statutory • contamination prevention
bodies
• pollution monitoring
• regulation of the use of groundwater

Other statutory bodies have powers and responsibilities for specific

site locations, such as Natural England for designated conservation
sites and species. See Appendix C for further details.
Client (or in some cases referred Arranges finance, sets performance objectives and prepares the
to as Owner/Developer) project brief.

The Owner is the entity who Appoints:

holds legal title to the property.
• feasibility study consultant
The Developer is the entity • project team including:
responsible for the project. °° project manager
°° planning and legal advisor
Either could be an individual, a
local authority, a private or °° principal designer
public limited company, a °° designer
charity, housing association, °° construction specialist
building management
°° maintenance contractor
organisation, a private sector
Energy Service Company (ESCo), The Developer may be responsible for just the construction phase
a public-private partnership or a or also for operation.
community energy company.
Feasibility study consultant Carries out a clear and accurate lifecycle feasibility study in line with
the Code of Practice and other relevant standards and guidance.
The feasibility study should cover environmental, technical and
economic aspects.
Project manager Responsible for overall coordination and delivery of the project and
ensures that the project team works together effectively.
Principal designer Should be a Chartered Engineer or other suitably qualified
equivalent for all aspects of system design. The Principal Designer
shall have experience in relevant heat pump and building services
systems designs and be familiar with GSHPA requirements. The
Principal Designer advises and assists the client and project team
with their responsibilities under health and safety legislation.
Designer Prepares the detailed design of the heat pump and source side
installation and interface with the load. The Designer shall have
experience in relevant heat pump and building services systems
designs and shall take advice from specialist hydrochemists and
hydrogeologists on all groundwater matters.
Heat pump supplier Should be involved as early as possible so that they can confirm the
suitability of their unit and any functions or features which are
relevant to the project.
Planning and legal advisor Advises on planning and regulatory compliance and applies for
consents and permits as necessary. Commissions environmental
reports. Negotiates with adjoining land owners and other parties
for access to water source where required.
Table continues

10
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Table 1 Typical roles and responsibilities — continued

How to use this Code

Organisation Responsibility
Construction contractor Is responsible for the construction of the GWSHP systems using
specialist suppliers and subcontractors. Specialist activities may
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include:
• heat pumps
• abstraction and injection well drilling and construction
• pumps and controls
• water quality monitoring and treatment
• groundworks and pipe laying
• metering
• heat pump system control to ensure coordination with and
successful integration into the Building Management System
Commissioning specialist Develops commissioning procedures and a commissioning plan to
ensure the design intent is realised and the plant operates correctly.
Operator and maintenance Maintains plant room and equipment in accordance with planned
contractor/facilities manager maintenance schedule and should operate the system in
accordance with the design. However, the operator and
maintenance contractor will follow instruction from the client,
which may differ from the design intent. Operator training and
specialist maintenance may be sub-contracted to the GWSHP
supplier.

11
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opportunities
Part B: Challenges and
Challenges and opportunities Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

B1 The heat pump

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When heating, open-loop groundwater source heat pumps (GWSHPs) operate by
extracting low grade heat from groundwater and upgrading it to a suitable
temperature for use in local heat networks or single buildings to provide a low-
carbon source of renewable heat. Open-loop GWSHPs can also be used for cooling by
absorbing heat from a building or other similar load and rejecting it into the aquifer.
This rejected thermal energy can be stored and used to supplement the ground heat
and returned to the building for use in space or domestic hot water heating. This
process is known as aquifer thermal energy storage (ATES), see section B4.6.

An ATES system reduces the load on the aquifer and increases the system seasonal
performance factor (SPF), which is the key measure of overall system performance,
see Table 4 (page 22) and Appendix D.

In the Code of Practice, the groundwater is referred to as the ‘source’ and the
building or other use as the ‘load’.

B1.1 Types of heat pump

This Code of Practice does not assess in detail the advantages and disadvantages of
the different types of heat pump. However, some understanding is necessary, even at
feasibility study stage, to ensure a machine with the correct functionality and
performance parameters is selected. Table 2 shows the various types of heat pumps
and where they may or may not be used. Table 3 refers to the simple notations used
to aid understanding within the heat pump community.

Table 2 Heat pump types and typical applications

Heat pump type Typical application Considerations
Vapour Low temperature Space heating with low Domestic hot water (DHW)
compression heat pump, less temperature heat emitters able storage temperatures below
than or equal to to operate effectively with a 60 °C will need Legionella
55 °C. low incoming water temper­ disinfectant strategy.
ature of 35 °C or even less.

High temperature Space heating with ordinary or Suitable for existing

heat pump (e.g. high temperature heat emitters distribution temperatures.
cascade with or and domestic hot water. Efficiency may be impaired for
without dual lower temperature space
refrigerant; (R744) Can also be used to supply heat heating applications without
CO2, (R717) networks (district heating) and DHW.
ammonia vapour existing buildings designed to
injection, operate at historically high Health and safety implications
desuperheater). distribution temperatures, of the refrigerant.
normally 82 °C flow, 71 °C
return.

Absorption Gas absorption, Off electricity grid, or where Still requires small electrically
e.g. lithium the electricity supply is driven circulation pump. Can
bromide/water. constrained. May be used to be driven by almost any heat
create cold from heat in source including ‘free’ waste
tri-generation applications. heat, geothermal, solar or from
fuel cell cooperation. Higher
More efficient when heating maintenance cost.
than conventional gas boiler.

Hot water output temp:

> 80 °C

Chilled water output temp:

> 8 °C

14 Table continues
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Table 2 Heat pump types and typical applications — continued

Challenges and opportunities

Heat pump type Typical application Considerations
Adsorption Gas adsorption, Off electricity grid or where the High reliability and long life
e.g. zeolite/water electricity supply is constrained. (30+ years) as few moving
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Works well with solar ‘combi’ parts. Uses non-toxic working

heating and cooling fluids with zero GWP and zero
applications ODP.

Hot water output temp: New, still improving,

> 50 °C technology.

Chilled water output temp: Output temperature more

> 3 °C stable across range.

Table 3 Heat pump notations

Notation Source Delivery medium

A/W Air Water
W/A Water open loop Air
W/W Water open loop Water
B/W Brine closed loop Water
Note: A W/W heat pump is one specifically designed and/or
modified to work directly with groundwater. It will usually
contain additional parts and systems to protect key components.
A heat pump designed for B/W operation should not be used
with an open-loop groundwater heat source without the
manufacturer’s specific written authorisation.

Most heat pumps found in open-loop GWSHP applications use a vapour compression
cycle in which the compressor is driven by a motor, usually an electric motor. Vapour
compression cycle heat pumps can be ‘tuned’ for different applications and even
situations, primarily by using dissimilar refrigerants or combinations of refrigerants
that perform differently according to their operational temperature range(s). Recent
climate legislation has resulted in many changes to the refrigerants available, but
suitable alternatives are rapidly evolving. There are also some ‘add on’ devices that
may be used to enhance or modify performance, e.g. desuperheaters and hot gas
injection.

Heat pumps using a ‘sorption process (i.e. absorption or adsorption) are becoming
increasingly popular. These use heat as the primary motive energy; they are usually
gas-fired but may also use oil, electricity or recovered heat. There are two types:

—— Absorption: transfers heat by using the changing temperature/vapour pressure

relationship between two substances that can chemically combine and be
separated again (e.g. lithium bromide/water or ammonia/water) .

—— Adsorption: transfers heat by using the changing temperature/vapour pressure

relationship between two substances that do not chemically combine (e.g.
water/zeolite).

B1.2 Heating and cooling

This Code of Practice refers to heat pumps used for the space heating and cooling of
buildings and/or domestic hot water (DHW).

The term heat pump applies to many devices, some of which are used primarily for
cooling (for example, a refrigerator or automotive air conditioner) and some for
heating. In operation, the machine simply pumps thermal energy from one side of
15
the machine to the other, so the same device always has a cold side (the evaporator)
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

and a hot side (the condenser) at the same time. Whether it is for heating or cooling,
Challenges and opportunities

will depend on which side is selected.

If both sides are used simultaneously in a configuration that delivers heating and/or

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cooling from both sides of the heat pump (as shown in Figure 2) the benefits can be
even greater, e.g. heat recovered by cooling a data centre may be re-used directly to
provide heating (or DHW) elsewhere in the building.

Simultaneous systems are inherently efficient and require a new metric to reflect the
performance increase. This is the Total Efficiency Ratio (TER), being the ratio between
the delivered heat power plus the delivered cooling power, divided by the electrical
power input. The system reaches its maximum TER value when the loads are
balanced.

Heating Heat pump Cooling

load (non-reversing) load

Isolating Isolating
heat heat
exchanger exchanger

Variable speed
submersible
borehole pump

Abstraction Injection
well well

Figure 2 Simultaneous heating and cooling being supplied by a non-reversing heat pump (schematic,
for illustrative purposes only)

It is also possible to pair heat pumps so that the thermal energy rejected by one heat
pump while providing cooling is used subsequently provide simultaneous heating,
see Figure 3. Heat is only collected from, or rejected into, the source when the loads
become unbalanced.

16
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Challenges and opportunities

Heating load Cooling load
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Heat Heat
pump pump

Low loss header/tank

Variable speed
submersible
borehole pump

Abstraction Injection
well well

Figure 3 Simultaneous heating and cooling provided by paired non-reversible heat pumps with a low
loss header or similar sharing arrangement

Another variant uses the cold water produced after the evaporator of a heat pump
while heating to provide cooling, see Figure 4. This technique is sometimes employed
to moderate the injection temperature to ensure it remains within prescribed limits.

Heating load Cooling load

Heat Heat
pump pump

Variable speed
submersible
borehole pump

Abstraction Injection
well well
17
Figure 4 Heat pump arrangement using the cooled water after the evaporator for cooling
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK
Reversible heat pumps work differently; they have a dedicated reversing mechanism
Challenges and opportunities

fitted internally so the function of the evaporator and condenser can be exchanged
to enable the unit to supply either heating or cooling. Air conditioning units designed
for use in temperate climates are often reversible, meaning one device can heat or
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cool the building simply by flicking a switch, see Figure 5.

Expansion valve Expansion valve
(reversible) (reversible)
Load Source Load Source
Compressor Compressor
(a) Cooling mode (b) Heating mode
Figure 5 Heat pump arrangement using a reversing valve
B1.3 Key design issues
The Code of Practice primarily looks at the source side of an open-loop GWSHP
installation, it does not address air or hydraulic distribution systems on the load side
in any detail since, whatever heat generator is to be installed, the load side will use
broadly the same design, construction and maintenance procedures.
However, sensible hydraulic design is a crucial component of the overall system
performance and heat pumps have some characteristics which, when taken into
account, can increase efficiency as well as deliver other benefits:
—— For open-loop doublet schemes, especially large installations on a limited
building footprint, it is very important to try to achieve a thermal balance
between net heating and cooling loads over an annual cycle.
—— The closer the source and load temperatures (i.e. the smaller the DT) the more
efficiently the heat pump will operate. Therefore, low input temperature heat
emitters should be specified so heat can be produced and delivered at the
lowest possible temperature. Similarly, high temperature cooling can also
enhance performance, see Objective 2.5.
—— Where existing emitters are designed to operate at historically high distribution
temperatures (normally 82 °C flow, 71 °C return), rather than replace the entire
distribution system a high temperature heat pump may be specified. These may
use a multivalent system, cascade arrangement or alternative refrigerants.
—— Pressure drops must be designed to be as low as possible to reduce the energy
required to drive the external pumps. This parasitic pumping load can
compromise the performance of the entire installation. Injection wells will
require regular preventative maintenance and occasional reconditioning as will
submersible pumps, especially when they are installed in a deep aquifer.
—— Different refrigerants may be used for a particular application and/or to take
18 into account refrigerant Global Warning Potential (GWP) and toxicity levels.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

—— Heat pump evaporators and condensers frequently have flow, pressure and

Challenges and opportunities

temperature constraints/parameters, which must be observed to prevent
damage and ensure optimum efficiency.
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—— Short cycling should be avoided as it risks reducing the heat pumps life. The
District Network Operator (DNO) may also impose a limit of 3 or 4 starts per
hour. The hydraulic arrangements will need to allow for this.

—— A buffer tank is often used to provide short-term thermal energy storage to

smooth the output from the system and overcome any peaks or troughs. Buffer
tanks can be of 2- or 4- or more pipe design; they can assist with reducing
cycling but can also reduce efficiency by increasing flow temperature.

Historically, single stage heat pumps were either 100% off or 100% on, but advances
in pump and compressor technology mean that more multistage and modulating
(inverter or variable speed drive) heat pumps are available. Other strategies that
enable multiple units to automatically switch in or out to load match (sequence
control) or ‘sliding’ header arrangements are also employed. The ability to balance
output and load simplifies design and improves system performance.

Heat pump sizing

When calculating the load to be satisfied by the heat pump the design should
consider building thermal mass, internal and solar heat gains, and any other loads
present, for example swimming pools or data centres, where appropriate. As with all
heating/cooling installations, establishing the peak power accurately is important to
ensure that sufficient heating/cooling is available to keep the premises comfortable
on both the hottest and coldest of days.

If the heat pump is sized to cover the entire peak heat load itself it will be a
monovalent system, but the heat pump may be sized to provide only the base load
when additional heat generators are used to satisfy the peaks. These are bivalent or
multivalent systems (see Objective 2.5).

In addition to peak power, accurate annual energy demand profile information is

critical for design. However, GWSHPs are more forgiving than a closed-loop vertical or
horizontal ground heat exchanger, because the ground needs time to recover. When
an open-loop system is adopted, the design can be more flexible as the flow rate or
flow duration through the evaporator can be varied to match the load, always
ensuring it is within the permitted levels agreed for the abstraction licence and
discharge permits.

It is essential that the annual energy demand profile as well as peak power is
accurately calculated. This is required for modelling thermal performance of the
aquifer and to determine the maximum hourly, daily, monthly and annual source-side
flow volumes, as required by the relevant environmental agency.

Consideration should also be given to the likelihood that the building usage pattern
may change in the future, for example a school opening for evening classes.
Designers must be aware that the ‘as built’ peak power and energy demand may
differ significantly from the initial design calculations. Seasonal commissioning and
optimisation of the installed heat pump system should be considered.

Parasitic energy loads

A significant, but often overlooked issue affecting the operating efficiency and
economic benefits of a GWSHP system is parasitic energy consumption. The energy
used by abstraction pumps sometimes exceed the energy consumed by the heat
19
pump since, unlike circulation pumps in closed loop systems, these pump against an
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

absolute head so energy consumption increases significantly with depth. This energy
Challenges and opportunities

use can be substantially reduced through good design, such as:

—— minimising the depth below ground level of the submersible pump, see Figure 6

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—— installing a porter shroud, see Figure 25

—— using buffer tanks to run at more optimal loads and for longer periods of time

—— using high efficiency motors and variable speed drive controls

—— reducing flow rates to match demand (within operating design limits)

—— minimising pipework pressure losses

—— minimising reinjection pressure

—— avoiding flow restricting fittings

—— switching off unnecessary loads.

4.0

3.8

3.6
CoP of system

3.4

3.2

3.0

2.8

2.6
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Mine water depth (m)

Figure 6 Relationship between depth of water in a coal mine and coefficient

of performance of the system (source: Athresh et al. (2015); courtesy of Prof. Amin
Al-Habaibeh and Dr Anup Athresh, Nottingham Trent University)

To obtain a realistic estimation of the performance of the installation it is essential

that a calculation or measurement of efficiency takes into account the energy
consumption of the entire system and not just the heat pump itself.

Pump performance factor (PPF) as a measure of source pump(s) performance can be

useful to compare system performance and thus efficiency:

pump(s) power consumption (kW)

PPF = ———————————————– × 100
heat pump output (kW)

Note: It is important not to confuse the heat pump thermal output (kWt·h) with the
electricity supply requirement (kWe). While the precise figure will depend on each
unit’s CoP, the heat pump’s power requirement will always be less. For example, a
300 kWt·h output heat pump with a CoP of 3 will require only a 100 kWe supply
(other variables must also be taken into account, such as starting current and
minimum CoP). Erroneously specifying a 300 kWe supply will substantially increase
20 capital expenditure and can result in an otherwise viable scheme being abandoned.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Assessment of system performance

Challenges and opportunities

Various methods can be used to calculate (during feasibility and design) and measure
(during commissioning and operation) the efficiency of heat pump systems. The
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methodologies recommended in this Code of Practice are summarised in Table 4, and

further details on system boundaries in Appendix D and Figure 7. Figure 49 in
Objective 3.9 demonstrates typical metering arrangements and calculations.

SPF 4
Entire heat pump heating system

SPF 3
+ back up heater(s)

SPF 2
+ heat source
SPF 1 fan/pump
Heat pump

Figure 7   Boundaries used for calculations of system efficiencies

(as defined by the SEPEMO project; see Appendix D for further
details)

SPFH4
SPFH3
SPFH2
Integrated distribution
system components

Heat pump

Source pump

Integrated
electric
heater

Figure 8 Heat pump boundaries for electrical input measurements

(reproduced from section 8.36 of Ofgem Non-Domestic Renewable
Heat Incentive (RHI) Guidance Volume 1 (Ofgem, 2015))

21
22
Challenges and opportunities

Table 4 Methodologies for measuring and calculating heat pump system efficiency as used in this Code of Practice (see also Appendix D and Glossary)

Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Methodology Type Definition Stage Objective Why this is important? Typical system
(see note 1) boundary
Coefficient of Calculated Heat output/ electrical power input. Feasibility, design, n/a To help select an appropriate heat pump and SPF1 (see note 3)
performance (CoP) commissioning monitor.
An expression of the efficiency of a
machine in heating mode, at a selected It may also be that these figures are required to
source and load temperature. It is an demonstrate compliance for government
instantaneous figure rather than an regulations or financial incentives. its
average. performance.

CoP always quoted with a source and sink

temperature, e.g. ASHP CoP = 3.1 @ A7/
W35 or GSHP CoP = 3.5 @ B0/W35.
Without source and sink temperatures, it
is not a CoP. All others (SCoP, SPF, etc.) are
estimated, calculated or measured
averages of seasonal CoP, and so do not
feature temperatures.
Seasonal Calculated Method for calculating SPF (see below) at Design 3.8.2 To update calculations made at feasibility stage SPF3 or (see notes
coefficient of design stage, as defined in BS EN 14825 based on more accurate specifications 2 and 3)
performance (BSI, 2018c) using data and test methods
(SCoP) derived from BS EN 14511 (BSI, 2018d).
Commissioning 5.3.4 To check the predicted system performance at SPF4 (see notes
against calculations made at design stage. 2 and 3)
Remedial action might be taken if predicted is
likely to be less than originally expected.
Seasonal Calculated Annual total heat out/total annual system Design and/or 3.8.2 To provide a more accurate prediction of total SPF4
performance factor electrical power in. pre-commissioning system energy efficiency.
(SPF) 5.3.4
A ratio expressing the average seasonal It may also be that these figures are required to
efficiency of a heat pump by describing demonstrate compliance for government
heat output over the season. Calculation regulations or financial incentives.
method defined in BS 15316 (BSI, 2017a)
using data derived from BS EN 14825
(BSI, 2018c).
Table continues

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Table 4 Methodologies for measuring and calculating heat pump system efficiency as used in this Code of Practice (see also Appendix D and Glossary) — continued
Methodology Type Definition Stage Objective Why this is important? Typical system
(see note 1) boundary
Seasonal Measured Annual heat out/ annual electrical Operation and 6.4.7 To monitor and report on actual system SPF4
performance factor power in. maintenance performance and ensure that performance is
(SPF) maintained over time.
A ratio expressing the in-use efficiency of
a heat pump system by describing heat
output over the season.
Note 1: Methodologies for determining efficiencies are shown for heating applications. For cooling, the equivalent efficiency metrics are as follows:
• Energy efficiency ratio (EER) is the cooling efficiency coefficient over a very short period and is hence comparable with CoP for heating.

Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

• Seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER) is the cooling equivalent of, seasonal coefficient of performance (SCoP), which must be calculated or measured over a period of 12 months
to be truly ‘seasonal’. When calculated, SCoP and SEER use typical average climate data. When measured, SCoP and SEER will be affected by any climatic deviations from the mean
over the 12 month period and hence corrections may be needed to represent ‘average’ seasonal conditions.

Note 2: SCoP is NOT strictly the same as SPF, therefore when calculating a predicted SCoP the boundary will be generally in accordance with one of the SEPEMO boundaries. However,
SCoP for GWSHPs does not normally include the energy used by the abstraction pump, which means it would not be truly accurate from SPF2 through to SPF4, since SPF2 should
include all the energy required to circulate/pump fluid around/from the source.

Note 3: Coefficients are ratios of the same metric and when multiplied by 100 become percentages. Ground source heat pumps have coefficients in excess of 1 and hence appear to
have efficiencies well in excess of 100%, typically 300–400%. However, the overall fuel input to heat output should be considered and for electrically driven heat pumps this will be
based on primary generating efficiency. With a primary energy factor of 40% (40% electricity generation for 100% fuel input) the overall typical efficiency would be 120–160%.
23

Challenges and opportunities

Challenges and opportunities Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

B2 Groundwater sources and their characteristics

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The idea of using groundwater to provide heating and/or cooling for living spaces to
improve human comfort is not new. Gently sloping underground water channels
(qanats) many of which are 3000 years old have been used in the Middle East to
provide cooling. Naturally occurring geothermal springs have been used historically
for heating, for example the thermal baths in Bath. Heat pumps now provide new
opportunities and applications.

The starting point of every project is to investigate the resources available, in

particular the underlying geology and hydrogeology. In the UK, information can be
obtained from the British Geological Survey (BGS) (https://www.bgs.ac.uk) and the
Geological Survey of Northern Ireland (GSNI) (https://www.bgs.ac.uk/gsni). This can
include site-specific hydrogeological reports or an initial assessment of subsurface
suitability for large-scale open-loop installations. These provide an excellent starting
point but do not remove the requirement to employ a suitably qualified
hydrogeological expert.

B2.1 Aquifers: the occurrence of groundwater in the subsurface

Aquifers are bodies of porous, permeable rock or sediment that can provide a
useable quantity of groundwater. Groundwater is formed from, and replenished by,
rainwater that has flowed from the surface through pore spaces in the soil and
downward into underlying rock formations. Where an aquifer intersects the surface
groundwater will emerge as a spring or seep.

Major aquifers in the UK include chalk, sandstone and limestone formations while
shallow sands and gravels associated with some river and/or glacial deposits can also
form productive aquifers, see Figure 9.

Post-Carboniferous
(undifferentiated)
Chalk
Jurrassic limestones
Permo-Triassic
sandstones
Devonian/Carboniferous-
Older cover
Impermeable
basement

Figure 9 Geological map of the principal aquifers of Britain

24 and Ireland (courtesy of the British Geological Survey)
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

The temperature of shallow groundwater (<50 m depth) is often close to the average

Challenges and opportunities

air temperature of that location and varies with latitude. For example, an open-loop
borehole in London would produce water at a temperature of over 13 °C. In upland
areas of the north of Scotland or Northern Ireland the temperature is closer to 8 °C.
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No. of measured temps.

100

80

60

40

20

11
14
17
20
23
26
29
32
35
5
8
Temp °C

°C
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6

Figure 10 Measured temperatures at 100 m depth below

ground level. Measurement locations are indicated by the black
dots (reproduced from Busby et al. (2011), courtesy of the British
Geological Survey)

In some circumstances artesian flow can occur. An artesian flow is where water
emerges from the borehole at the surface under natural pressure, see Figures 11 and
12.

Artesian well

Spring Spring Spring Spring

Water table Water table

Aquifier (rock saturated in water up to water table)

25
Figure 11 Artesian flow
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Figure 12 A temporary borehole wellhead on an

Challenges and opportunities

artesian open-loop abstraction borehole drilled

into Carboniferous Artesian Millstone grit in
Yorkshire (courtesy of Carbon Zero Consulting Ltd.)

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Table 5 The key variables that need to be considered when assessing the viability of a groundwater
resource to supply heating and/or cooling

Variable Considerations
Yield Is there enough water available from the underlying aquifer for the proposed heat
pump installation?
Accessibility How easily can this yield be obtained, i.e. what is the degree of complexity and cost of
an open-loop borehole system? Is the site footprint large enough to accommodate the
boreholes required for abstraction and injection?
Quality What are the risks or corrosion, incrustation, bacteria and presence of particles and
dissolved gases? Is the groundwater contaminated?
Discharge What happens to the water afterwards?
Interference Will the proposed scheme conflict or interfere with other groundwater users?

Some groundwater may be contaminated by agricultural practices or by historical

industrial or mining activity. This may make it unsuitable for potable purposes but it
can still provide heating and/or cooling. However, if the thermally spent groundwater
is subsequently re-introduced into the ground, legal or regulatory issues may have to
be satisfied as the discharge of many forms of contamination is strictly controlled.
There are examples where contaminated groundwater has been used for an open-
loop GWSHP installation. For example, in Holland, water contaminated with
chlorinated hydrocarbons has been remediated at the same time as using it as a
groundwater source in an aquifer thermal energy storage system (Sommer et al.,
2013).

When drilling into an area where the groundwater or land is known to be

contaminated, early consultation with the relevant environmental regulator is
recommended to ensure that the required environmental permission can be
obtained.

Open-loop GWSHP schemes require detailed understanding of water quality and its
implications. Initial investigations should therefore include a minimum set of on-site
measurements and laboratory analysis and the adopted measurement and sampling
procedures must follow standard protocols. Poor understanding of water quality can
26 lead to several types of problem, including:
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

—— clogging or incrustation of wells, pipes, filters, heat exchangers or soakaways

Challenges and opportunities

with chemical precipitates, biofilm or particulate matter, see Figures 13 and 14

—— clogging of pore spaces around injection wells with bubbles of exsolved gas
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—— abrasion or corrosion of components

—— risk of subsidence due to pumping of particulates

—— saline intrusion

—— liability for contamination.

Figure 13 A clean wellscreen (courtesy of Carbon Figure 14 A clogged wellscreen (courtesy of

Zero Consulting Ltd.) Carbon Zero Consulting Ltd.)

B2.2 Water wells and boreholes

A water well is an excavation or structure created by digging, driving, boring or
drilling to access groundwater in aquifers. A borehole is a small diameter hole drilled
into the ground for any purpose, which can include water abstraction or injection.

The Water Resources Act 1991 requires that borehole logs for water wells of
greater than 15 m depth are submitted to the British Geological Survey (BGS).
Similarly, the Mining Industry Act 1926 requires that borehole logs of mineral
exploration boreholes of greater than 30 m depth are also submitted to the BGS.
Other borehole logs should also be submitted to BGS to aid their geological
survey work. Logs can be labelled as confidential if required, to prevent
dissemination to third parties.

27
Challenges and opportunities Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Security cap

Ground level

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To heat exchanger
Sanitary seal

Static water level (SWL)

Drawdown
Cone of depression

Pumping water level (PWL)

Check valve
Aquifier thickness

Well casing
Pump intake screen

Motor

Production zone screen

Figure 15 Example of an abstraction well (adapted from Kavanaugh and Rafferty (2014); courtesy of
ASHRAE)

Borehole-based water wells are constructed to a design, depth and diameter to suit
the geology and the size (diameter) of the pump that will supply the required flow
of water. Modern boreholes are designed to accommodate an electrical submersible
pump. Typical submersible pump diameters for use with open-loop systems vary,
commonly between 100 mm for smaller systems and 200 mm for very large flow
requirements.

The yield of a water well is controlled by the nature of the aquifer and borehole
design. Borehole diameter has a relatively minor impact on sustainable yield. The
design of a borehole is critical to the success and longevity of a borehole water
supply and requires a suitably qualified hydrogeological expert from an early stage
28 of feasibility and design.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

B2.3 Groundwater from flooded mines and quarries

Challenges and opportunities

Caverns, tunnels or mines frequently contain large bodies of water that can be
employed to provide renewable heating and/or cooling. In the UK this has been used
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to a limited extent for heating and cooling and a number of techniques to tap into
this asset have been developed and tested.

Great care must be taken when using mine water because it may contain high
concentrations of naturally-occurring dissolved or suspended chemicals that can be
harmful to the environment. The effects of impurities on a heat pump installation
must be considered during design, operation and maintenance procedures as they
can compromise the efficiency or longevity of a system.
Space heating Space heating
or cooling or cooling

HE Disposal to surface
HE
water recipient

Mine shaft
Water Reinjection
level borehole

Pump Pump
Mine galleries

Water
flow

(a) Open-loop with disposal of water (b) Open-loop with reinjection

to surface recipient

Space heating Space heating

or cooling or cooling

HP HP

Mine water
treatment logoon

HDPE U-tube
pipe heat
exchanger Pump

Water
flow

(c) Closed-loop in flooded shaft (d) Closed-loop in surface mine water

treatment pond

Space heating Space heating

or cooling or cooling

HE HE Bleed to
waste

Reinjection

Heat exchanged
with rocks in
shaft walls
Pump Pump
HE: Heat exchanger
HP: Heat pump

(e) standing column with bleed and (f) Standing column configuration,
recirculation in shaft with large natural flow up shaft
Figure 16 Different modes of heat extraction from/rejection to abandoned, flooded mines (reproduced 29
from Banks D, Athresh A, al-Habaibeh A and Burnside N (2017) by permission of David Banks; © David Banks)
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

It is estimated there are over 1000 mine shafts and related boreholes in the UK that
Challenges and opportunities

may be suitable for open-loop GWSHP installations. Many of these mines are the
responsibility of the Coal Authority, a non-departmental public body which oversees
the legacy of the former British coal industry, see Appendix C.

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To prevent pollution, the Coal Authority already pumps and/or treats in excess of
100 billion litres of mine water every year, which equates to over 3000 litres per
second. Its use for low-carbon heating and cooling allows it to be transmuted into an
environmental and economic asset.

Much of this mine water is warm, ranging between 12 °C and 20 °C, with little or no
seasonal temperature variation, making it an ideal source for low-carbon heating or
cooling.

Figure 17 Mine water treatment scheme at Caphouse Mining Museum, near Wakefield (© David Banks;
courtesy of David Banks)

The Coal Authority estimates that 66 MW of heat energy is currently lost to

atmosphere from mine water treatment schemes. The total thermal energy that is
available stored within coal mines is estimated to be 2.2 million gigawatt-hours.

In Shettleston, Glasgow, a social housing development was constructed in 1999,

comprising 16 apartments, see Figure 18.

Figure 18 The Glenalmond Street housing

development in Shettleston, Glasgow, heated by a
coal mine water-sourced heat pump scheme
30 (© David Banks; courtesy of David Banks)
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Water is pumped from a borehole penetrating abandoned, flooded coal mine

Challenges and opportunities

workings and is passed through a heat pump array of approx. 65 kW nominal
capacity, supplying water at about 55 °C to a thermal store. This supplies space
heating and supports domestic hot water provision to the residents at a low annual
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cost. The thermally-spent mine water is directed to a shallower reinjection borehole.

Elsewhere in Europe one of the largest mine water projects is at Heerlen in the
Netherlands, where a low-temperature district heating system was launched in
October 2008 (Figure 19). This was upgraded in 2013 to a ‘thermal smart grid’ with
decentralised heat pump stations that can both consume and supply heat. These
enable the mine water reservoir to be used to store thermal energy that would
otherwise be wasted.

The system is currently used to heat and cool 200 000 m2 of buildings and will be
extended to a further 10 000 renovated dwellings over the next 5 years (Mijnwater,
2014) (see https://www.mijnwater.com/?lang=en).

Figure 19 The mine at Heerlen (courtesy of Mijnwater BV)

B3 Types of installation

Groundwater can be accessed as a heating or cooling resource using either open- or

closed-loop systems. The choice of technology will depend on the specific site
circumstances. This Code of Practice specifically considers open-loop GWSHP
installations.

Open-loop systems remove water from the source and physically pass it through a
heat exchanger inside or very close to the heat pump so the unit exchanges heat with
31
the water as directly as practicable, see Figure 20.
Challenges and opportunities Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Load

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Electricity Heat
source pump

Optional
intermediate
heat exchanger

Variable speed
submersible
borehole pump

Abstraction Injection
well well

Figure 20 Simplified schematic showing optional heat exchanger

Open-loop systems may be used alone or in association with other technologies and
in some cases may be configured to provide underground thermal energy storage
(UTES), more commonly termed aquifer thermal energy storage (ATES) for open-loop
applications.

The following examples demonstrate some of the challenges and opportunities

surrounding open-loop systems and how the technology can be harnessed.

B3.1 Open-loop doublet systems: abstraction with injection to

aquifer
Most groundwater open-loop systems involve abstraction wells, taking the water
from the ground, and injection wells, returning water to the ground. By returning all
the water to the same aquifer the scheme is termed ‘non-consumptive’, i.e. there is
no net effect on the aquifer other than temperature change (although the
introduction of heat to the ground can be regarded as a polluting activity and may
affect the water quality). Non-consumptive systems make licencing of the project
more straightforward and can allow projects to proceed where otherwise they would
not.

In some cases, systems need multiple wells to meet the flow rate required to satisfy
the building’s heating and cooling requirements. Although it inevitably increases
installation costs, this approach improves resilience and avoids the risk of failure
associated with a single abstraction well. Injection wells will require regular
preventative maintenance and occasional reconditioning to ensure injection rates do
32 not decline significantly.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

The separation between the abstraction and injection wells is a key consideration.

Challenges and opportunities

This is always site specific and will depend on the geology and detailed properties of
the aquifer and requires thermogeological modelling. The presence and direction of
groundwater flow will influence the separation requirement, injection should always
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be made downstream of the abstraction well.

The typical separation required between abstraction and injection wells is around
100 m. If there are multiple abstraction wells, typical separation between each well is
around 25 m, see Figure 21. These spacings are only indicative and a suitable
professional must be engaged to assess the groundwater gradient and appropriate
separation requirement at each location.

Two doublets:
Abstraction 1 Abstraction-injection 1
Abstraction-injection 2

Requires separation
of approx. 25–30 m
Abstraction 2
between abstraction
wells

Injection 1
Proposed
plant room

Requires separation
of approx. 80–100 m
between abstraction
wells

Actual separation
is entirely dependent Injection 2
on aquifier properties
and rates of pumping

Figure 21 Example of well separation

If the wells are too close together ‘thermal breakthrough’ (recirculation) can result,
see Figure 22 below. This means that the water temperature in the abstraction well is
affected by the injection well, either increasing or reducing the undisturbed
groundwater temperature. As a consequence, some sites may be too small to
accommodate an open-loop doublet system. In many cases a degree of long-term
thermal breakthrough can be tolerated as part of the design although excessive
thermal interaction should always be avoided. The likelihood of thermal
breakthrough may be minimised by ensuring that the heating and cooling loads are
thermally balanced over an annual cycle. It is also possible to manage operational
temperature gradients by ‘bleeding off’ a proportion of the total flow of water and
discharging it elsewhere.

33
Challenges and opportunities Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Load

This publication is supplied by CIBSE for the sole use of the person making the download. The content remains the copyright property of CIBSE
Electricity Heat
source pump

Variable speed
submersible
borehole pump

Abstraction Injection
well well

Figure 22 Thermal breakthrough (recirculation) schematic example

If two separate aquifers are available beneath the site, it may be possible to use one
for abstraction and the second for injection (Figure 23); however, this would be
considered ‘consumptive’. In these situations, the spacing between the wells can be
significantly reduced. It is important to understand the properties and the hydraulic
connection or separation of the two aquifers in detail. It is also important to obtain
advice from a hydrogeologist and the relevant environmental agency regarding
potential issues with such schemes.

Load

Electricity Heat
source pump

Upper aquifier Injection well

Impermeable strata

Variable speed Main aquifier

submersible
borehole pump

Abstraction
well

34 Figure 23 Schematic of vertically separate aquifers

 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Special considerations

Challenges and opportunities

The majority of open-loop GWSHP systems use one or more doublet pairs or ‘dipole’
for abstraction and injection of the water. A doublet arrangement is non-
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consumptive, i.e. all water that is abstracted is returned to the same aquifer, albeit at
a slightly higher or lower temperature.

When heating, an open-loop GWSHP cools the groundwater returned to the aquifer
and vice-versa. It is important to understand any significant environmental effects of
changing the groundwater temperature and so the risk can be managed effectively.
This may be mitigated, see Figure 4, or used beneficially, for example in an ATES
system, see section B4.6.

The relative position of abstraction and injection boreholes is constrained by site

boundaries, and other building construction or access issues, see Figure 21, but the
following are important:

—— Abstraction and injection borehole locations will normally be as far apart as

possible to minimise interference between the ‘cone of depression’ caused by
abstraction, and the resulting ‘cone of uplift’ formed in the level of
groundwater within the injection borehole.

Security cap

Ground level

From heat exchanger

Continuous seal

Injection water level (IWL)

Cone of uplift

Static water level (PWL)

Injection dip tube Multiple spring loaded check

valves maintain back pressure

Injection zone screen slotted

casing or open hole screen

Blank casing below screen

Figure 24 Example of an injection well (adapted from Kavanaugh and Rafferty (2014); 35
courtesy of ASHRAE)
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

—— The location of abstraction and injection should take into account the regional
Challenges and opportunities

hydraulic groundwater gradient.

—— The impact of nearby existing abstractions (for water supply or other GWSHP

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systems) as these could be modifying local groundwater conditions.

—— In some cases (ATES, see section B4.6) the function of the abstraction and
injection boreholes is reversed interseasonally.

—— The depth below surface of groundwater (the ‘rest’ water level, or ‘water table’)
must be known. A rest water level very close to the surface might impact on the
ability to return the water to the aquifer. In an unconfined aquifer, this could
cause flooding if the groundwater level within the injection borehole and
aquifer rises above surface. In a confined aquifer, this effect can often be
managed by suitable design of casing depths within the injection borehole.

B3.2 Open-loop systems: abstraction only with discharge to

surface water or sewer
In some cases, it can be easier or more cost effective to drill an abstraction well to
supply the required flow of water, with the spent water discharging to a sewer,
waterway or surface water body. This is termed a ‘consumptive’ system as there is a
net loss of water from the aquifer. Although there is a saving to be made by not
drilling an injection borehole, other costs might be involved that outweigh this
advantage. This form of GWSHP is only acceptable when regulatory requirements
allow.

If the water is discharged into a waterway or surface water body, permission will be
required from the relevant environmental agency and in the case of most rivers and
canals, the owner/operator. Charges may apply, particularly discharge into a sewer
and will be charged per unit volume of water. The cost can sometimes be
considerable so should be quantified as early as possible.

An example is the Bank of Kuwait, Baker Street, London. The site footprint is too
small to accommodate an abstraction and injection borehole pair and so a single
abstraction borehole is used to provide the water, with discharge to an adjacent
sewer.

B3.3 Standing column wells: abstraction and injection to the

same well or shaft
Originally developed in the north east of the United States in the 1970s to utilise the
legacy of water wells found in that area, standing column wells (SCWs) were
primarily used to provide heating for domestic scale installations.

The technology has subsequently been further developed in North America and can
now be found in much larger commercial geothermal heat pump systems where
hydrological and geological conditions are suitable. It is also successfully employed in
some mine water schemes.

A standing column well can be advantageous during the design phase as the
performance can be predicted more accurately without an extensive hydrogeological
study, therefore saving time and testing and design fees.

Under normal operating conditions, all water extracted from the source is circulated
through the heat pump system and returned. However, if the source temperature
diverges too much, it can be returned closer to the far-field temperature by bleeding
36 off some of the water, this induces fresh groundwater inflow. This effect can be
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

utilised to protect against freezing, improve performance and increase the heating or

Challenges and opportunities

cooling capacity.

Standing column well systems allow significant reductions in borehole depth

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compared to closed-loop systems. It has been shown that, compared with single
U-tube vertical closed-loop systems, without bleed, borehole depth reductions
between 25% and 65% are possible (O’Neill et al., 2006). The same authors show
that, with bleed, reductions in the range of 49% to 78% can be achieved. Therefore,
as a result of this significant reduction in borehole depth, significant reductions in
capital cost and life-cycle cost are possible.

The normal arrangement is for water to be extracted from the bottom of the
borehole, well or shaft and injected back at the top (Figure 26).

Manhole ±10% flow diverted

cover away from well during
bleed cycle

Effect of bleed on
ground water level
Ground water level

Drawdown

Water level in borehole

is lowered during bleed

Submersible pump

Eductor pipe
(porter shroud)

Reduced return flow

Ground water flow

from bedrock fractures

37
Figure 25 Diagram of a typical standing column well system
Challenges and opportunities Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Discharge
ASL = Above sea level to stream
BGL = Below ground level
RWL = Rest water level
Chiller

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Surface = +55 m ASL
Drift
Discharge pipe above pump water level
RWL = c. 6 m BGL c. 50 m
Pump
at 37 m
Lonely Hearts Level (to Ullcoats No. 7)
Sea level = 0 m ASL

St Bees (Sherwood) sandstone

Base of shaft
(best estimate) St Bees sandstone
= 256.7 m to 103 m BGL

Brockram

Brockram to
172 m BGL

Base of eductor pipe = 235.4 m BGL

To Beckermet mine Roadway connection to Ullcoats No. 1)

Diameter = 3.96 m
Figure 26 Standing column well test at the abandoned haematite mine, Egremont in
Cumbria; a combined pumping test and heat extraction/recirculation trial in an
abandoned haematite ore mine shaft (reproduced from Banks D, Steven S, Berry J,
Burnside N and Boyce A (2017) by permission of the authors; © the authors)

It is important to return it below the water level to avoid oxygenating the water as
this may encourage unwanted mineral deposition and bacterial growth. This method
creates a direct path for the water to travel between the injection point and the
pump and so an eductor pipe, often called a ‘Porter Shroud’ is often employed. This
is a plastic pipe, usually of small diameter, with a louvred or perforated section near
the bottom, which extends to the base of the well to force the water to take the
longest possible path before returning to the pump. Another significant advantage of
using an eductor pipe is that it reduces the pumping head and thus load and
pumping input energy. This relatively low-cost modification significantly improves the
seasonal performance factor, see Figure 7.

If the geology is suitable standing column wells are an option worth considering,
especially where land area is limited. There are only a few SCWs in the UK but several
dozen SCWs have been installed in the New York City (NYC) area, and hundreds
throughout New England (all US states east of New York State).

An SCW has been installed in St Patrick’s Catholic Cathedral (Figure 27) in NYC to
replace its system of steam radiators and 1960s-era air conditioning. The system
generates 850 kW·h of cooling and/or 940 kW·h of heating for the 7060 m2 building.
It is designed to cool and warm simultaneously in different areas. It has operated
since February 2017 and, compared to the original HVAC system, it saves around 30%
38 of input energy, reduces CO2 emissions and takes up 40% less space.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Challenges and opportunities

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Figure 27 The standing column wells under St. Patrick’s Cathedral; 200 mm diameter wells were bored
into the Manhattan Schist bedrock. They range from 180 m to 675 m in depth and tap into a vast
reservoir of thermal energy in the form of fractured rock and groundwater at a stable temperature of
about 13 °C (© MBB Architects; courtesy of Murphy Burnham & Buttrick Architects)

B3.4 Hybrid and mixed technologies

In some cases, the groundwater yield is insufficient to meet the entire building
heating and cooling load. Under these circumstances a hybrid approach can be
employed that can often enhance efficiency and resilience of the systems.

It is often preferable to base a hybrid ground source system on a closed-loop source

side network (SSN), which can act to recover and share heat in the short, medium
and long term. Open-loop systems may then be used to augment the closed loop as
it reaches capacity.

By employing a hybrid approach the building energy management system (BEMS) can
actively manage the closed loop or SSN temperature and therefore maximise system
efficiency and minimise the energy consumption of the individual components. For
example, in a cooling dominated system a dry air cooler can be employed on a closed
ground loop to moderate the temperature and therefore reduce the borehole
numbers otherwise required. If the borehole system is sized such that it can handle
the peak load on a summer’s day and the dry cooler is run overnight, then the
efficiency of the cooling process can be greatly enhanced.

An example of this is One New Change, London. The project brief was to achieve
sufficient on-site energy generation to satisfy the planning requirements. The base
load is covered by a closed loop in the building piles, which is then tempered by
using a pair of reversible open-loop wells. Further heat can be added to the load side
of the system by gas boilers and can be rejected by conventional cooling equipment,
e.g. a dry air cooler. By actively managing the thermal transfer fluid temperature in
the closed loop circuit the BEMS can maximise heat pump efficiency in both heating
39
and cooling mode thereby minimising system operating expenditure (OPEX).
Challenges and opportunities Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Load Load

Multiple Dry air

heat pumps cooler

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Electricity Heat Heat
source pump pump

Heat exchangers

Thermal piles Reversible Reversible

Figure 28 Schematic of system at One New Change

Figure 29 One New Change, the view from St Paul’s Cathedral

40 (© Ben Fitzpatrick; courtesy of Ben Fitzpatrick)
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Challenges and opportunities

B4 Challenges and opportunities
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The following examples demonstrate how different projects have used GWSHPs to
provide heating and/or cooling for a selection of applications.

B4.1 Heat networks (load side)

Load-side heat networks use an energy centre to deliver hot water to buildings via
highly insulated pipework. This approach employs a large centralised plant to feed
many buildings. Cooling can be added although this will require a second insulated
network. A mix of technologies, such as open-loop GWSHP and CHP can often extend
the benefits of this system architecture, as discussed in B4.3 below. See CP1: Heat
Networks: A Code for practice for the UK (CIBSE/ADE, 2015) for more detail.

˜60 °C up to 90 °C

Load 1
˜30 °C up to 80 °C
Electricity Heat
source pump

Load 2

Variable speed
submersible
borehole pump

Abstraction Injection
well well Load 3

Figure 30 Example of a conventional open-loop heat network

B4.2 Source side networks (SSNs)

The concept of ambient or source side networks (SSNs) are relatively new but have
many cost and operational advantages over their load side equivalent. In these
systems a central low temperature loop feeds individual heat pumps in the buildings.
This core network is connected via a heat exchanger to the open-loop wells, which
modulate groundwater flow to maintain loop temperature within the range of
maximum heat pump efficiency and minimise the need for insulation to prevent
condensation or heat loss.

41
Challenges and opportunities Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Heat Load 1
pump

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Heat
exchanger

Heat Load 2
pump

Variable speed
submersible
borehole pump

Abstraction Injection Heat Load 3

well well pump

Figure 31 Example of an open-loop source side network (SSN)

The greater the diversity of the loads on the network the more efficient the system. In
an ideal situation the water well pumps will not be required or can run at minimum
speed as the building heating and cooling loads will balance. For example, a
supermarket refrigeration system can run very efficiently on an SSN, which not only
provides cooling to the freezers and refrigerators but the recovered heat can be used
as space heating to the shop and to homes and businesses nearby.

The advantages of this approach include the following:

—— Insulated pipe is not required for the network, therefore pipework costs are
reduced.

—— Heat losses in the network are minimal.

—— Heat pump plant, and the temperatures they produce, can be selected to suit
the individual buildings rather than across the entire network. For example,
older buildings may require higher distribution temperatures than new
buildings.

—— Low-grade thermal energy can be injected or removed at any point along the
network.

—— A central energy centre can often be eliminated.

—— Central running costs can be minimised or eliminated.

B4.3 Multivector and multivalent systems

In many circumstances a project can benefit from a multivalent or multivector system
where different heating, cooling and electrical generation technologies complement
each other. For example, as consumers of electricity heat pump systems sit well
beside on-site electrical generation from solar photovoltaics, wind or combined heat
and power. Other heat generation technologies can also be of benefit, for example
42 by providing higher temperature water than the heat pumps can deliver efficiently.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Strategies

Challenges and opportunities

The system integration and operational control strategy adopted has many, often
subtle, implications. Consequently the optimum solution will differ from project to
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project.

However, in most cases the heat pump(s), will be sized to provide the heating (or
cooling) base load 100% of the time with other technologies providing the peaks.
This top-up can be specified to deliver higher distribution or storage temperatures,
which can be useful where the system also provides domestic hot water.

Sources of heat need not be limited to other heat generation technologies. Recovered
heat, if available, can be particularly valuable. Sources can include heat recovery from
commercial or process refrigeration, building cooling, data centres etc.

While a level of redundancy is always advisable many ground source projects have
been abandoned due to the unnecessary or overenthusiastic specification of back-up
systems.

Experience shows that well designed, installed and operated ground source systems
are reliable, with long service lives and low maintenance requirements.

Pitfalls and how to avoid them:

—— Don’t overcomplicate. A design where multiple technologies are thrown at a

project regardless rarely work well. A careful selection of technologies, all of
which contribute significantly to the project, is a far better and often less costly
approach.

—— Lack of control and poor control logic are one of the most common mistakes
on more complex projects. A typical example is a top-up gas boiler that is
intended to assist the heat pump on the coldest days, but which ends up
staying on and providing all the heating when the heat pump should have
returned to service.

—— Not playing to the strengths of the technologies. For example, an air source
heat pump to top-up heat from a ground source heat pump is not ideal as
when the peak demands occur the air is at its coldest.

B4.4 Retrofit installations

Retrofit ground source systems have unique challenges and requirements, often
centering around the fabric of the building and the operating temperatures required
by existing distribution systems. Open-loop systems are uniquely suited to retrofit
environments where the size of, and disruption caused by, the installation of large
closed loops can be prohibitive. Open-loop wells have even be installed in the
pavement outside a building in central London. The resulting installation comprises a
typical manhole within the pavement with only periodic maintenance access
required, see Figures 32 and 33. Note that ensuring adequate separation between
abstraction and injection boreholes is very important, see Figure 21.

Heat pumps that can deliver higher than normal temperatures can be invaluable in
retrofit projects. However, they are normally less efficient, so lower-temperature
equipment should be used where possible. Therefore, a careful assessment of the
existing insulation and distribution systems, along with potential upgrade strategies,
should be undertaken in preference to simply increasing the load-side distribution
43
temperature.
Challenges and opportunities Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

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Figure 32 Well head chamber in the Wandsworth Figure 33 Wandsworth Riverside Quarter
Riverside Quarter Project (courtesy of IFTech Ltd.) showing a finished well head (courtesy of
IFTech Ltd.)

B4.5 Free cooling and heating

It is often possible to use borehole water to cool directly, without running the heat
pump. Free cooling is delivered without having to pay for the low temperature
resource, i.e. no chiller is required. The source of the low temperature can be outdoor
air, surface water, groundwater or even cooling that is a by-product of other
processes (including heat pumps when heating). Although the term ‘free cooling’ has
been used, there will still be a cost associated with pumping.

Busby (2015) established that mean annual temperatures at 1 m depth when reduced
to sea level, range from 12.7 °C in southern England to 8.8 °C in northern Scotland.
So, even though the groundwater temperature itself may depart from this calculation
due to depth or other local conditions, it is clear that in many locations using it
directly with high temperature cooling equipment provides an excellent opportunity
to deploy free cooling.

44
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Portcullis House, London

Challenges and opportunities

Portcullis House, the parliamentary building located opposite the Palace of
Westminster, London, was opened in 2001. It provides offices, committee rooms and
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other facilities for approximately 200 MPs and 400 administrative staff and uses free
cooling.

Groundwater from two water wells sunk 120 m into the chalk aquifer below the
building can each deliver 20 l/s. They supply water at 13.5 °C, which is initially stored
in two 165 000 litre buffer tanks in the basement before it travels through plate heat
exchangers connected to cooling coils inside air handling units. After use, the water
is discharged into the River Thames. There are no heat pumps in the system.

Figure 34 Portcullis House (© S.Borisov/Shutterstock)

Wellhead Variable speed Greywater

buffer tank pumps tank

14.5 °C 20.5 °C
River Thames

Plate heat
exchanger
Greywater system
Two 120 m 16 °C 22 °C
boreholes
into chalk
lower aquifier

– 2 °C
22 +
30 °C
19 °C
12.5 °C
Displacement ventilation

45
Figure 35 Schematic of the Portcullis House cooling system
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Stockholm Arlanda Airport

Challenges and opportunities

Since 2009 a novel free heating and cooling system integrated with aquifer thermal
energy storage (ATES) has been operational at Arlanda, Stockholm’s main airport.
This system combines free thermal energy stored in an ATES with high temperature

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cooling and low temperature heating methodology.

In winter, the warm side of the ATES is used to preheat the incoming fresh air to the
terminal buildings (Figure 36). It is also used as necessary to melt ice and snow on
the aircraft ramps.

Figure 36 Stockholm Arlanda Airport in winter (courtesy of Swedavia AB)

In summer, the ATES is used to pre-cool the incoming fresh air to the terminal
buildings thus reducing the energy required to achieve the setpoint (Figure 37).
When the ambient temperature exceeds the free cooing capacity the system is
augmented with conventional refrigeration.

Figure 37 Arlanda in summer (courtesy of Swedavia AB)

46
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Figure 38 shows the 11 high capacity wells, five cold (KB1–KB5) and six warm (VB1–

Challenges and opportunities

VB6) providing a total flow capacity of 720 m3·h–1 delivering between 6 and 10 MW;
a total of around 20 GW·h is delivered annually.
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Figure 38 Map of the Arlanda Esker and the 11 abstraction

and injection wells (courtesy of Lantmäteriet/Geodata)

There are no heat pumps but the heat exchangers are substantial, see Figure 39. The
cold side of the system operates at between +3 and 5 °C and the hot side at +15 °C,
although the return temperature can rise to +25 °C in summer.

Figure 39 One of the pair of heat exchangers at 47

Stockholm Arlanda Airport (courtesy of Nic Wincott)
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

B4.6 Aquifer thermal energy storage (ATES)

Challenges and opportunities

Aquifer thermal energy storage (ATES) systems use the aquifer to store thermal
energy, whether hot or cold. Groundwater is pumped from one or more ‘warm wells’

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during winter, the higher approach temperature from the stored heat improves the
efficiency of the heat pumps. The cooled groundwater emerging from the heat pump
is returned to the ‘cold wells’. In the summer the process is reversed, see Figure 40.

Open-loop systems lend themselves to ATES when the ground itself is used to store
heat rather than calorifiers or other water based thermal energy storage systems. The
first pilot demonstration ATES projects were installed in the early 1980s in the US,
China, Switzerland and Denmark.

The subsoil, particularly groundwater saturated subsoil, has a high heat capacity. This
offers the possibility of storing large amounts of heat and/or cold over a long period,
e.g. inter-seasonally. This creates a wide range of opportunities to save energy when
it is cheap or freely available and apply other renewable sources, such as the storage
of solar heat in the summer, for use in the winter. Another example is the storage of
‘cold’ collected from ambient air during winter for cooling purposes in the following
summer.

ATES systems are attractive because they permit a considerable reduction in the
consumption of primary fossil fuels for heating and cooling. An ATES system for high
temperature cooling and low temperature heating for an office building may save 70
to 80% of the electricity consumption for cold production and 20 to 40% of the
consumption of gas or oil for heat generation.

Heating demand Cooling demand

Aquifier Aquifier

Figure 40 Schematic of an aquifer thermal energy storage (ATES) open-loop GWSHP installation

There are now hundreds of ATES systems in operation. They are found in office
buildings, hospitals, shopping malls and district networks in residential areas; more
have been implemented in industrial, horticultural and agricultural applications,
including plastics processing companies, printing works and glasshouses. The Dutch
48 Railway Company NS is installing ATES heat pump systems in most of its 410 stations.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Many ATES projects are large with a storage capacity in excess of 500 kWt·h. A major

Challenges and opportunities

benefit of ATES systems is that they can provide free cooling (from the groundwater
circuit only — no heat pump required) leading to very high CoPs, often in excess of 50.
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Wandsworth Riverside Quarter

Wandsworth Riverside Quarter is a development of apartments on the banks of the
River Thames in south-west London. The open-loop GWSHP scheme consists of three
heat pumps coupled to an aquifer below the site via an open-loop system of eight
120 m deep boreholes, see Figures 41 and 42 below). The heat pumps supply a peak
cooling capacity of 2.25 MW and a peak heating output of 1.2 MW. The aquifer
warms over the summer due to the injection of the heat recovered from the cooling
loads, leading to improved heat pump performance in winter. As heat for the space
heating is drawn out in the winter the aquifer is cooled, leading to higher cooling
efficiencies during summertime operation. Under ideal design conditions, the aquifer
is cold enough to directly cool the building.

Heating mode Total building(s) heating

load: peak load 996 kW
ATES/HP heating max.
capacity: 1150 kW

– +
35 °C 45 °C
Heating peak HP Heating peak HP
1150 kW Boiler 0 kW

Maximum heat source

capacity ATES: 862 kW

Average injection Extraction temp:

temp: 7 °C 17 °C → 14 °C

Maximum required flow

ATES system: 106 m3/h

Maximum sustainable
well yield: 70 m3/h

3 × cold wells 3 × warm wells

Figure 41 Schematic of Wandsworth Riverside Quarter system in heating mode (courtesy of IFTech Ltd.)

49
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Cooling mode Total building(s) heating

Challenges and opportunities

load: peak load 1093 kW

ATES/HP cooling max.
capacity: 1100 kW

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– +
6 °C 14 °C

Peak air-cooled Heating peak HP

chiller 0 kW Chiller 1150 kW

9 → 14 °C
Load direct cooling:
Maximum dissipation
Start summer: 895 kW
condenser heat: 1366 kW
End summer: 0 kW
Extraction 13 °C Average injection
temp: 8 → 7 °C temp: 20 °C

Maximum required flow

ATES system: 168 m3/h

Maximum sustainable
well yield: 70 m3/h

3 × cold wells 3 × warm wells

Figure 42 Schematic of Wandsworth Riverside Quarter system in cooling mode (courtesy of IFTech Ltd.)

Trafford Town Hall

Trafford Town Hall in Manchester is another example of an ATES system of two wells
of 90 m depth in a sandstone aquifer. It provides 600 kW of cooling and heating
capacity and was installed and commissioned in 2013.

Figure 43 Trafford Town Hall, Manchester: Council Headquarters (© Mark Waugh / Manchester Press
50 Photography)
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Part C: The requirements

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1: Preparation and briefing

Objectives:
1.1 To commission the project in accordance with the Code of Practice
1.2 To develop the specification/project brief

Key support tasks:

• Review feedback from previous projects
• Set performance targets
• Pre-application discussions with statutory and regulatory bodies
• Research opportunities for collaboration
• Agree schedule of services, design responsibility matrix and information
exchanges
• Prepare implementation plan including technology and communication
strategies and consideration of common standards to be used

Information exchange to next stage (feasibility consultant):

• Strategic brief
• Project specification
• Initial project brief
The requirements — Stage 1: Preparation and briefing Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Objective 1.1: To commission the project in accordance with

the Code of Practice

Why is this objective important?

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The client (sometimes referred to as owner/developer), whether an individual or
organisation, will ultimately be responsible for the installation and should therefore
take the lead in executing this Code of Practice. When the owner and developer are
different entities, responsibility must be determined at the commencement of the
project. The aim is to ensure the open-loop groundwater source heat pump (GWSHP)
system works effectively is reliable, cost effective, and does not harm the
environment. The client will need to ensure compliance with all relevant legislation
and any conditions imposed by other stakeholder organisations, for example the local
planning authority and the relevant environmental agency.

Minimum requirements

1.1.1 The client shall ensure that this Code of Practice is included as a key
requirement in briefs and specifications for the delivery of:

• feasibility studies

• design services

• construction contracts

• commissioning contracts

• operation and maintenance contracts.

1.1.2 The client or their identified representative shall:

• monitor implementation of the Code of Practice on a regular basis and

at the end of each stage of the project

• monitor the compliance of the project against the minimum

requirements

• obtain evidence that the minimum requirements have been met

• carefully consider upgrading requirements to comply with best practice.

1.1.3 The client shall draw up a clear implementation plan with milestones,
reporting, responsibilities and handover points.

1.1.4 The client shall ensure all those working on the project conduct and record a
formal and effective handover process between each stage.

1.1.5 The client shall check that suitably qualified and experienced people are
employed on the project, appropriate to each stage.

Objective 1.2: To develop the specification/project brief

Why is this objective important?

A project brief shall be prepared by or on behalf of the client. The priority will be to
determine the steps needed to assess the viability of the proposed open-loop GWSHP
system. The brief shall be used to focus project planning activity, assess the
54 marketplace and identify suitable specialists required to deliver the project.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Minimum requirements

The requirements — Stage 1: Preparation and briefing

1.2.1 A suitable groundwater source shall be identified. It should be as shallow as
possible and within reasonable distance of the heat pump(s) to minimise
energy consumed by pumping.
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1.2.2 British Geological Survey (BGS) or Geological Survey of Northern Ireland

(GSNI) resources shall be used to establish the characteristics of the
surrounding geology and hydrogeology, presence or otherwise of existing
boreholes and other geological factors to investigate the practicality of
installing an open-loop GWSHP system. BGS/GSNI is an important resource
of detailed UK geological information, much of which is available free of
charge under OpenGeoscience (see https://www.bgs.ac.uk/opengeoscience).

1.2.3 The sustainability aspirations for the building shall be identified, confirmed
and used to inform the brief, in particular carbon emissions targets.

1.2.4 The possibility of collaboration to create a heating/cooling energy loop,

thermal energy storage and/or a heat network shall be explored.

1.2.5 The projected heating and/or cooling load of the proposed development,
including operating temperatures, peak load and seasonal demand, shall be
accurately estimated. The calculation shall be in sufficient detail (peak load,
hourly annual heat load etc.) to assess the best heat source(s). The loads
should, if possible, take into account both predicted and change-of-use
demands. It is common for buildings to change operational load cycles after
commissioning.

1.2.6 Performance targets, such as operating temperatures, coefficient of

performance (CoP) and seasonal performance factors (SPFs), shall be
considered and agreed; see B1.3 for more information.

1.2.7 The sources of data to be used to calculate the life cycle (capex and opex)
costs (p/kW·h) and carbon (kgCO2/kW·h) savings of different heating options
shall be identified, see Valuation of energy use and greenhouse gas
emissions for appraisal (BEIS, 2018). This establishes a set of diminishing
carbon factors to reflect future decarbonisation of the electricity grid.

Setting the performance targets

It is essential for the client/developer to specify in detail in the contract what they
expect from an open-loop GWSHP installation. Without clear performance targets
from the outset the overall performance cannot be measured.

Performance targets shall include:

—— seasonal performance factors (SPFs) and coefficient of performance (CoP)

—— carbon reduction

—— groundwater consumption

—— maintenance requirements and costs

—— running costs

—— whole life costs.

55
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

1.2.8 The eligibility for government grants and incentives shall be determined and
The requirements — Stage 1: Preparation and briefing

the party to receive the income to be agreed.

1.2.9 The requirement for permissions and certification shall be investigated.

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1.2.10 The likelihood of further phases or other development nearby that could
utilise the same resources shall be considered.

1.2.11 Any other expectations or aspirations the client may have for the project
should be discussed and noted if relevant. These could include visual impact,
remote operation and monitoring, long term reliability operational uptime,
annual maintenance requirements.

56
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2: Feasibility

Objectives:
2.1 To identify and quantify the groundwater source
2.2 To determine what permissions are necessary to access the groundwater
2.3 To determine heat pump location and groundwater abstraction and
discharge details, including costs estimates
2.4 To accurately estimate peak and seasonal heating and cooling demands
2.5 To agree suitable load-side operating flow rates and control strategies
2.6 To select the most appropriate heat pumps system
2.7 To assess operation and maintenance needs and costs
2.8 To conduct a financial analysis to comprehensively evaluate the
installation options
2.9 To assess environmental impacts and benefits
2.10 To analyse risks and carry out a sensitivity analysis

Key support tasks:

• Review client brief
• Further pre-application discussions with statutory and regulatory bodies
• Prepare risk assessments
• Undertake third party consultations as required and any research and
development aspects
• Review and update implementation plan
• Develop:
–– sustainability strategy
–– maintenance and operational strategy
–– construction strategy
–– health and safety strategy

Information exchange to next stage (design team):

• Feasibility study
• Concept design including outline structural and building services design
associated project strategies
The requirements — Stage 2: Feasibility Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

When to drill the test well

The feasibility stage describes a comprehensive desk study. This process is
intended to deliver a tool to enable an informed decision to proceed with the

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project to be made with a high level of confidence.

Any desk study inevitably involves some uncertainty, but this must be minimised
by using the best information available and by employing experts with
appropriate expertise. The highest level of uncertainty is in relation to
groundwater quality, quantity and temperature.

Due to the nature of the UK’s subsurface geology, ground conditions, quality and
yield are hard to predict with accuracy before the water well is drilled and tested
so drilling a water well inevitably requires a level of speculative investment. There
are strategies that can be employed if the initial yield is disappointing. However, it
must be noted that on some occasions despite implementing these strategies the
yield will not be sufficient.

Experienced engineers will be able to modify their design around the

groundwater flows found and, in addition, there are tried and tested techniques
that may be used to improve the performance of the well, most notably
acidisation. Alternatively, it is frequently possible to increase capacity simply by
drilling another well nearby.

A key decision will be at what point in the design and construction process the
test water well is to be constructed. This will vary from project to project;
however, the earlier in the program the better, so any uncertainties can be
resolved, and the final design confirmed or modified if necessary.

Objective 2.1: To identify and quantify the groundwater source

Why is this objective important?

In the planning and briefing stage, the potential for a groundwater source heat
pump system will have been identified. The characteristics of the building’s heating
and cooling demand, proposed aquifer, site layout, and potential groundwater
quality will inform the practicality of using an open-loop GWSHP.

All projects must combine good engineering practice with a detailed evaluation of
the local conditions (e.g. the presence of a suitable aquifer, ease or otherwise for
drilling, abstraction and injection of water and whether any national or local
regulatory issues might impact on project feasibility etc).

The starting point of every new project is to investigate the resources available, in
particular the underlying geology and hydrogeology. In the UK, relevant information
can be obtained from the British Geological Survey (BGS) or Geological Survey of
Northern Ireland (GSNI), including site-specific hydrogeological reports or an initial
assessment of subsurface suitability for large-scale open-loop installations, see
‘Additional references’. These provide an excellent starting point but do not remove
the requirement to employ a qualified hydrogeological expert competent in thermal
modelling, preferably dynamic thermal modelling.

Minimum requirements

2.1.1 The groundwater source shall be fully investigated and reported in the
58 feasibility study.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Important considerations are as follows:

The requirements — Stage 2: Feasibility

• The presence, depth and nature of the target aquifer, and the outline
design of borehole(s) required to access groundwater.
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• Available geological maps, plans, satellite imagery, previous nearby

studies and geographic information system (GIS) data shall also be used
to evaluate the site.
• Other water supply or open-loop boreholes records located nearby. The
information taken from these records shall be used, such as borehole
depth, design and available groundwater yield and water quality.
• The risk of encountering artesian conditions must be fully assessed and
evaluated.
• Site layout, specifically the degree of separation possible between
abstraction and injection boreholes at the site when required.
• Groundwater level (depth below ground level): groundwater very close
to the surface can in some circumstances render injection impractical if
not impossible.
• The chemical quality of the groundwater: some aspects of water
chemistry, for example the nature and concentration of iron and/or
manganese can have a major impact on viability.

2.1.2 An assessment of the risk of corrosion and incrustation within an open-loop

ground source heat exchanger system shall be carried out at an early stage
of the feasibility study. If a significant risk is found to be present, it shall be
assessed further, based on a consideration of analysed water samples.

2.1.3 Assessments shall be undertaken to investigate the presence of particulate

matter, dissolved gasses and contaminants in the groundwater source.

2.1.4 The energy potential of the groundwater flow estimated to be available shall
be calculated to establish if it can be utilised for the heating/cooling
requirement. Rules of thumb shall only be used with great care in the
feasibility study and all the calculations must be shown.

2.1.5 Accurate building heating and, if relevant, cooling demand information shall
be used to calculate the peak pumping rate, daily and annual groundwater
volume required by an open-loop heat pump system to satisfy the load.

2.1.6 The costs of metering and data collection shall be included.

Best practice

Best practice would be to:

BP2.1a prepare a detailed plan and cross section of the location to ensure
all and any design constraints are identified; this can also be used
to identify the location and potential relevance of adjacent
schemes

BP2.1b model in detail the energy potential of the groundwater in the

target aquifer to assess the long-term impact of the scheme, the
potential for thermal short circuiting and other key variables; this
model may be used to provide a clear performance comparison
between open and closed loop at this location

BP2.1c offer two options from the outset — one for the ideal yield and
59
another to establish the lowest viable yield; low yield designs may
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

increase capacity with bi- or multivalent systems incorporating CHP,

The requirements — Stage 2: Feasibility

heat recovery, thermal energy storage, dry air coolers, solar thermal
panels etc.

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BP2.1d compare open-loop and closed-loop based on operational
efficiency, contributions to CO2 reductions and whole life costs
taking account of future trends in energy prices and electricity
decarbonisation.

Objective 2.2: To determine what permissions are necessary to

access the groundwater

Why is this objective important?

When an open-loop GWSHP system is proposed as a heat source a range of

permissions may be required. These will vary from site to site and need to be carefully
investigated and noted as any oversight can cause costly delays. Pre-application
discussion should be sought from the relevant environmental agency, see Appendix C
for contact details.

The Good practice guide for ground source heating and cooling (GSHPA, 2017) sets
out a summary of what should be done to comply with environmental legislation and
manage environmental risks. It is based on regulations set out by the Environment
Agency for England and, whilst the Guide is relevant across the whole of the UK, it is
recommended to consult the equivalent regulatory bodies in Wales (NRW), Scotland
(SEPA) and Northern Ireland (NIEA), where necessary.

Details of the requirements in each devolved area can be found in Appendix B.

However, note that regulations can change and therefore consultation with the
relevant regulatory bodies must be sought to confirm the situation every time.

Minimum requirements

2.2.1 For most open-loop installations, permission is required from the relevant
environmental agency, see Tables 6 to 9 in Appendix B. Pre-application advice
shall be sought as early as possible to identify site specific requirements and
constraints. There may be a charge for this advice.

2.2.2 Consultation shall take place with Natural England or equivalent for any
system in or potentially affecting Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs),
Special Conservation Areas (SACs) and Special Protection Areas (SPAs).

2.2.3 When the open-loop GWSHP installation plans to use abandoned coal mine
workings for the purpose of extracting heat from mine water, permission
shall be sought to enter, disturb or change coal mines managed or owned by
the Coal Authority. This includes:

• coal seams

• coal workings, such as existing mine tunnels

• mine entrances

2.2.4 Where required, an application for a Minewater Heat Recovery Access

Agreement shall be sought from the Coal Authority (see https://www.gov.uk/
60 government/publications/minewater-heat-recovery-access-agreements).
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

2.2.5 Early consultation shall be undertaken with the local planning authority to

The requirements — Stage 2: Feasibility

establish if planning permission is required, including the requirement of
permissions for temporary works for storage of materials and other
construction purposes where necessary.
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2.2.6 The Town and Country Planning (Environmental Impact Assessment)

Regulations 2011 can apply even when the project is considered as
permitted development. Early consultation with the local planning authority
shall be undertaken to establish requirements.

2.2.7 Consultation with Distribution Network Operators shall be conducted to

establish the availability of power to the building, in particular to the heat
pump.

2.2.8 Where planned pipework routes for groundwater abstraction will cross
public access paths, the need to apply for temporary suspension of rights of
way shall be assessed.

2.2.9 The costs of permissions shall be determined. There will be application

charges for any licences and environmental permits required. There will also
be annual charges for the time the licence and permit are live. There may
also be charges for pre-application advice. The details of these fees can be
obtained from the relevant environmental agency.

Typical abstraction/discharge ∆T
A key element of heat pump system operation is the difference in temperature
between water entering and leaving the heat exchanger (∆T). In groundwater
systems, whether heating/cooling or both (balanced) this becomes critical to the
design as it directly affects the abstraction and discharge temperatures.

Therefore, the operating temperatures and ∆T permissible in any specific location

must be considered in detail with the relevant environmental agency and reflect
local conditions, protection of sites and species and pressures from other
developments. Some smaller schemes may be exempt from the regulations but
early discussion with the relevant environmental agency is always advised.

For example, for England, the Environment Agency’s Guidance notes on

registration of your ground source heating and cooling system as exempt from
the need for an environmental permit (EA, 2014) state that the temperature of
water discharged from the system will not exceed 25 °C and will not vary by more
than 10 °C compared to the abstracted water. The ratio between the abstraction
and discharge temperatures is also considered:

Discharge temperature
Temperature ratio = ———————————
Abstraction temperature
Given the above, for the purpose of feasibility studies it is recommended that a ∆T
of ±10 °C is a reasonable starting point until further information becomes
available following site-specific investigation and discussions.

61
The requirements — Stage 2: Feasibility Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Objective 2.3: To determine heat pump location and groundwater

abstraction and discharge details, including cost estimates
Why is this objective important?

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The location of the heat pump in relation to the load, water and electricity supply,
and the spacing, positioning and design of abstraction and injection wells are critical
decisions. It is recommended to always start from a good engineering perspective
taking into account other determining factors or limiting conditions, for example
existing building systems/services, flood risk, access, cost, noise or security
considerations.

Minimum requirements
2.3.1 The feasibility of an open-loop system shall be established taking into
account all engineering, practical, environmental, space, access and
ownership issues. This will include heating or cooling only, heating and
cooling and in particular whether aquifer thermal energy storage (ATES) is
viable.

2.3.2 The proposed location and space requirement of the plantroom(s) shall be
identified and reported in the feasibility study.

2.3.3 The most suitable method of abstracting and discharging groundwater shall
be identified and the spacing and location of the abstraction and injection
wells established.

2.3.4 The route and distance of any pipelines between the heat pump, the heat
load and the groundwater resource shall be measured. The costs shall be
estimated and feasibility of transporting the heat shall be established taking
into account losses as well as any parasitic energy consumption, for example
pumping.

2.3.5 Any filtration and water treatment requirements shall be considered and
reported in the feasibility study.

2.3.6 The access conditions to the site for drilling shall be assessed. A significant
area is required for the contractor’s plant, storage and operations. These
must be planned, and risks identified, alongside the client’s requirements for
continued operations or other construction activities.

2.3.7 The capacity and voltage of the electrical supply required, and the location/
route shall be determined.

Minimum separation between abstraction and injection wells

Typical minimum separation required between abstraction and injection wells is
around 100 m. If there are multiple abstraction wells, typical separation between
each well is around 25 m, see Figure 21 above. These are only indicative and a
suitably qualified professional must be engaged to assess the groundwater
gradient and appropriate separation requirement.

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 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

The requirements — Stage 2: Feasibility

Objective 2.4: To accurately estimate peak and seasonal heating and
cooling demands

Why is this objective important?

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An accurate estimate of both the peak output requirement and total annual heating
and cooling demand, together with the consumption profile and diversity of the
demand are also important considerations to ensure feasibility studies are truly useful
decision-making tools.

For an existing building, the estimates will rely mainly on heat loss calculations based
on the fabric and ventilation; consider thermal mass, internal and solar heat gains as
appropriate. These can be further informed by actual fuel use, meters, local
meteorological data and any other relevant site-specific information.

It is worth noting that historical energy consumption is not necessarily an accurate

reflection of a well-run and well-controlled building, nor is it an indication of whether
the building will be efficiently or inefficiently operated in the future.

Any historical data must be reviewed to take account of all practical energy efficiency
measures and any heat recovery opportunities considered to develop a strategy that
avoids unnecessary investment while still delivering a safe, comfortable indoor
environment.

For new buildings, a modelling approach should be considered. It is important that

this reflects the expected operation of the building as it will be used, in the location
where it is to be built. This may differ significantly from modelling needed to show
compliance with local Building Regulations. CIBSE TM54: Evaluating operational
energy performance of buildings at the design stage (CIBSE, 2013a) provides a
framework for making accurate energy assessments.

In either case, where there are multiple loads in one building or for multiple buildings
on the same system or network it is critical to consider the impact of diversity. This is
covered in detail in Heat networks: Code of Practice for the UK (CIBSE, 2019).

Minimum requirements

2.4.1 For existing buildings, heating and cooling demands shall be estimated on a
monthly basis using actual fuel used from meter readings wherever available
and an assessment of existing equipment efficiencies, taking account of any
potential for cost-effective investments in energy efficiency, or by use of
benchmark buildings. Peak loads can be established using a heat loss
calculation method based on BS EN 12831 (BSI, 2017b/c) (for heating only)
or a dynamic simulation model, and these peak loads can be used to confirm
equipment size requirements. It is recommended to ask the client for energy
consumption and heat loss calculations and to agree power and energy
figures with the client as part of any contracts.

2.4.2 The data shall be analysed to separately estimate the heat demand for space
heating, domestic hot water, any other heating and cooling demands such
as industrial processes and any system losses within the building.

2.4.3 The space heating element shall be adjusted by means of degree days (see
CIBSE TM41: Degree days: theory and application (2006)) or other method,
for example computer modelling, to provide a detailed heating and cooling
demand profile for an average year using an appropriate baseline
63
temperature.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

2.4.4 Where possible, an understanding of the daily, weekly and annual occupancy
The requirements — Stage 2: Feasibility

pattern of each building shall be established.

2.4.5 For existing buildings the peak power shall be estimated from a combination

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of a knowledge of the installed heat source capacity and how these heat
sources are operated in practice; benchmarks using floor areas and age of
the building; or from half-hourly gas meter readings if available and
supplemented by modelling using CIBSE TM54 (2013a). Benchmarks for peak
and annual heating and cooling demand estimates based on floor areas that
can be used in feasibility studies are given in the following references:
• CIBSE TM46: Energy benchmarks (CIBSE, 2009) (for existing buildings)
• CIBSE Guide F: Energy efficiency in buildings (CIBSE, 2012) (for existing
buildings)
• BSRIA BG9/2011: Rules of Thumb — Guidelines for building services
(BSRIA, 2011a) (for new buildings).

2.4.6 Future heating and cooling demands for building or system extensions shall
be estimated as accurately as possible and where appropriate a sensitivity
analysis carried out to show the impact on the design.

2.4.7 For large commercial facilities, peak power and annual heating and cooling
demand shall be modelled by development of a dynamic simulation model
(DSM) or other approved software intended for use within the GWSHP
system design. A sensitivity analysis shall be carried out to show the impact
on the design.

2.4.8 In new developments, the Standard Assessment Procedure for the Energy
Rating of Dwellings (SAP) and Simplified Building Energy Model (SBEM) are
commonly used energy assessment tools. However, they are compliance
tools and do not provide sufficient information (e.g. peak load data) for
equipment and heat pump sizing. If SAP or SBEM are used, then a further
calculation (based on BS EN 12831 (BSI, 2017b/c) or a dynamic simulation
model) shall be used to meet this Objective.

Best practice

Best practice would be to:

BP2.4a obtain hourly or half-hourly fuel use data for existing buildings
from meters throughout the year where this is available or install
monitoring equipment to establish the demands more accurately

BP2.4b include the use of operational data from other similar sites to
generate a heating and cooling demand profile; from these data
an annual heat load duration curve can be produced

BP2.4c take account of local climates such as the heat island effect in large
cities when assessing space heating demands and the lower
demand for hot water that may be seen in summer (due to higher
cold-water feed temperatures and reduced hot water demand)

BP2.4d dynamically model the building’s heating and cooling load using
hourly bin data rather than a monthly based static degree day data
model

64 BP2.4e model potential future building occupancy profiles.

 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

The requirements — Stage 2: Feasibility

Objective 2.5: To agree suitable load side operating flow rates,
temperatures and control strategies
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Why is this objective important?

Operating flow rates and flow and return temperatures are an important aspect of
the feasibility study and will influence both the capital and operating costs as well as
the system heat losses. They are key determinants of the impact of the installation on
the water source, the efficiency of the GWSHP and the volume of any thermal
storage. While there will be opportunities to refine and optimise the design later, the
feasibility study must be based on clearly stated assumptions that comply with any
legal or other requirements and are practical and achievable.

Minimum requirements

2.5.1 The most suitable operating temperatures for the GWSHP shall be identified,
taking account of how efficiencies will vary with operating temperatures
across all loads and seasonal profiles, and any limits imposed by the owners
or other relevant statutory body.

2.5.2 For a retrofit project, the temperatures used by the existing heating system
shall be obtained and any potential for reducing the load side operating
temperature identified. (At the feasibility stage, it can be assumed that
where improvements have been made to an existing building after the
original installation, the heat emitter circuits can be rebalanced to achieve
lower operating temperatures.)

2.5.3 The potential to reduce the operating temperature as demand falls (weather
compensation) shall be analysed to reduce heat losses under part load
conditions. It will take account of pumping energy, especially of variable
speed pumps, and the impact on return temperatures.

2.5.4 The temperature difference that occurs at any hydraulic separation (i.e. at a
heat exchanger) shall be taken into account in defining operating
temperatures.

2.5.5 Careful consideration shall be given to minimising any health risks from
scalding and Legionella growth, which could occur in the secondary
domestic hot water system. Alternative methods of Legionella control may
be used to permit the use of lower temperatures, see ‘Further reading’ for
standards and guidance, particularly CIBSE TM13: Minimising the risk of
Legionnaires’ disease (CIBSE, 2013b).

Best practice

Best practice approach would be to:

BP2.5a carry out a specific temperature optimisation study taking account

all impacts to derive lifecycle costs and environmental performance
for a range of temperatures

BP2.5b seek to achieve the lowest feasible operating temperatures, e.g.

through use of low input temperature heating devices such as
65
underfloor heating (UFH).
The requirements — Stage 2: Feasibility Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

High temperature cooling and low temperature heating

Heat pumps operate at higher efficiency with lower flow temperatures,
consequently using a high water temperature when cooling and a low water

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temperature when heating decreases energy consumption. A saving of about 3%
of input energy per 1 °C temperature reduction is to be expected.

• What constitutes high temperature cooling will vary depending upon the
cooling distribution devices but flow temperatures between 14 °C and 17 °C
with a ∆T of 2–4 K are recommended.

• Heating flow temperatures of 35 °C are increasingly common with surface

heating or fan coil units.

Note: Low-temperature heating requires a system design that ensures the heat
emitters (radiators, fan-assisted radiators or convectors, or underfloor heating
pipes) can deliver the same amount of heat at the lower temperature as old-style
radiator systems would have done at traditional temperatures (over 55 °C). This
may preclude their use in some retrofit situations although not always, especially
if combined with better insulation and other energy efficiency measures.

Objective 2.6: To select the most appropriate heat pump system

Why is this objective important?

In order to select the most appropriate heat pump system, the design concept for the
open-loop GWSHP installation must be developed including the type and number of
heat pumps in the system, how they are connected together (i.e. in parallel or in
series) and other elements such as thermal energy storage, isolating heat exchangers,
dry air coolers etc.

There are times when it may be appropriate to use more than one heat generator in
an installation. This could be for a variety of reasons, e.g. thermal capacity of the
heat source, plant room space, limits to electricity supply, capital costs and
operational efficiency objectives. While generally it is important to keep an
installation simple, the financial and operational advantages of a multivalent system
can be considerable and need to be comprehensively assessed.

Minimum requirements

2.6.1 Working temperature range and operating regime for the heat pump system
shall be identified.

2.6.2 The most appropriate generic type of heat pump system able to deliver the
working temperatures shall be identified, considering the refrigerant and the
associated risks.

2.6.3 The likely long-term maintenance requirements of the heat pump system
and any implications for the installation, such as access, top-up of fluids and
other limiting factors shall be assessed.

2.6.4 The part load characteristics of the heat pump system shall be appropriate to
the system’s source and load side conditions, such as energy demands and
66 other limiting factors.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

2.6.5 The type of installation and operational strategy shall be determined. (The

The requirements — Stage 2: Feasibility

most straightforward technical solution will be a monovalent heat pump
installation capable of meeting the peak heating and/or cooling loads at the
required emitter temperatures.)
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2.6.6 For bivalent systems that are capable of meeting the heating/cooling loads
using parallel operation, the annual load profiles of the building shall be
established, and a decision made as to the split of size between the heat
pump and the supplementary source(s). The basis for a decision shall take
into account any or all of capital costs, running costs, plant physical sizes,
and carbon emissions.

2.6.7 For bivalent systems that are run in alternate mode, the heat pump shall be
sized to meet the maximum loads that can be achieved at optimum heat
pump output temperatures. The alternative source(s) shall be deployed
above this valency point and sized to meet the worst-day design loads.

2.6.8 The physical limitations referred to above shall be taken into account in
determining the size of the heat pump(s) versus supplementary heating/
cooling sources.

2.6.9 The selected heat pump system shall be compliant with all relevant
certification bodies and other legislative requirements.

Best practice
Best practice would be to:

BP2.6a use of building/plant simulation systems coupled to appropriate

local climate data; these models, e.g. EnergyPro, allow
investigation of the optimal split of the bivalent plant based
around considerations of capital expenditure, running costs and
carbon emissions

BP2.6b model several options to accurately determine the most energy

efficient operational arrangement to further inform the decision;
even if the knowledge of daily demand profiles is limited, this type
of modelling will be more accurate and is often required to
establish how a system will operate in practice, particularly where
there are a range of heat sources and thermal storage

BP2.6c use a building energy management system (BEMS) to accurately

control the operation of the system; however, BEMS may not be
sufficiently technically robust to monitor and control a complex
system, particularly a large system with mission critical or multiple
end users — in such cases industrial grade supervisory control and
data acquisition (SCADA) control systems should be considered.

67
The requirements — Stage 2: Feasibility Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Assessing the need for a multivalent system

With a monovalent system, the GWSHP should be specified to cover 100% of the
thermal energy demand at all times.

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With a bivalent/multivalent system, two or more heat generators are used, e.g. a
gas CHP, heat pump and electric resistance heater combination. For larger non-
domestic systems, it is not uncommon to find a heat pump installation
supplemented by a fossil fuel boiler to provide additional peak capacity.

When the controls detect that the heat pump is no longer able to maintain the
output temperature or a valency point is exceeded, it triggers one of the
following:

—— parallel operation (Figure 46): when both heat generators operate at the
same time

—— alternate operation (Figure 47): when the heat pump is replaced entirely by
a second heat/cooling generator capable of delivering 100% of the peak
load

—— zonal operation: when the area of the building serviced by the heat pump is
restricted leaving the remainder unheated or to be heated with a
supplementary plant, e.g. direct electric.

Parallel operation is possible where there is only a requirement for additional

heating or cooling capacity at load side temperatures that the heat pump is
capable of delivering. In this case the heat pump remains in circuit at all times,
with the secondary generator brought into operation when the demand side load
exceeds the capacity of the heat pump.

Heat supplied Heat supplied from secondary source,

from GWSHP e.g. existing boiler
6000

5000
Heat (kW)

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Hour of day

Figure 46 A bivalent system in parallel operation

The sizes of the heat pump and secondary generator can be varied at will, as long
as the total capacity of the two systems meets the worst day loads. Careful
design, usually employing low loss headers or buffer stores, is required to blend
the different flow and return temperatures from the different heat sources to
ensure this does not compromise the heat pump operation.

Alternate operation is used in situations where, as the ambient temperature moves

towards extremes or the groundwater temperature drops significantly, the heat
pump is no longer capable of delivering load side temperatures that will satisfy the
required comfort levels in the building. The heat pump is then dropped out of
circuit, and the alternate source is brought into operation to cover the total
heating or cooling demand, at the required load side temperatures.
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 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

The requirements — Stage 2: Feasibility

This method of operation is typically employed in retrofit situations where, under
some ambient conditions, the building thermal envelope and/or the heating/
cooling emitters require the use of load side temperatures that are outside the
range of the heat pump. Alternate operation is also sometimes referred to as series
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operation.

Heat supplied Heat supplied from secondary source,

from GWSHP e.g. existing boiler
6000

5000
Heat (kW)

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Hour of day

Figure 47 A bivalent system in alternate operation

The decision to employ a bivalent solution shall be assessed in line with a number
of factors:

—— Physical limitations:
• physical size of heat pump(s) relative to desired plant room size
• size of electrical supply
• thermal capacity of the available groundwater source
• ability of the selected heat pumps to meet the worst day load side
emitter temperatures.

—— Other design/cost considerations:

• If the heating/cooling load profiles are ‘peaky’, it may be considered
economically attractive to provide supplementary sources to meet the
peaking loads. This supplementary source might be an air source heat
pump or some form of combustion technology.
• If the heat pump system is delivering heating and cooling, then it may be
economically attractive to meet the lower of the heating/cooling peak
loads with a heat pump, and to supplement the other peak load with an
alternative source
• Requirements around plant redundancy, standby/back-up requirements
for mission critical applications.

‘Monoenergetic’ is the description given to multivalent installations where only

one energy source is used for two or more heat generators. For example, a heat
pump supplemented by a direct electric resistance heater is a monoenergetic
(electric) system (this is commonly found in domestic heat pumps).

‘Alternate Zonal’ is a system of control when the area heated or cooled is adjusted
in real time as the ambient temperature varies to match the maximum output of
the heat pump. The remainder of the building may be left unserviced or cooled/
heated using another method. 69
The requirements — Stage 2: Feasibility Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Objective 2.7: To assess operation and maintenance needs and costs

Why is this objective important?

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At the feasibility stage, operation and maintenance needs and costs should be
assessed and included in the financial model. It is useful to split these into capital,
fixed and variable. The main variable operating cost will be for electricity; however,
estimates need to be made for non-energy operating costs, for example pump
maintenance and inspection. Plant replacement cycles should also be considered and
costed. The income from grants and incentives and any heat sold need to be
included.

Minimum requirements

2.7.1 An operational model shall be set-up for use in the financial analysis from
which operating costs and revenues (if any) can be determined.

2.7.2 A long-term repair/replacement strategy shall be developed to ensure that

the true whole life costs are assessed. See CIBSE Guide M: Maintenance
engineering and management (CIBSE, 2014a) for lifecycle analysis of
components.

2.7.3 The cost of parasitic electricity consumption shall be included as well as any
estimated overhead and maintenance costs for the GWSHP installation and
directly related plant.

2.7.4 New Rules of Measurement (NRM) (RICS, 2013/2015) shall be used. NRM
provides a standard set of measurement rules and essential guidance for the
cost management of construction projects and maintenance works.

2.7.5 The operation and maintenance needs shall be assessed for the abstraction
and discharge system particularly the down-hole plant and structures, such
as submersible pump, heat exchanger, injection valves and pipework.
Occasional CCTV inspection of the borehole will need to be carried out and
the water quality monitored regularly with a comprehensive water quality
assessment conducted at least annually.

2.7.6 The operation and maintenance cost shall include for all consumables,
including top-up refrigerant.

2.7.7 The operation strategy shall consider the impact of global warming potential
(GWP) the F-gas Regulations (EU, 2014), the phasing out of HFC refrigerant
systems and how system design and plant rooms can be undertaken that
protect the future integration of heat pumps using different refrigerants.

2.7.8 For operation, maintenance, durability and security, the location of

instrumentation and valves, secondary filtration, heat exchangers and
secondary circuit pump location shall be assessed with a secured plant room,
ideally in the vicinity of the abstraction well or wells.

2.7.9 A control strategy shall be developed that addresses operational scenarios in

different circumstances, for example, part load or different source
70 temperature.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Best practice

The requirements — Stage 2: Feasibility

Best practice would be to:
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BP2.7a base costs on data obtained from actual operating systems where
full details of the system are available to ensure it is of a similar
type

BP2.7b include instrumentation to allow for condition-based maintenance

programmes.

Objective 2.8: To conduct a financial analysis to comprehensively

evaluate the installation options
Why is this objective important?

At the feasibility stage, financial analysis is required to investigate the costs and
benefits of the various options. Capital cost, operating cost, whole-life cost including
disposal costs and internal rate of return on the investment need to be determined.
Other key metrics that may be important to the decision are £/kW·h, £/tCO2. Care
must be taken to ensure that the same parameters are used to ensure that the
alternatives developed are directly comparable.

BSRIA BG67/2016: Life Cycle Costing (BSRIA, 2016a) provides a process for the
practical calculation of whole-life costs for the construction and operation of
buildings.

Minimum requirements

2.8.1 The factors to be included in the feasibility study shall be agreed in advance
with the client. The parameters and variables chosen shall be sufficiently
comprehensive to deliver useful results but be proportionate to the project
scale.

2.8.2 All analysis shall be conducted in accordance with accepted accountancy

principals and cover an agreed period, typically 15–25 years, but 100 years is
not uncommon for heat pump projects, unless the projected life of the
building is considerably less. Capital equipment replacement costs estimates
and timescales shall be included in any calculation.

2.8.3 The cashflow model shall use a discount rate related to the client’s cost of
capital. Energy prices shall be obtained either from the existing customer’s
contract prices, BRE’s GreenBookLive (BRE, online) and market indices such
as the Digest of UK Energy Statistics (DUKES) (BEIS, online).

2.8.4 The Internal Rate of Return (IRR) and Net Present Value (NPV) shall be
calculated, initially for a base case assuming current energy prices remain
constant for the analysis period in real terms and a sensitivity analysis used
to determine a range of outcomes depending on future carbon content and
energy price trajectories.

2.8.5 Where there are viable retrofit energy efficiency measures, the cost savings
shall be noted and the expected performance improvement included in the
analysis.

2.8.6 The costing in the feasibility study shall be based on realistic estimates to
ensure sufficient funding is allocated. An appropriate contingency fund shall
71
be allocated and clearly identified to cover unforeseen costs.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

2.8.7 To assess the economic benefit of the system for retrofit installations, the
The requirements — Stage 2: Feasibility

comparative costs will be determined against the total heating costs (fuel,
maintenance and capital replacement) the customer would have incurred
over the same period if they had retained the existing equipment. In the case

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of new developments, the comparison will be between the predominant
form of conventional heating used for similar developments at the time of
the study (e.g. gas boilers).

2.8.8 Full consideration shall be given to the financial implications of any indirect
advantages, e.g. use of heat pump avoids the need for a gas supply, flues or
fossil fuel storage.

Best practice

Best practice would include:

BP2.8a the creation of a detailed profit and loss account (P&L) and balance
sheet and a simplified indexed P&L and balance sheet for the
whole life of the system

BP2.8b employing a Royal Institute of Chartered Surveyors (RICS) certified

quantity surveyor to estimate build quantities, profits, overheads
etc. at feasibility stage.

Objective 2.9: To assess environmental impacts and benefits

Why is this objective important?

The environmental impacts on both local and global levels need to be assessed for all
projects. The objective of installing an open-loop GWSHP system is to benefit the
environment by reducing fossil fuel energy consumption and progressively
decarbonising the heating and cooling of buildings. In achieving this macro objective,
the local environment must be protected.

BSRIA BG52: Life Cycle Assessment — an introduction (BSRIA, 2013a) provides a

methodology for compiling and evaluating the environmental impacts and the
primary energy demand of a product system throughout its life cycle.

It should be noted that electricity grid carbon intensity is reducing rapidly and this
must be considered when making long-term decisions. Refer to the BEIS website for
current and predicted carbon factors (https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/
valuation-of-energy-use-and-greenhouse-gas-emissions-for-appraisal) and the Ground
Source Heat Pump Association’s (GSHPA) Carbon Calculator (see https://www.gshp.
org.uk/Gridwatch.html).

Minimum requirements

2.9.1 An assessment of the environmental impact of your scheme shall be carried

out and the results documented.

2.9.2 The British Geological Survey (BGS) or Geological Survey of Northern Ireland
(GSNI) resources shall be used to establish the characteristics of the
surrounding geology and hydrogeology and help identify any relevant issues
that may need additional consideration or otherwise influence the
development.

2.9.3 For new-build systems, emission factors used in Building Regulations

Approved Document L: Conservation of fuel and power (NBS, 2016, 2018)
72 or equivalent shall be used for consistency with compliance calculations.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

2.9.4 Heat losses and the carbon intensity of the electricity used to run the heat

The requirements — Stage 2: Feasibility

pump and parasitic pumps shall be taken into account in the CO2 emissions
calculations.
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2.9.5 The GHG emissions calculations shall include the impact of refrigerant
selected and likely leakage from the system, see ‘Further reading’.

Best practice

Best practice would be to:

2.9a use BSRIA BG 10/2011: Embodied Carbon — the Inventory of

Carbon and Energy (ICE) (BSRIA, 2011b), CEN TC350 Standards or
other relevant tools to calculate the embodied and operational
environmental impacts of construction materials across the entire
life cycle

2.9b climate-proof the open-loop GWSHP in planning, installing and

operating schemes that take climate change and increased
frequency and severity of extreme weather events into account, see
CIBSE Weather Data Sets (http://www.cibse.org/weatherdata); this
can include flooding but also prolonged drought, heatwaves etc.

2.9c where appropriate, a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) shall be carried

out in line with BS EN ISO 14044 (BSI, 2006/2018) to measure and
evaluate the environmental impacts associated with a product,
system or activity, by assessing the energy and materials used and
released to the environment over the product’s life cycle.

Objective 2.10: To analyse risks and carry out a sensitivity analysis

Why is this objective important?
At the feasibility stage it is important to comprehensively assess the risks of the
project. A risk register should be developed and then reviewed and updated
throughout the project. A sensitivity analysis should also be carried out to quantify
the impact of the identified risks. The risk register and sensitivity analysis will be used
to aid the decision to take the project to the next stage. The PRINCE2 manual (see
https://www.prince2.com/uk/what-is-prince2) contains some specific advice on
producing risk registers and the appropriate terms used, and are particularly relevant
for government/public sector projects.

Minimum requirements

2.10.1 A risk register shall be developed using the following categories:

• health and safety
• environment
• construction costs
• construction delays (including unexpected geological and
hydrogeological conditions)
• performance of plant and equipment
• changes to the performance of the abstraction and injection wells
• broader economic risks, including future energy prices, regulation
• planning and other permissions.
73
• reputational risk.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

2.10.2 The risk analysis shall examine the likelihood and severity of each risk, who
The requirements — Stage 2: Feasibility

the risk will impact and what mitigating actions are required. The likelihood
and severity of each risk shall be re-scored assuming the proposed mitigation
measures are in place.

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2.10.3 The mitigation measures shall be assigned to the relevant party to take
forward.

2.10.4 A sensitivity analysis shall be carried out to show the impact of each major
financial risk (both capital and operational) and test the mitigation
approach. This should include future cost of energy, carbon and
maintenance plus any likely changes in yield and/or demand.

Best practice

Best practice would be:

BP2.10a to carry out a risk analysis workshop to identify and analyse the
potential risks to the project

BP2.10b carry out more detailed studies of particular risk mitigation

measures to ensure the project moves into the next stage with a
lower risk profile

BP2.10c allocate a specific line cost to each risk mitigation measure so these
are financially secure.

74
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3: Design
Objectives:
3.1 To design for safety in construction, operation and maintenance
3.2 To accurately determine peak heating and cooling demands and seasonal
energy consumption profiles
3.3 To accurately test and quantify the groundwater supply
3.4 To design the groundwater abstraction and discharge details
3.5 To apply for the permissions necessary to access the groundwater
3.6 To specify the most appropriate heat pump system
3.7 To design an efficient load-side hydraulic system interface
3.8 To evaluate environmental impacts and benefits
3.9 To design a data collection system to accurately record performance
3.10 To update and refine risk register and sensitivity analysis
3.11 To prepare a costs statement for the main system elements of the project

Key support tasks:

• Update risk assessments
• Undertake third party consultations as required and any research and development
aspects
• Develop commissioning plan
• Review and update:
–– CAPEX and business case
–– sustainability strategy
–– maintenance and operational strategy
–– construction strategy
–– health and safety strategy
–– review and update implementation plan, including change control procedures
–– prepare and submit Building Regulations applications, if applicable
–– prepare and submit applications to the relevant environmental agency (once
final design has been adopted)

Information exchange to next stage (construction team):

• Business case including whole-life cost (WLC), CAPEX, OPEX etc.
• Developed design, including borehole design, building services design and updated
cost information
• Build plan and comprehensive set of constructions drawings
The requirements — Stage 3: Design Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

The importance of accurate design data

Progressing any project from feasibility study to final design must be underpinned
with accurate input data. This is important with heat pump projects generally,

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because a greater than expected heating and cooling demand can overtax the
heat supply. This is particularly true of air source heat pumps, where the power
(and efficiency) reduces as the external air temperature falls — something which
simultaneously increases the heat load. While the relatively stable supply
temperature of groundwater avoids this challenge, and the ability to vary the rate
and duration of pumping allows some design flexibility, it remains vital to know
the capacity limits of the well in question. This information is also essential as part
of the application process for any permissions or licenses that may be required.

Critical information required to ensure a robust final design:

Heating and/or cooling load: it is essential to have the best possible heat
(A) 
load calculations, including cooling if appropriate. To be of any real value
these figures must consider diversity, see Objective 2.4, and ideally the
possibility of future changes in the use of the building.

Groundwater quality, quantity and temperature: collecting accurate data

(B) 
for an open-loop groundwater project can be particularly challenging due
to the difficulty in predicting with any accuracy the quality and quantity of
the groundwater before the water well is drilled and tested. This requires a
level of speculative investment. However, experienced designers can often
design around the yield. There are tried and tested techniques that may be
used to improve the performance of the well, most notably acidisation.

Mitigating a lack of yield

Drill, develop
well #1

Is the yield Redesign to yield

adequate? No obtained?

Yes
Is the yield
Yes adequate?

No

Use advanced techniques

to increase yield

Is the yield
Yes adequate? No

Continue
with project

Figure 48 Steps to achieve yield (courtesy of Phil Jones)

76
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

The requirements — Stage 3: Design

Mitigating a lack of yield (continued)
A borehole prognosis report provided by an expert will minimise the risks, but it is
impossible to predict with certainty the final yield of a water well before it is
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drilled, developed and tested. Consequently, it is important to decide in advance

what action to take if the new well produces less water than expected.

However, a yield below expectation can frequently be overcome using a range of

well-established techniques that exist to increase output (or injection capacity). It
is also often possible to revise the overall system design to work with the water
quantities available.

It is therefore important to employ an expert with appropriate knowledge to

advise and oversee system design, well testing and development. Which output
enhancement technique(s) to use, and in what order, will differ with geology and
from site to site.

Common well development measures may take less than an hour or several days.

Procedures available include:

—— acidisation (in chalk aquifers)

—— airlift pumping and surging while monitoring suspended solids content and
yield

—— pumping and surging with a submersible pump while monitoring

suspended solids content and yield.

Depending on the details of underlying geology, drilling the well deeper or

installing additional wells are also options.

The decisions made will usually be cost-driven although in some cases the critical
parameters may be time, reliability or longevity.

Please note that in some cases mitigation measures can fail to work and a new
water well will be required or the project abandoned.

Best practice would be to offer two designs from the outset — one for the ideal
yield and another to establish the lowest viable yield. Low-yield designs may
increase capacity with bi- or multi-valent systems incorporating CHP, heat
recovery, thermal energy storage, dry air coolers, solar thermal panels etc.

Objective 3.1: To design for safety in construction, operation

and maintenance
Why is this objective important?
Reducing health and safety risks is of primary importance to any project. The designer
must first carry out a risk assessment and then mitigate these risks by making
appropriate design decisions and assess how the proposed design will be
constructed, operated and maintained.

Minimum requirements
3.1.1 The client shall recognise their role and obligations under the current CDM
Regulations and register the project prior to the start of the design process.

3.1.2 The Principal Designer shall carry out the requirements of the CDM
77
Regulations and develop a designer’s risk assessment at an early stage.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

3.1.3 The requirements of the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health

The requirements — Stage 3: Design

Regulations 2002 (COSHH) and the Dangerous Substances and Explosive

Atmospheres Regulations 2002 (DSEAR) and other regulatory requirements
shall be taken into account in developing the design. Certain refrigerants, in

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particular ammonia, require a specific risk assessment which shall inform
refrigerant choice, plant room location and requirements.

3.1.4 The design company shall be certified under BS EN ISO 9001: Quality
management. Requirements (BSI, 2015a) or operate in accordance with an
equivalent quality assurance scheme and shall mitigate risks in construction,
operation, maintenance and decommissioning as far as possible and provide
a risk register for use during construction.

3.1.5 The Well Drillers Association (WDA) and British Drilling Association (BDA)
procedures, guidance and recommendations shall be considered in the
design to ensure all drilling activity is planned and risks identified.

3.1.6 The design shall provide sufficient access around plant and equipment in the
plant room to enable safe maintenance to be carried out including access/
egress and handling of equipment/parts associated with any repair/
replacement works, see BSRIA BG9/2011: Rules of Thumb — Guidelines for
building services (BSRIA, 2011a).

3.1.7 The design shall locate valve chambers and other facilities requiring access
(including surveillance system monitoring terminals) in a suitable location so
that safe operation and maintenance can be carried out avoiding any harm
to the public.

3.1.8 The design shall mitigate the risks of Legionella and follow HSE Code of
Practice L8: Legionnaires’ disease. The control of legionella bacteria in water
systems (HSE, 2013).

3.1.9 Adequate access and other provisions shall be made to enable safe
replacement of plant in the future. A plant replacement strategy report shall
be produced during the design stage.

Best practice
Best practice would be to:

BP3.1a develop the design so the operator can achieve BS EN ISO 14001
(BSI, 2015b) and BS ISO 45001 (BSI, 2018a) certification

BP3.1b have the system built so the client can achieve the BS EN ISO
50001 (BSI, 2018e) energy management standard

BP3.1c have design documentation undergo a due diligence review by a

suitably qualified independent third party.

Objective 3.2: To accurately determine peak heating and cooling

demands and seasonal energy consumption profiles
Why is this objective important?
At the design stage the values used for peak heat demand will determine the capacity
of the GWSHP and any multivalent heating and cooling sources, the capacity of the
heat emitters and ancillaries. This will therefore determine much of the capital cost.
The annual heat consumption and daily demand profiles will determine the energy
78 consumption of the GWSHP and important elements of the operational cost.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Therefore, the estimates made at the feasibility stage (see Objective 2.4) must now be

The requirements — Stage 3: Design

updated and calculated as accurately as possible.

For new buildings the heat demand estimates should be produced by the appointed
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building services designer, although the GWSHP designer may have valuable advice
based on previous experience. It is vital that a consensus is reached at this stage to
avoid the potential for significantly over- or under-sizing of the GWSHP unit, see
‘Further reading’ for guidance, notably CIBSE TM54 (CIBSE, 2013a).

For existing non-domestic buildings, it will normally be the responsibility of the

customer to define the peak heat demand that they wish to contract for and to
provide an estimate of their annual heat energy consumption. However, this analysis
should be with the close involvement of the GWSHP designer/operator who may be
able to draw on experience of supplying similar systems to similar buildings.
Conducting an existing-system survey together with accurate heat loss calculations
ensures that the HVAC system can meet customer requirements. The Building
Regulations Non-Domestic Building Services Compliance Guide (NBS, 2013a) for
England, and its equivalents for the devolved administrations, confirms the
importance of accurate calculations in sizing heat pumps.

The designer has to design for worst case scenarios and judge whether the fabric is
constructed as specified in the original design and whether the ventilation rate
accurately reflects the building’s actual use. This is particularly important when sizing
a monovalent heat pump system which should be neither under- or over-sized, but
rather sized to the building’s requirements. More has been written about this subject
by the Zero Carbon Hub (http://www.zerocarbonhub.org).

Minimum requirements

3.2.1 Peak demands for existing buildings shall be assessed as accurately as

possible from a combination of data on fuel use (accounting for system
efficiency), existing heat source use, and building simulation modelling or
other calculation of heat losses as appropriate. Peak demands should
account for local climate and building fabric thermal mass; for external
temperature selection, see CIBSE Guide A: Environmental design (CIBSE,
2015). This assessment should be supported by the heat pump system
designer who may be able to use data from monitoring demands at similar
buildings to assist.

3.2.2 For existing non-domestic buildings, space heating requirements in each

month shall be estimated by the customer, in conjunction with the heat
pump designer. This should include fuel or heat meter readings together
with a degree day analysis to produce heat consumptions for each month
for an average year. It should take account of the location of the building,
the required internal space temperature and an appropriate baseline
temperature for the building.

3.2.3 For existing buildings, calculations shall be carried using established

calculation methodologies and these calculations shall be agreed with the
heat pump system designer.

3.2.4 For new non-domestic buildings heat demands shall be estimated using
modelling software and by using the guidance in CIBSE Guide F (CIBSE,
2012), CIBSE AM14 (CIBSE, 2010) and CIBSE TM46 (CIBSE, 2008) or other
sources of benchmark data, or data obtained from similar operational
systems.

3.2.5 For new buildings, heat demands shall be estimated using standard design
79
calculation methodologies based on the proposed fabric and ventilation
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

standards. DHW can be sized using BS EN 806 (BSI, 2000–2012), BS 8558

The requirements — Stage 3: Design

(BSI, 2015c) and BS 15316-4-2 (BSI, 2017d).

3.2.6 The space heating and cooling consumption shall be profiled using degree

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days or annual weather files to obtain monthly consumptions and a 24-hour
variation in demand created for heating, cooling and hot water demand.

Best practice

Best practice would be to:

BP3.2a use a full year’s data and include monitoring of external air
temperature so the data can be normalised. The installation of new
meters or setting up logging of data using a BMS or BEMS should
be considered.

Objective 3.3: To accurately test and quantify the groundwater

supply

Why is this objective important?

In the feasibility stage, the potential for a groundwater source heat pump will have
been investigated and estimated. To prepare a reliable final design, the quantity and
temperature of the groundwater available must be known. Water quality should also
be tested and considered during the final design process. If an injection well is to be
used, its capacity must also be measured.

Minimum requirements

3.3.1 The groundwater source shall be fully investigated and accurately tested.
This will require a water well, or water wells, to be constructed, tested and
the data obtained, e.g. the driller’s log used to inform the final design.

Important considerations are:

• the presence, depth and nature of the target aquifer
• other users of groundwater from the aquifer
• existing geological maps, plans, satellite imagery, previous nearby studies
and Geographic Information System (GIS) data
• other water supply or open-loop boreholes records located nearby
• potential risk and implications of artesian conditions
• site layout, specifically the distance between abstraction and injection
boreholes where appropriate
• groundwater level (depth below ground level): groundwater very close to
the surface can in some circumstances render injection wells impractical
• the chemical quality of the groundwater: some aspects of water
chemistry, for example the nature and concentration of iron and/or
manganese can have a major impact on the design.

3.3.2 The British Geological Survey (BGS) or Geological Survey of Northern Ireland
(GSNI) shall be provided with the drilling and pumping records. It is a
requirement that the BGS is notified of any water well or borehole over 15 m
80 deep.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

3.3.3 A detailed assessment of the risk of corrosion and incrustation together

The requirements — Stage 3: Design

with the presence of particulate matter, dissolved gasses and contaminants
in the groundwater source shall be carried out and mitigations measures
incorporated into the final design and maintenance provision. See
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Appendix E.

3.3.4 The energy potential of the measured groundwater flow shall be calculated.
These calculations must be included with the final design.

3.3.5 Accurate building heat demand information shall be used to calculate the
peak pumping rate, daily and annual groundwater volume required by an
open-loop heat pump system to satisfy the load. These calculations shall be
included with the final design.

Best practice

Best practice would be to:

BP3.3a refine the detailed plan and cross section of the location to ensure
all and any design constraints are identified. This can also be used
to identify the location and potential relevance of adjacent
schemes.

Objective 3.4: To design the groundwater abstraction and

discharge details
Why is this objective important?

In the feasibility stage, the location of the heat pump installation and preferred
method of abstraction will have been identified. Open-loop groundwater systems all
require regular maintenance to ensure the installation is reliable and provides
optimum performance, so the design must take into account water quality and any
other factors that could degrade performance. Open-loop systems are susceptible to
chemical attack and fouling of the heat exchanger, so maintenance frequency
depends on the gas content, chemical composition and pH of the water, turbidity,
sediment in suspension or other pollutants.

Minimum requirements

3.4.1 The location of the installation and method of abstraction shall be

determined using the most up to date and accurate information.

3.4.2 The abstraction and injection wells and related equipment shall be designed
taking into account requirements from the relevant environmental agency
and other regulatory bodies, and ensuring provision for measurement,
regular maintenance and problem-free performance.

3.4.3 The installation shall be designed to the permitted temperature range and
∆T agreed with the relevant environmental agency with regard to local
geological and hydrogeological conditions and other consumers.

3.4.4 The abstraction and injection wells shall be designed to take into account all
and any conditions specific to the site in particular water quality and
chemistry.

3.4.5 Well-heads shall be designed to be sealed and ideally be completed above

ground (or, failing that, in a well-drained subsurface chamber). Run-in of
81
potentially contaminated surface water is thus prevented.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

3.4.6 The abstraction pump(s) capacity, pipework configuration and location shall
The requirements — Stage 3: Design

be designed taking into account turn-down range, redundancy and planned

preventive maintenance access.

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3.4.7 Rapid pressure changes as a result of steeply inclined abstraction/heat
exchange/injection pipework shall be avoided. For example, avoid plant
rooms at high elevations. Injection to aquifers with very deep or very shallow
static groundwater levels require careful engineering and hydrogeological
design consideration.

3.4.8 Where groundwater is injected back into the ground, the discharge
pipework shall be designed as a sealed, pressure managed line. The
operating pressure must be appropriate for the particular installation.

3.4.9 The instrumentation, secondary filtration and heat exchanger interface,

including capacity, configuration and location shall be designed, taking into
account turn-down range, redundancy and planned preventive maintenance
access.

3.4.10 The installation shall be designed to ensure optimum performance

throughout the range of specified heating and/or cooling loads. Modelling
techniques shall be used to verify the design and to ensure transparency the
results shall be published as part of the design documentation.

3.4.11 The controls system shall be designed, and an operational strategy shall be
developed.

3.4.12 The location of the heat pump shall take into account security to avoid
potential human interference.

3.4.13 The installation shall be designed using the best materials, equipment and
guidance available within financial parameters to ensure long-life and
reliability. Chapter 13 of CIBSE Guide M (CIBSE, 2014a) provides tabulated
economic lifetimes for plant, equipment and material selection, including
pipe materials, and can greatly assist in correct selection of this when
considering a lifetime assessment of a system. BESA TR11: Guide to the Use
of Plastic Pipework (BESA, 2006) provides useful guidance in this area.

3.4.14 All pipework shall be sized to minimise pressure drops, parasitic energy
consumption and to maximise performance.

Best practice

Best practice would be:

BP3.4a for the client to procure an independent verification and

commissioning engineer from a specialist company to review and
comment on the draft design and prepare a commissioning plan
for the construction. The commissioning plan and procedures
should be compliant with all the relevant CIBSE Commissioning
Codes and BSRIA commissioning guidance, in particular CIBSE
Commissioning Code M (2003).

BP3.4b in cases where a risk of incrustation, bio-film formation or

corrosion is identified, best practice would be to pass the
groundwater through a secondary heat exchanger, rather than
through the evaporator (or condenser) of the heat pump itself. This
82 is particularly the case for medium to large schemes.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

The requirements — Stage 3: Design

Objective 3.5: To apply for the permissions necessary to access
the groundwater
Why is this objective important?
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In the Feasibility Stage the permissions necessary to access the water should have
been determined and pre-application discussions held with the appropriate
environmental agency and other relevant statutory bodies (see Objective 2.2). At the
Design Stage, applications need to be submitted and permissions granted before any
abstraction and discharge can take place other than for testing purposes.

The Good Practice Guide for Heating and Cooling (GSHPA, 2017) sets out a summary
of what should be done to comply with environmental legislation and manage
environmental risks. It is based on regulations set out by the Environment Agency for
England and whilst the Guide is relevant across the whole of the UK, it is
recommended to consult with the equivalent regulatory bodies in Wales (NRW),
Scotland (SEPA) and Northern Ireland (NIEA) where necessary.

Details of the requirements in each devolved area can be found in Appendix B;

however, note that regulations can change, therefore consultation with the relevant
regulatory bodies must be sought to confirm the situation every time.

Minimum requirements
3.5.1 Pre-application discussions will have taken place in the Feasibility Stage with
the relevant environmental agency for all abstraction and discharge activity,
see Objective 2.2. At the Design Stage, discussions shall continue and full
applications submitted.

3.5.2 If required a water features survey shall be carried out, generally covering a
500 m to 1 km radius around the site.

3.5.3 When the open-loop GWSHP installation plans to use abandoned coal mine
workings for the purpose of extracting heat from mine water application for
a Minewater Heat Recovery Access Agreement shall be granted from the
Coal Authority (see http://www.gov.uk/government/publications/minewater-
heat-recovery-access-agreements).

3.5.4 All reports shall be completed and submitted with the driller’s log and the
results of the test pumping and interpretation of the data as required by the
relevant environmental agency.

3.5.5 The installation of a GWSHP may be considered permitted development and

may not need an application for planning permission. If planning permission
is required, applications shall be made to the local planning authority
including permission for temporary works for storage of materials and other
construction purposes where necessary.

3.5.6 The Town and Country Planning (Environmental Impact Assessment)

Regulations 2011 can apply, even when the project is considered permitted
development. If required, an Environmental Statement shall be prepared.

3.5.7 The installation of a GWSHP within or affecting Sites of Special Scientific

Interest (SSSIs), Special Conservation Areas (SACs) and Special Protection
Areas (SPAs) shall require consultation with Natural England (NRW in Wales).
Where planning consent or abstraction/discharge consent is required, this
consultation shall be carried out by the local planning authority or other
regulator. For works where those consents are not required, consult Natural
England or relevant regulatory body and obtain their permission before
83
starting work.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

3.5.8 Where planned pipework routes for water abstraction or discharge will cross
The requirements — Stage 3: Design

public access paths, the relevant application for temporary suspension of

rights of way shall be carried out.

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Best practice

Best practice would be to:

3.5a assign an individual as the point of contact for the relevant

environmental agency and/or other relevant statutory bodies for all
stages of the project.

Typical abstraction/discharge ∆T

A key element of heat pump system operation is the difference in temperature

between water entering and leaving the heat pump’s heat exchanger (∆T). In
groundwater systems, whether heating, cooling or both (balanced) this becomes
critical to the design as it directly affects the abstraction and discharge
temperatures.

Therefore, the operating temperatures and ∆T permissible in any specific location

must be considered in detail with the relevant environmental agency and consider
local conditions, protection of sites and species and pressures from other
developments. Some smaller schemes may be exempt from the regulations but
early discussion with the relevant environmental agency is always advised.

For example, for England, the Environment Agency’s Guidance notes on

registration of ground source heating and cooling system as exempt from the
need for an environmental permit (EA, 2014) state that the temperature of water
discharged from the system will not exceed 25 °C and will not vary by more than
10 °C compared to the abstracted water. The ratio between the abstraction and
discharge temperatures is also considered:

Discharge temperature
Temperature ratio = ———————————
Abstraction temperature
Given the above it is recommended that a ∆T of ±10 °C is a reasonable starting
point until further information becomes available following any site specific
investigation and discussions with the relevant environmental agencies.

Objective 3.6: To specify the most appropriate heat pump system

Why is this objective important?
At the design stage, the design concept for the GWSHP installation must be finalised
including the type and number of heat pumps in the system and how they are to be
integrated. Other elements, such as thermal energy storage, buffer tanks, isolating
heat exchangers, dry air coolers etc. will also need to be specified.

Minimum requirements
3.6.1 The working temperatures for the heat pump system shall be specified.

3.6.2 A performance specification for the heat pump system shall be set out
including the part load characteristics appropriate to the system’s source and
load side conditions, such as energy demands and other limiting factors. This
shall include full and part load efficiencies, minimum turn-down and
84 maximum start/stops per hour.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

3.6.3 An efficient heat pump system able to deliver the specifications above shall

The requirements — Stage 3: Design

be identified. This will include type of heat pump, refrigerant, associated
controls etc. Due to the nature of the heat pump marketplace it may be
necessary to identify the heat pump manufacturer at this stage and design
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around their particular offering.

3.6.4 Any thermal energy storage process and associated ancillary equipment
required shall be specified.

3.6.5 The likely long-term maintenance requirements of the heat pump type and
any implications for the installation shall be assessed.

3.6.6 The capacity and voltage of the electrical supply required and the location
route for the cabling shall be specified and for larger schemes the need for
additional transformers shall be identified.

3.6.7 The heat pump and its controls shall meet local Building Regulations and
shall be compliant with all relevant certification bodies and other legislative
requirements.

Best practice

Best practice would be to:

BP3.6a work with three or more heat pump manufacturers or their local
distributors. It is likely that each will offer not only different heat
pumps but also different ways that they may be integrated into an
efficient configuration.

Objective 3.7: To design an efficient load-side hydraulic system

interface
Why is this objective important?

To ensure an installation is as efficient as possible, an important design choice is

whether the building’s heating and/or cooling load are directly or indirectly
connected to the heat pump (i.e. is a heat exchanger, buffer tank or similar device
used at the interface?).

Indirect connection has the following benefit:

—— There is less scope for contractual disputes if the systems are owned, operated
or maintained by different organisations.

—— It simplifies the integration and operation of multivalent or multivector systems.

—— The heat pump and building distribution fluids can be kept separate, if
required.

—— The metering and accurate measurement of heat delivered and/or consumed is

simplified.

Direct connection has the following benefits:

—— It is less complex, having fewer components, so less maintenance is required

and there are fewer potential points of failure.

—— There is no loss of temperature and efficiency between primary and secondary

85
circuits across a heat exchanger.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

—— Less plant room space is needed.

The requirements — Stage 3: Design

—— There is a potential reduction in capital expenditure (CAPEX).

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Minimum requirements

3.7.1 The hydraulic interface shall be appropriately designed, i.e. direct or indirect
connection. If a buffer vessel or thermal energy store is to be used the size
and location shall be determined.

3.7.2 Where top-up boilers are being specified for use at times of high (peak)
demand the connection design shall ensure boilers are used only when
required. Care shall be taken not to accidentally exceed any low distribution
temperature design parameters especially within the heat pump’s condenser.

3.7.3 The heating and cooling loads of the building shall be assessed to a level of
accuracy agreed with the client and to comply with all relevant standards
(see ‘Further reading’).

3.7.4 Appropriate de-aerators and particulate filters shall be specified to reduce

the risk of contamination effecting operation.

3.7.5 For indirect systems a variable volume control principle shall be employed. If
two-port valves are used care shall be taken not to increase net energy
consumption.

3.7.6 The design of plant rooms shall provide sufficient space for maintenance
access and for future replacement of equipment including suitable power
supplies for carrying out maintenance, lighting, ventilation, water supply and
drainage facilities.

3.7.7 Any other boundary conditions or influencing factors (e.g. plant room size)
shall be noted, action taken and the result reported to all relevant
stakeholders.

3.7.8 Thermal energy storage shall be considered to improve the efficiency of heat
pump operation.

Best practice

Best practice would be to:

BP3.7a use computer simulation techniques to model the hydraulic

arrangements and advanced flow analysis and system modelling
capabilities to simulate the system in detail and use this model to
further optimise heat pump performance and thermal storage size.

Objective 3.8: To evaluate environmental impacts and benefits

Why is this objective important?

At the design stage the local environmental impacts must be evaluated, in addition
the global or macro impacts should be calculated for larger projects or if required by
clients or others. The objective of installing GWSHP systems is to benefit the
environment by reducing fossil fuel energy consumption and carbon emissions, in
86 achieving this objective the local environment must also be protected.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Minimum requirements

The requirements — Stage 3: Design

3.8.1 The assessment of the environmental impact of your scheme shall be verified
and the results documented. This will form the basis of the Environmental
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Impact Assessment, if one is required.

3.8.2 The temperature of the groundwater abstraction shall be monitored in order

to identify any longer-term warming/cooling of the aquifer

3.8.3 Electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), dissolved oxygen
and, where practicable, pH shall be continuously recorded and regularly
monitored to identify any longer-term changes to the aquifer and to protect
the heat pump heat exchangers

3.8.4 The anticipated CO2 savings and carbon intensity of the heat supplied shall
be calculated for the project (see https://www.gov.uk/government/
publications/valuation-of-energy-use-and-greenhouse-gas-emissions-for-
appraisal). This establishes a set of diminishing carbon factors to reflect
future decarbonisation of the electricity grid.

3.8.5 Refrigerants shall be selected taking into account global warming potential
and the implications of F-gas Regulations on future equipment replacement
and selection, see Appendix B.

3.8.6 Materials shall be responsibly sourced considering the social, ethical and
environmental aspects of a construction product from extraction and use to
recycling/reuse and disposal. BRE standard BES 6001: Framework Standard
for Responsible Sourcing (BRE, 2016) is a framework that assesses the
responsible sourcing practices throughout the supply chain of construction
products and allows manufacturers to prove their products have been
responsibly sourced.

Best practice

Best practice would be to:

BP3.8a use BSRIA BG10/2011: Embodied Carbon — the Inventory of

Carbon and Energy (ICE) (BSRIA, 2011b), CEN TC350 Standards or
other relevant tools to calculate the embodied and operational
environmental impacts of construction materials across the entire
lifecycle.

BP3.8b carry out a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) in line with BS EN ISO
14044 (BSI, 2006/2018) to measure and evaluate the
environmental impacts associated with a product, system or
activity, by assessing the energy and materials used and released to
the environment over the product’s life cycle.

3.8c select and use natural refrigerants, or refrigerants with an ozone

depletion potential (ODP) of 0 and a global warming potential
(GWP) of 1 or less.

3.8d use supporting renewable systems, e.g. solar thermal for DHW
generation and on-site generation of renewable electricity for heat
pump/plant room operation; alternatively negotiate a long-term
supply agreement of low carbon electricity from a specialist
87
supplier.
The requirements — Stage 3: Design Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Objective 3.9: To design a data collection system to accurately

record performance
Why is this objective important?

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A comprehensive metering and monitoring system is important to ensure ongoing
operational performance (see Figure 49 below for typical metering arrangements).
The feasibility stage should have established the performance monitoring
requirements in line with any permissions necessary, such as abstraction licence and
discharge permit (see Objective 2.2). Other requirements, such as metering for
relevant grants and incentives, the client’s own performance records and other
relevant bodies should also be determined (see Appendix C).

H2
Load GWSHP SPF = ——
EM3

EM2 H2
System SPF = —————————
EM1 + EM2 + EM3
H2: heat M2
output where:
M = flow meter
T2 flow T2 return EM = electricity meter
T = temperature sensors
H = heat meter
SPF = seasonal performance factor

Electricity H1 should be measured to indicate

EM3
Heat the heat availability and abstraction
input pump
from the water source.

Methodologies for calculating

system efficiency are discussed in
more detail in section B1.3 and
H1: heat Appendix D.
M1
output
See the Appendix A for definitions
T1ab T1dis of terms such as SPF.

EM1

Variable speed
submersible
borehole pump

Abstraction Injection
well well

Figure 49 Typical metering arrangements for an open-loop GWSHP system, allowing calculation of the
efficiency of the GWSHP and of the overall system (see also section B1.3); additional meters may be
required in order to provide more detailed reporting, e.g. for grants and incentives

Modern BMS, BEMS, AMR or SCADA equipment (see Appendix A for definitions) can
be used to monitor the installed meters/temperatures to allow ongoing performance
88 to be determined and displayed continuously (see Figure 50).
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

The requirements — Stage 3: Design

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Figure 50 Visual display of SCADA monitoring and control information

(courtesy of Energy Machines SA, Luxembourg)

Minimum requirements

3.9.1 The metering and data system shall be designed to ensure that system
efficiency can be measured and recorded. This shall also include the
necessary data outputs and reports required for maintenance, environmental
permissions and incentive schemes, see Figure 49.

3.9.2 Expected system efficiency shall be calculated to enable comparison at

commissioning (5.3.4) and operation and maintenance (6.4.7) stages. (See
section B1.3 for suggested methodology.)

3.9.2 Meter selection and location shall consider long-term maintenance and
periodic calibration issues.

3.9.3 BEMS, SCADA and any other maintenance and performance systems shall be
included in the design and set to monitor and manage in real time the heat
pump to ensure it is performing optimally, see Figure 50. The monitoring
frequencies for reporting purposes shall be at least every 30 minutes.

3.9.4 Sensors shall be designed to ensure flow and return temperatures, yield and
flow rates on both the source and load side are accurately recorded. Heat
meters shall be used as appropriate and shall comply with BS EN 1434-1
(BSI, 2015/2018) and in line with any guidance for the relevant grants and
incentives. Thermal energy meters must be sized with appropriate resolution
for the peak and the minimum loads. Monitoring of the source side shall be
used to identify any long-term warming/cooling of the aquifer.

3.9.5 The appropriate metering system shall be designed to measure and record all
electrical input to the GWSHP including any parasitic load particularly
borehole pumps.

3.9.6 Electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), dissolved oxygen
and, where practicable, pH shall be continuously recorded and regularly
monitored to identify any longer-term changes to the aquifer and to protect
the heat pump heat exchangers

3.9.7 The appropriate metering system shall be designed to comply with the
89
requirements of any licences and grants obtained.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Best practice
The requirements — Stage 3: Design

Best practice would be to:

BP3.9a monitor the system continuously and design a display with a range

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of system data; this could be compared against expected energy
consumption

BP3.9b use remote data collection to facilitate real time monitoring to

detect any performance or maintenance issues

BP3.9c include for monitoring or parameters that would inform a

condition-based maintenance regime.

Objective 3.10: To update and refine the risk register and sensitivity
analysis
Why is this objective important?

At the feasibility stage, a risk register should have been developed and a sensitivity
analysis should have been carried out to quantify the impact of the identified risks.

During the design stage, the financial projections shall be used in conjunction with
the risk register to evaluate the effect of uncertainty on objectives and the costs and
benefits of mitigating risk. The sensitivity analysis should be carried out using a range
of appropriate variables in order to fully stress-test the proposals.

Minimum requirements

3.10.1 The risk register shall be updated and the mitigation measures reviewed and
revised as necessary.

3.10.2 A sensitivity analysis shall be conducted to quantify each risk in terms of

impact on IRR, NPV and output value. This shall also include assessing the
potential benefit from defined risk mitigation measures, for example:
• retaining the risk by informed decision
• avoiding the risk by deciding not to start or continue with the risky
activity
• removing the risk source
• changing the likelihood
• changing the consequences.

3.10.3 As a minimum the following sensitivities shall be included:

• geological and hydrogeological variables, including change in yield
• weather impacts, especially drought and flooding
• future energy prices
• construction programme or cost over-run
• plant reliability
• operation, maintenance and management costs.

3.10.4 A separate analysis shall be carried out to assign monetary value to the CO2
saved (see http://www.gov.uk/government/publications/valuation-of-energy-
90 use-and-greenhouse-gas-emissions-for-appraisal).
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Best practice

The requirements — Stage 3: Design

Best practice would be to:

BP3.10a follow the principles of BS ISO 31000 (BSI, 2018b) or equivalent to

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carry out the risk analysis

BP3.10b adopt a BSRIA soft landings approach (see https://www.bsria.co.uk/

services/design/soft-landings) to ensure the operating team/
operator is fully engaged in the design process to mitigate risks of
inefficient operation.

Objective 3.11: To confirm a cost statement for the main system

elements of the project
Why is this objective important?
During the design stage the financial projections shall be updated to reflect the most
recent version of the planned installation and the current cost targets for the main
elements of the system.

The objectives of this process are to:

—— describe, together with the outline proposal drawings, the chosen distribution
of the resources within the budget to provide a balanced design to meet the
client’s needs

—— set cost targets for the main elements so that, as the design develops, the
targets can be checked and adjustments made so that the overall cost of the
project is managed within the budget

—— provide the design team with controls that communicate the costs, quantity,
quality and time parameters to be followed

—— provide the opportunity to consider life cycle costs, see BS ISO 55001 (BSI,
2014b).

This information is used to ensure engineering decisions are financially robust and
the financial model can be used in conjunction with the risk register to evaluate the
effect of uncertainty on objectives and the costs and benefits of mitigating risk.
Project management tools, such as PRINCE2 (see https://www.prince2.com/uk/what-
is-prince2), require the business model to be constantly updated throughout the
stages of the project. In addition, see CIBSE Guide M (CIBSE, 2014a) for lifecycle
analysis of components.

Minimum requirements
3.11.1 The costing team shall be provided with all the information they require to
complete the task. This shall include:
• the budget (where alternative budgets have been proposed, the client
should state the preferred alternative)
• confirmation of the programme for design and construction times stated
in the budget report
• acceptance or variation of any other matters within the budget report
• confirmation of the brief
• outline drawings of the building and site works indicating alternative
91
solutions
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

• an indication of the preferred specification for the main elements

The requirements — Stage 3: Design

• outline proposals for installation, indicating any alternative system or

structural solutions

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• outline proposals for operating duty, capacity and maintenance
requirements.

3.11.2 The costs calculations and report shall include:

• a statement of cost

• a broad indication of the specification

• a statement of equipment duties and capacities

• a request for decisions on any alternative proposals and/or procurement

routes, with advice thereon

• an updated cash-flow forecast

• allowances for contingencies and design reserve

• an update of inflation projections.

3.11.3 The level of detail of the information provided shall be appropriate to the
scale and complexity of the system. Issues to be considered shall include:

• the measurement of approximate quantities and the application of rates

to the quantities generated

• comparison of the requirements with analyses of previous projects of a

similar character

• use of appropriate cost models, and/or

• a mixture of the above methods.

3.11.4 An evaluation shall be made of key elements of the system which carry major
financial implications to assist and inform the decision process.

Best practice

Best practice would be to:

BP3.11a carry out a sensitivity analysis using a range of appropriate

variables in order to fully stress-test the proposals

BP3.11b get a Royal Institute of Chartered Surveyors (RICS) certified

quantity surveyor to produce an independent full cost breakdown
of the project based on estimated quantities, equipment selection
and all other relevant overheads, profits, provisional sums and
contingencies considering the procurement route selected and
particulars of the project

BP3.11c in the feasibility stage, it was identified as best practice to produce

a profit and loss (P&L) account and balance sheet. If this process
has been followed, the P&L account and balance sheet should be
92 updated.
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4: Construction and installation

Objectives:
4.1 To reduce adverse environmental impacts of construction
4.2 To reduce health and safety risks
4.3 To install the groundwater abstraction and discharge system in
accordance with the design
4.4 To pressure test, flush clean, purge and fill all pipework and plant

Key support tasks:

• Review and update sustainability strategy and implement handover strategy,
including agreement of information required for commissioning, training, handover,
asset management, future monitoring and maintenance and ongoing compilation
of ‘as-constructed’ information
• Review and update commissioning plan
• Update construction and health and safety strategies

Information exchange to next stage commissioning team):

• ‘As-constructed’ information
• Commissioning schedule/programme
The requirements — Stage 4: Construction and installation Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Objective 4.1: To reduce adverse environmental impacts of

construction
Why is this objective important?

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Although the ultimate aim of an open-loop GWSHP system is to provide an
environmental benefit, there may be negative environmental impacts during
construction which need to be identified and minimised.

Construction should be as sustainable as possible in line with BS EN 15978 (BSI,

2011) and BS EN 15804 (BSI, 2012/2013) and embodied carbon should be kept to a
minimum in line with CIBSE Research Report 9: Embodied carbon and building
services (CIBSE, 2013c) and BSRIA BG 10/2011: Embodied Carbon — the Inventory of
Carbon and Energy (ICE) (BSRIA, 2011b).

TM56 (CIBSE, 2014b) deals with resource efficiency in building services, and more
information can be found at the website of the Waste and Resources Action
Programme (www.wrap.org.uk).

The Good Practice Guide for Heating and Cooling (GSHPA, 2017) sets out a summary
of what should be done to comply with environmental legislation and manage
environmental risks. It is based on regulations set out by the Environment Agency for
England and whilst the guide is relevant across the whole of the UK, it is
recommended to consult with the equivalent regulatory bodies in Wales (NRW),
Scotland (SEPA) and Northern Ireland (NIEA) where necessary.

These minimum requirements below are not intended to be comprehensive but will
emphasise particular risks associated with the construction and installation of GWSHP
systems.

Minimum requirements

4.1.1 F-gas Regulations shall be followed in the installation of the heat pump
system, see ‘Further reading’.

4.1.2 In the Feasibility and/or Design Stages, reports will have been completed and
submitted to the relevant environmental agency with the results of the
drilling and test pumping of the initial test borehole. The findings in these
reports shall be used to ensure all risks of contamination and pollution are
prevented and controlled.

4.1.3 To ensure every care is taken to avoid risk of contamination, the driller shall
ensure all boreholes are drilled in accordance with the design, and any
proposed changes shall be discussed with the designer before any drilling
takes place or immediately a problem becomes evident. All changes agreed
shall be recorded.

4.1.4 To protect groundwater from contamination from surface water ingress, the
top 6–20 m of all boreholes shall be lined with compliant, permanent casing.
The annulus between borehole and casing should be a minimum of 50 mm
to be filled by pressure grouting or tremie pipe, with a low-permeability,
frost-resistant, non-shrinking grout. Where there are multiple aquifers, lined
compliant permanent casing with pressure grouting shall be used to blank
out the non-target aquifers. This will prevent the transfer of water from one
aquifer to another and ensure that the target aquifer is not contaminated.

4.1.5 In some strata, artesian water conditions may be encountered, this will
require specific management. The potential presence of artesian water
94 should be a specific subject of assessment at the borehole design stage.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

4.1.6 Water produced as part of test-pumping should be directed to the location

The requirements — Stage 4: Construction and installation

given within the relevant environmental agency drilling and test-pumping
consent. If this is the local sewerage undertaker, then permission is required
from the sewer owner and a charge might be applied. Permissions for
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pumping water to any river, lake, canal or estuary must be confirmed prior
to pumping. This might be the relevant environmental agency or owner of
the waterway.

4.1.7 Cuttings shall be contained and any run-off shall be managed to avoid rain
run-off sediment causing an impact to neighbouring property, polluting
boreholes, surface water or blocking drains etc. Cuttings may require
disposal at the end of the project.

Best practice
Best practice would be to:

BP4.1a conduct a public relations campaign with local residents early in

the project, including the provision of large and easily readable
posters fixed to the site hoardings to outline the nature of the
works and the proposed carbon benefits.

Objective 4.2: To reduce health and safety risks

Why is this objective important?
Reducing health and safety risk is of primary importance in any project. This section is
not intended to be comprehensive but will emphasise particular risks associated with
the construction of GWSHPs.

Where access cannot be controlled, the health and safety of the general public must
be carefully assessed and maximum mitigation measures implemented.

Minimum requirements
4.2.1 A site-specific health and safety risk register shall be developed. This will also
include those risks identified in the design stage.

4.2.2 The Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 and the Management of Health and
Safety at Work Regulations 1999 shall be followed.

4.2.3 The British Drilling Association (BDA) or equivalent procedures, guidance and
recommendations shall be followed. See BDA safety documents, (Code of
Safe Drilling Practice, Guidance Documents and Safety Alerts), which provide
current information from Health and Safety Executive.

4.2.4 Service providers (telecommunications, electricity, gas and water) shall be

consulted and their records inspected prior to breaking ground.

4.2.5 On completion of connection, works unauthorised access to the borehole

shall be prevented by the installation of a security cover or simply backfilling
above the borehole whilst ensuring the position of the borehole is recorded.

4.2.6 Leptospirosis (Weil’s disease) is a health risk and anyone with access to
groundwater shall be made aware and ensure that any medical practitioner
treating them for flu-like symptoms is aware of their particular risk.

4.2.7 The risks of installing large refrigeration systems, including leakage,

explosion, asphyxiation, fire and toxicity shall be managed throughout
95
construction.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

4.2.8 HSG47: Avoiding danger from underground services (HSE, 2014a) must be
The requirements — Stage 4: Construction and installation

followed to minimise health and safety risks associated with excavation.

4.2.9 Where pipework routes for groundwater abstraction cross public access

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paths, trenches and site compounds shall have fences and warning signs.

Objective 4.3: To install the groundwater abstraction and discharge

system in accordance with the design
Why is this objective important?
Open-loop GWSHP systems should be designed to have a long life and be
exceptionally reliable. This is only achieved if good construction standards are
specified and delivered. The open-loop GWSHP system should be installed using the
best materials, equipment and guidance available within agreed financial parameters
to ensure long life and reliability. If any issues arise during the construction and
installation stage where the design cannot be followed, e.g. due to unforeseen site
conditions, the contractor must immediately refer back to the designer and any
modifications must be carried out and recorded transparently and permanently with
the full agreement of all parties.

Minimum requirements
4.3.1 The Contractor shall report any requirements for a variation in the design to
the designer and other agreed parties, such as the client, and any
modifications must be carried out and recorded transparently and with full
agreement of all parties especially the groundwater specialist.

4.3.2 The abstraction system shall be installed according to the design and comply
with all Environment Agency, SEPA, NRW or NIEA and other relevant and
current environmental and water quality standards and regulations

4.3.3 The discharge system shall be installed according to the design and comply
with all Environment Agency, SEPA, NRW or NIEA and other relevant and
current environmental and water quality standards and regulations

4.3.4 Contact between water and atmospheric oxygen shall be minimised or

prevented, especially if the water is initially reducing and contains elevated
concentrations of iron or manganese (e.g. many mine waters).

4.3.5 The introduction of large quantities of biofilm-forming bacteria to wells shall

be avoided, by preventing the ingress of surface soils during and after
drilling. Also by cleaning/sterilising newly completed wells, rising main and
pumps, using a chlorine solution.

4.3.6 Well-heads shall be sealed and ideally be completed above ground (or, failing
that, in a well-drained subsurface chamber). Run-in of potentially
contaminated surface water is thus prevented.

4.3.7 The pressure within the abstraction/heat exchange/injection system shall be

managed and sharp drops in pressure avoided, which might lead to
degassing of CO2 or N2 and thus to bubble formation.

4.3.8 Pressure changes within the abstraction/heat exchange/recharge pipework

shall be evaluated to ensure that areas of under-pressure do not develop.

4.3.9 An excess pressure of 0.5 to 1 bar shall be maintained at the head of any
injection well. Groundwater levels may fluctuate, therefore care shall be
96 taken to ensure the bottom of the recharge pipework is never above the
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

water level in the discharge well and it should ideally be some distance

The requirements — Stage 4: Construction and installation

below the operational water level to hinder contact with oxygen and to
maintain pressure.
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4.3.10 In the absence of simpler solutions, consideration may be given to the

installation of a throttle or regulating valve at the base of the recharge main,
in order to manage excess pressure.

4.3.11 The location of the groundwater abstraction and discharge equipment shall
take into account safety and security to avoid accidental damage and
potential human interference.

4.3.12 The groundwater abstraction and discharge equipment shall be installed

according to the designer’s instructions using the best materials, equipment
and guidance available within financial parameters to ensure long life and
reliability.

4.3.13 All pipework whether steel or polymer, pre- or post-insulated, shall be

installed in accordance with all relevant standards and with the
manufacturer’s instructions and guidance.

4.3.14 Welding of steel or polymer pipework shall only be carried out under suitable
conditions observing all manufacturers conditions and recommendations.
The welding area must be protected especially during inclement weather and
operations suspended if there is any risk installation integrity could be
compromised.

4.3.15 All fitters employed to install the pipework shall have completed the
appropriate training and hold appropriate certificates demonstrating
competence for the type of pipe system being used.

4.3.16 The Contractor shall carry out quality inspections at each stage of the
installation process and keep appropriate written records.

Best practice

Best practice would be to:

BP4.3a adopt a system of independent inspection to verify that the above

quality checks are being undertaken including written records of
sample checks carried out

BP4.3b employ an independent clerk of works in line with the duties, roles
and responsibilities described by the Institute of Clerks of Works
and Construction Inspectorate of Great Britain (https://www.icwci.
org) to check and verify works as they are completed.

Objective 4.4: To pressure test, flush clean, purge and fill all
pipework and plant
Why is this objective important?

Pipe testing and hygiene across the system are frequently overlooked or poorly
performed, yet these can cause problems that seriously impact the efficient and
reliable operation of any system. Fouling can be caused by debris accumulation,
oxygen ingress, chemical reactions between materials in the system, dissolved or
suspended metals or minerals etc. Rectification after construction can be expensive
97
and time consuming.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Information, such as the use of inhibitors and dealing with water hardness, can be
The requirements — Stage 4: Construction and installation

found in BG 50/2013: Water Treatment for Closed Heating and Cooling Systems
(BSRIA, 2013b).

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Minimum requirements
4.4.1 Testing of the load-side pipework shall be carried out in accordance with the
relevant regulations and standards, and BSRIA or CIBSE guidance.

4.4.2 The impact of low output temperatures from the heat pump on the hydronic
system shall be considered, including the associated health and performance
implications, for example microorganism growth and management in hot
water distribution circuits.

4.4.3 Pressure testing to identify leaks and initial flushing and cleaning shall be
carried out to remove debris.

4.4.4 Discharge consent shall be obtained for the purge/flushing waste discharges,
if required. Otherwise proper local disposal procedures must be followed.

4.4.5 The air shall be purged out of the system to avoid microbubbles adhering to
the pipe wall.

4.4.6 The system shall be set to work in accordance with the specification.

98
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5: Commissioning
Objectives:
5.1 To follow a structured commissioning management plan
5.2 To commission the source side of the heat pump installation
5.3 To commission the heat pump and immediate supply side equipment
5.4 To commission and calibrate the performance data collection system
5.5 To carry out a formal handover and provide appropriate and
comprehensive information to the operations team

Key support tasks:

• Review and update sustainability strategy and implement handover strategy,
including agreement of information required for training, handover, asset
management, future monitoring and maintenance
• Review and update commissioning plan

Information exchange to next stage (operators):

• Commissioning report
The requirements — Stage 5: Commissioning Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Objective 5.1: To follow a structured commissioning management

plan

Why is this objective important?

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Commissioning is a complex, often fragmented part of the construction process
which demands good organisation. The main objective is to deliver a system that
works well, efficiently and safely, and to manage the overall commissioning activities,
including programming to achieve the project completion date.

Thorough commissioning procedures should be adopted based on CIBSE

Commissioning Codes and BSRIA guidance (see ‘Further reading’).

Minimum requirements

5.1.1 Pre-commissioning checklists shall be developed to identify all the work

activities required have been completed to confirm the system is ready for
commissioning.

5.1.2 A clear/structured commissioning management plan shall be compiled

according to CIBSE Commissioning Code M (CIBSE, 2003) and shall be co-
ordinated with the design and installation programme of the main
contractor. The contractor and client shall allow sufficient time for the
complete commissioning process and ensure integration into the overall
programme.

5.1.3 A commissioning management team shall be appointed with appropriate

experience and qualifications. TM1/88.1: Commissioning HVAC Systems:
Guidance on the division of responsibilities (BSRIA, 2002) suggests
appropriate arrangements for projects where a commissioning specialist is to
be appointed. Equipment manufacturers’ instructions shall be followed.
Manufacturers should be involved in the commissioning process wherever
possible.

5.1.4 Checklists shall be used to monitor the progress of the entire commissioning
process and integrated into the commissioning contractor’s quality
management system. The requirements for demonstration and witness
testing shall be identified from the outset, including the identification of
those responsible.

5.1.5 All parties involved in the commissioning process shall be provided with
documentation procedures for dealing with contract variations. A change
control mechanism shall be set up, which includes documentary records of
what has been changed, how it has been changed, and why. A unique
numbering system shall be used to identify individual work items.

5.1.6 A commissioning report shall be produced according to CIBSE

Commissioning Code M (CIBSE, 2003). This shall include any faults,
deficiencies or problems identified in the commissioning process and shall
clearly identify the remedial actions taken.

5.1.7 Any required post-occupancy activity shall be identified and carried out at
the appropriate time, such as further checks or operator training (see also
Objective 5.4).

5.1.8 When the commissioning procedures have been satisfactorily completed, the
commissioning specialist shall certify that the system has been commissioned
100 in accordance with the project specification and the relevant commissioning
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

codes. The certificate shall be countersigned by all relevant parties as agreed

The requirements — Stage 5: Commissioning

in 5.1.2.

5.1.9 In the event that commissioning does not reach the standards agreed in
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5.1.2, then following remedial works to identify and solve problems, the
commissioning process shall begin again based on a new commissioning
plan.

Objective 5.2: To commission the source side of the heat

pump installation
Why is this objective important?
The apparatus for collecting heat from or rejecting heat into groundwater will have
been carefully designed, specified and installed to fulfil specific requirements and to
enable the heat pump to perform as intended. This will involve pumping the water
out of the ground and returning it back into the ground, body of surface water,
storage tank, reservoir or drain. The objective of commissioning the system is to
ensure that the source side of the installation supports the planned performance and
fulfils all other requirements.

To undertake this commissioning, it will be necessary for the load side of the heat
pump(s) to be ready to receive a heating and/or cooling supply as appropriate.

The system will have been ‘set to work’ at 4.4.6 to allow it to stabilise. Now the
source side components, e.g. isolating heat exchangers, must be checked, adjusted
and commissioned.

Minimum requirements
5.2.1 All available design calculations and documentation, equipment data and
test sheets, flow diagrams, installation and test records shall be collected
and collated.

5.2.2 A commissioning schedule and record document shall be prepared detailing

all relevant heat pump and ancillary equipment performance parameters, for
example evaporator (source side) flow rates, pressure drops, pump heads, ∆T
etc.

5.2.3 A commissioning schedule and record document shall be prepared detailing

all relevant source water environmental parameters, e.g. temperature
constraints, abstraction limits etc.

5.2.4 Before operating any heat pump compressor, adequate flow rates shall be
established in the source and load side circuits. Failure to do this can lead to
damage caused by freezing in the heat pump heat exchanger.

5.2.5 All hardware functions shall be verified as to the design and all pipework
shall be checked to ensure correctly it is installed and protected. The system
shall be adjusted as necessary and all results shall be accurately recorded.

5.2.6 All environmental and other parameters relating to the groundwater source
shall be measured and the results accurately recorded.

5.2.7 On commissioning an injection or abstraction well, the initial specific

capacity characteristics shall be determined via a step-drawdown test
(Misstear, Banks and Lewis, 2017). The operational specific capacity (yield
and water level) shall be monitored regularly for signs of decreased well
101
performance.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

5.2.8 The relevant environmental agency shall be notified of the intention to

The requirements — Stage 5: Commissioning

commence commissioning of the system to ensure compliance with any

relevant conditions in the abstraction licence and discharge permit.

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5.2.9 All information and data collected shall be recorded correctly into the site’s
operations and maintenance manual and records.

5.2.10 Following initial commissioning, any filters and/or demountable heat

exchangers shall be inspected for debris, cleaned if necessary, and re-sealed
prior to further operation.

Best practice
Best practice would be:

BP5.2a off-site monitoring of the source side data to confirm initial and
ongoing performance and to immediately warn of any reduction in
performance or malfunction: of principal importance will be the
source groundwater flow rate, absolute temperature and
temperature differential.

Objective 5.3: To commission the heat pump and immediate

supply side equipment
Why is this objective important?
A heat pump installation will have been specified and designed to exchange energy
with a heating and/or cooling load. Site specific operating strategies will have been
developed to satisfy this load, e.g. base load or peak lopping. The flow and
temperature parameters will also have been specified.

The heat pump will have been ‘set to work’ to allow the system to stabilise. Now the
heat pump unit and its ancillaries, e.g. isolating heat exchangers must be checked,
adjusted and commissioned to ensure they fulfil all these requirements especially at
the times of peak demand.

Minimum requirements
5.3.1 Commissioning operatives shall receive appropriate training in
commissioning the system to achieve the designed performance.

5.3.2 The heat pump shall be commissioned in accordance with the

manufacturer’s and designer’s settings and procedures at full load and part
loads.

5.3.3 Any flushing loops shall be closed off before commissioning commences.

5.3.4 The maximum flow rate to the distribution system shall be adjusted to the
design value. Great care must be taken that the flow rate through the heat
pump load side is optimised as this is critical to correct operation.

5.3.5 All measured data and set points on valves etc. shall be recorded on the
commissioning record sheet and a copy provided to the customer.

5.3.6 The source side flow rate shall be at a rate which satisfies both the flow
requirements of the heat pump source side heat exchanger and comply with
any defined abstraction or temperature limits.

5.3.7 The maximum abstraction rate is set out in the permissions issued by the
102 relevant environmental agency and shall not be exceeded.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

The requirements — Stage 5: Commissioning

Objective 5.4: To commission and calibrate the performance data
collection system
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Why is this objective important?

During installation controls, meters, sensors and data recorders will have been
installed, see Figure 49 above. The specification needs to take into account the data
collection needs of the client and the reporting requirements of third parties, e.g. the
Environment Agency, as a condition of granting abstraction permission, or the Office
of Gas and Electricity Markets (Ofgem) as the basis for relevant grants and incentives
payments. These sensors and data recorders must be meticulously calibrated and
commissioned to ensure the reliability and accuracy of the data.

Minimum requirements

5.4.1 Prior to commissioning, an initial check shall be carried out to ensure the
installation has been carried out in accordance with both the designer’s and
meter manufacturer’s instructions, particularly in relation to location, access,
orientation and sensor installation.

5.4.2 BEMS, SCADA and any other maintenance and performance systems shall be
commissioned in accordance with the design.

5.4.3 The data recorder shall be calibrated under load to establish that flow rate
and temperatures are being recorded accurately. This should include spot
checks with temporary measurement equipment to confirm/correct
operation.

5.4.4 The groundwater levels and quality shall be monitored including electrical
conductivity (EC), dissolved oxygen, total dissolved solids (TDS) and pH
levels, and the results verified against spot checks with hand-held or
laboratory tests.

5.4.5 For heat meters, a verification calculation shall be carried out to demonstrate
that the conversion to kW·h from the flow rate and temperature
measurements is correct.

5.4.6 The system efficiency as predicted in 3.8.2 shall be recalculated, agreed and
recorded, to be used as the baseline for long term monitoring (see section
B1.3). If this significantly deviates from the design figures then remedial
action should be taken, or a reason identified, discussed and recorded.

5.4.7 An information pack shall be provided to the operations and maintenance

teams as to the functioning of the data recording system and the reporting
requirements.

5.4.8 The sensors and data loggers shall be integrated into the energy
management system so they may be used to measure, control and optimise
installation performance in real time.

Best practice

Best practice would be to:

BP5.4a enable off-site monitoring and control to facilitate rapid response

103
to any faults in the commissioning process.
The requirements — Stage 5: Commissioning Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Objective 5.5: To carry out a formal handover and provide

appropriate and comprehensive information to the operations team
Why is this objective important?

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Handover follows on from project completion, which is the point in the construction
process when the senior construction team or project manager determines that the
installation is complete and ready for the client. Once completion has been certified,
the contractor surrenders the site to the client who then assumes full responsibility.
The handover process is regulated by Building Regulations.

The main parties involved in the handover process will typically be the senior
construction team, mechanical and electrical contractors, any nominated sub-
contractors, the designer and the client’s maintenance personnel or nominated
maintenance contractor. Good communication is especially important during the final
stages of construction. Ideally the maintenance team should be involved as early as
possible in the project and long before the handover process takes place.

Where a commissioning manager is appointed, they will supervise and confirm

satisfactory completion of all the stages of the handover.

Minimum requirements
5.5.1 A formal handover between the construction, maintenance teams and any
other identified key party shall be carried out in line with BG1/2007:
Handover, O&M Manuals and Project Feedback. A toolkit for designers and
contractors (BSRIA, 2007). This is vital to ensure that all aspects of the design
are explained and the importance of correct operation and maintenance are
understood, including requirements for any abstraction licence and
discharge permit.

5.5.2 A comprehensive ‘snagging’ list will be prepared and arrangements made

for any remediation required and subsequent re-inspection.

5.5.3 A comprehensive operations and maintenance manual shall be compiled

both electronically and in hard copy to include:
• a schedule of planned maintenance
• the use of performance data to identify repair or maintenance
requirements
• a list of all components and their suppliers
• a list of specialist training courses (required and desirable)
• an explanation of the design concept
• general and detailed system schematics
• refrigerant type and quantity.

Best practice
Best practice would be to:

BP5.5a contract an independent professional to plan and carry out the

stages of the handover.

BP5.5b adopt a BSRIA soft landings approach (see https://www.bsria.co.uk/

services/design/soft-landings) with provisional sums for between
one and three years ongoing engagement by the contractor,
104 operator and relevant professionals (e.g. design engineers to
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

monitor the operation and performance of the completed plant on

The requirements — Stage 5: Commissioning

an ongoing basis and work together to rectify faults and latent
snags, and to tune, tweak and optimise system performance).
BSRIA soft landings would also require that the operating team/
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operator is fully engaged in the design process to guide the team

on the best design approach to allow for cost effective efficient
operation.

105
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6: Operation and maintenance

Objectives:
6.1 To reduce health and safety risks to staff, customers and the general
public
6.2 To minimise environmental impacts of operation and maintenance
6.3 To deliver a maintenance schedule that maximised system efficiency,
reliability and asset life
6.4 To provide appropriate monitoring and reporting, including reliability and
CO2 emissions

Key support tasks:

• Conclude activities listed in handover strategy including post-occupancy evaluation,
review of project performance, project outcomes and research and development
aspects
• Update project information, as required, in response to ongoing client feedback
until the end of the building’s life

Information exchange (to client):

• Annual reports and regular performance monitoring reports, as agreed
• All data and feedback to client including planned and unplanned maintenance
reports and costs
The requirements — Stage 6: Operation and maintenance Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Objective 6.1: To reduce health and safety risks to staff, customers

and the general public in operation and maintenance

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Why is this objective important?

Reducing health and safety risks for staff, customers and general public is of primary
importance in any project. This section is not intended to be comprehensive but will
emphasise particular risks associated with the operation and maintenance of open-
loop GWSHPs.

Minimum requirements

6.1.1 The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations 2002

and the Dangerous Substances and Explosive Atmospheres Regulations 2002
(DSEAR) may apply and shall be followed where appropriate.

6.1.2 The heat pump operator shall be certified under BS ISO 45001.

6.1.3 Plant rooms, vaults and manholes containing heat exchangers, pumps and
other equipment shall be kept locked and access controlled.

6.1.4 Checks on the water systems shall be carried out and any water treatment
recorded in accordance with HSG274: Legionnaires disease — Part 2: The
control of legionella bacteria in hot and cold water systems (HSE, 2014b) to
be in compliance with the The Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations
1999.

6.1.5 The possibility of groundwater posing a risk to health through disease or

other pollution shall be considered and appropriate mitigation measures
taken.

6.1.6 Gas detection systems, including refrigerant detection systems and pump-
down facilities shall be checked in accordance with regulations.

6.1.7 Method statements and risk assessments shall be kept up to date with
current regulations and best practice, e.g. ammonia system risk assessments
need revisiting every three years.

6.1.8 Hazardous materials and consumables, for example refrigerants are to be

disposed of appropriately considering all waste management legislation.

6.1.9 On-site safety equipment shall be checked and maintained, e.g. chemical
showers, eye baths, respirators.

Objective 6.2: To minimise environmental impacts of operation

and maintenance

Why is this objective important?

Although the ultimate aim of a GWSHP system is to provide an environmental benefit

there may be negative environmental impacts during operation and maintenance
that need to be identified and minimised. The permissions issued by the relevant
environmental agency or statutory bodies will have specified requirements in
monitoring and reporting to ensure the system operates within the agreed
108 parameters. Other regulations, such as F-gas, also need to be complied with.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Minimum requirements

The requirements — Stage 6: Operation and maintenance

6.2.1 The management and operation of the GWSHP should be considered in any
BS EN ISO 14001 (BSI, 2015b) system operated by system operator.
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6.2.2 The monitoring requirements of any open-loop system will be set out in the
conditions of the relevant environmental agency. The temperature of the
water discharged shall be monitored continuously to ensure it is within the
differential and absolute limits set by the relevant environmental agencies or
other regulators.

6.2.3 The operator shall maintain records of all monitoring required by the
relevant environmental agency or other regulators including the pressure
and flow rate, temperature, calibrations, examinations, tests and surveys and
any assessment or evaluation made on the basis of such data.

6.2.4 The appropriate environmental agency shall be notified without delay

following the detection of:

• any malfunction, breakdown or failure of equipment or techniques,

accident or emission of a substance not controlled by an emission limit
which has caused, is causing, or may cause significant pollution

• the breach of a limit specified in the permission, for example ∆T

• any significant adverse environmental effects.

6.2.5 The operator shall allow access by the relevant environmental agency and
other regulators if requested to allow inspection of the system in operation.

6.2.6 If the relevant environmental agency has identified the risk of saline
intrusion, additional monitoring shall be required.

6.2.7 The long-term yield/health of the aquifer shall be monitored including

groundwater levels, electrical conductivity (EC), dissolved oxygen, total
dissolved solids (TDS) and pH levels.

6.2.8 F-gas Regulations shall be followed in operating and maintaining the heat
pump, see Appendix B. Only qualified technicians shall carry out any of the
following work on a heat pump system:

• maintenance

• leak checking

• recovering refrigerant gases.

Best practice

Best practice would be to:

BP6.2a set up the energy management system, such as SCADA, to

continuously electronically monitor the parameters required by the
relevant environmental agencies and other regulatory bodies,
record these and take appropriate automatic intervention, for
example plant turn down or shut down, if breached or in danger
109
of breaching.
The requirements — Stage 6: Operation and maintenance Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Objective 6.3: To deliver a maintenance schedule that maximises

system efficiency, reliability and asset life
Why is this objective important?

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The quality of materials, design and construction of the borehole itself as well as the
GWSHP is important but correct operation and timely, proficient maintenance is also
essential to ensure the installation remains reliable and provides optimum
performance throughout its lifetime.

Open-loop GWSHP systems are by definition in direct contact with the water. The
chemical composition, total dissolved solids (TDS), sediment content or other
pollutants present in the water may affect both the borehole structure and the heat
pump/heat exchanger assembly. Regular inspection and maintenance of both is
essential to ensure a long and trouble-free life.

Minimum requirements

6.3.1 The basis for the planned maintenance regime shall be in accordance with
BS ISO 55000 (BSI, 2014a) following the ‘Plan-Do-Check-Act’ cycle of
continual improvement.

6.3.2 Maintenance on central plant shall be according to manufacturer’s

instructions, BG66/2016: Maintenance Contracts: A guide to best practice
for procurement (BSRIA, 2016b) and CIBSE Guide M: Maintenance
engineering and management (CIBSE, 2014a).

6.3.3 To minimise the risk of damage, ‘as installed’ drawings of the installation
shall be maintained and provided to all stakeholders and displayed in the
plant room.

6.3.4 All staff shall receive appropriate training before operating or maintaining
any equipment.

6.3.5 In addition to regular inspections, a remote monitoring and surveillance

system shall be installed and the system continuously monitored to ensure
efficient operation. All alarms, for example refrigerant leakage or pump
failure alarms, shall be investigated and the location of the fault identified
and repairs shall be carried out as required and without delay.

6.3.6 Comprehensive records of test results, groundwater levels, water quality,

yield and treatment and any repairs to the system shall be maintained.

6.3.7 Major plant maintenance shall always be scheduled to minimise any

interruptions in heat supply and wherever possible there shall be sufficient
resilience in the system to prevent supply interruptions.

6.3.8 In wells that are susceptible to clogging, consideration shall be given to

regularly repeating the step-drawdown test (Misstear et al., 1990) at
intervals of 3 to 5 years to accurately determine specific capacity.

6.3.9 For wells in which the performance has deteriorated due to incrustation or
biofilm formation, rehabilitation may be undertaken when the specific
capacity has fallen below a certain ‘trigger’ threshold. The exact form of
rehabilitation will depend on the type of clogging but will usually involve a
combination of chemical treatments (e.g. acid treatment), physical removal
(surging, brushing or jetting) and biocidal treatments (chlorination), see
Howsam (1990), Howsam et al. (1995) and Misstear et al. (1990).
110 Rehabilitation seldom returns the well to its original efficiency and some
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

wells may require repeated treatment every few years according to an

The requirements — Stage 6: Operation and maintenance

agreed schedule.

6.3.10 Pressures and temperatures shall be recorded to check that all pipework has
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been operated within the specified design parameters. This is particularly

important when plastic pipe has been used to ensure pipe integrity and
longevity.

Best practice

Best practice would be to:

BP6.3a adopt a BSRIA soft landings approach to ensure the operating

team/operator is fully engaged in the design process to guide the
team on the best design approach to allow for cost effective
efficient operation

BP6.3b reassess the GWSHP system annually to ensure it functions within

the requirements of the Code of Practice and any future updates.

Objective 6.4: To provide appropriate monitoring and reporting,

including reliability and CO2 emissions

Why is this objective important?

Monitoring and reporting requirements will have been defined by the relevant
environmental agency and other regulatory bodies as part of the process of issuing
the relevant permissions and licenses and by the Office of Gas and Electricity Markets
(Ofgem) or other relevant grant/tariff awarding bodies for any grants and incentives.
These reports and notifications will need to be prepared and sent in the agreed
format and at the agreed intervals.

It is important to monitor the operation of the installation and to provide regular

reports to the client so that a high standard of performance can be maintained. In
larger systems, the details of the reporting requirements will typically form part of
the contract for the operation of the system.

Minimum requirements

6.4.1 Monitoring Certification Scheme (MCERTS), the framework of standards to

monitor the emissions to air, land and water and local Building Regulations,
shall be followed (see www.gov.uk/government/collections/monitoring-
emissions-to-air-land-and-water-mcerts).

6.4.2 The continuous monitoring of the abstraction and discharge system shall be
carried out to alert the operator if specified limits are exceeded.

6.4.3 The operator shall send all reports and notifications in line with the relevant
permissions to the relevant environmental agency or other regulatory bodies
at the agreed interval and all records shall be kept for at least twelve years.

6.4.4 The operator shall send all reports to Ofgem or other relevant grant/tariff
awarding body at an agreed interval.

6.4.5 The electrical input to the heat pump and the electrical inputs to the source
side circulation pumps shall be monitored and reported at an agreed
111
interval.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

6.4.6 A performance report shall be produced by the operations and maintenance

The requirements — Stage 6: Operation and maintenance

contractor, at an agreed interval (ideally monthly), to be issued to the client,

which typically contains the following information:
• health and safety incidents

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• operating and performance data including groundwater level, yield and
temperature and related design data and anticipated energy
consumption and production
• unplanned downtime, system failures and faults that occurred
• planned downtime and maintenance activities carried out
• planned maintenance events due over the next 30 and 90 days
• electricity consumption and running cost
• indirect CO2 emissions from electricity use and displaced CO2 emissions
compared to alternative fuel(s)
• results of mandatory F-gas inspections.

6.4.7 An annual report shall be prepared by the operations and maintenance

contractor and shall include the information in 6.4.6 and also information
on:
• long-term yield and condition of aquifer including total dissolved solids
(TDS), temperature trends etc.
• calculation of average CO2 emission factor for heat over the year
• seasonal performance factor (SPF) (see section B1.3 and minimum
requirements 3.8.1 and 5.3.4).

6.4.8 The annual report shall be made available electronically and issued as hard
copy by request.

Best practice
Best practice would be to:

BP6.4a generate more frequent reports, for example issued on a monthly

basis, could constitute best practice; larger systems could consider
public, online reporting

BP6.4b set up the energy management system, such as SCADA, to

automatically record the items in 6.4.6 and 6.4.7, and in a pre-
prepared format, dramatically reducing the manpower required to
produce the report and therefore reduce the operating cost.

112
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7: Decommissioning
Objectives:
7.1 To decommission the heat pump
7.2 To decommission the source side

Key support tasks:

• Produce decommissioning plan
• Engage with the relevant environmental agency and other regulatory bodies on
processes of decommissioning and the level of requirements for site reinstatement

Information exchange (to decommissioning team and regulatory bodies):

• Decommissioning plan
• Reports in line with F-gas and other regulations
• Reports to the relevant environmental agency and other regulatory bodies as
required
• Report to client
The requirements — Stage 7: Decommissioning Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Objective 7.1: To decommission the heat pump

Why is this objective important?

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Any end-of-life heat pump, whether used for heating, cooling or both, must be
correctly decommissioned to avoid any risk of pollution, minimise waste and
maximise the recovery for reuse of its constituent parts. The equipment can contain
hazardous materials, such as ozone depleting substances (ODS) and fluorinated gases
(F-gases) so particular care must be taken to recover for reuse or safe, correct
disposal of all refrigerant in accordance with F-gas legislation, see Appendix B.

Owners and operators have legal obligations under UK and EU F-gas Regulations to
ensure that any company and/or person they allow to install, service, maintain, repair,
carry out leakage checks and/or decommission their refrigeration and/or air
conditioning systems holds valid F-gas qualifications.

CIBSE TM56: Resource efficiency of building services (2014b) provides general

principles and tools relating to the end-of-life and disposal of building services, and
more information on this topic can be found at the website of the Waste and
Resources Action Programme (WRAP) (www.wrap.org.uk).

Minimum requirements

7.1.1 Under UK and EU F-gas Regulations any person carrying out

decommissioning of a heat pump that contains fluorinated greenhouse
gases shall hold a valid F-gas qualification.

7.1.2 All documentation shall be kept and correctly completed as required by

current UK and EU F-gas Regulations.

7.1.3 All chemicals, including secondary refrigerants such as or ethylene or

propylene glycol and ethanol mixtures, shall be stored in an area where spills
will be contained and if contaminated, treated as hazardous/special waste.

7.1.4 All chemicals, especially hazardous substances should be disposed of

appropriately considering the relevant environmental and waste
management legislation and the client’s duty of care.

7.1.5 Solutions containing refrigerant of any type shall not enter groundwater,
watercourses or surface water drains.

7.1.6 If contaminated water accidentally enters public sewers, the water and/or
sewerage company and other relevant authorities shall be notified
immediately.

7.1.7 When effluent is discharged to surface or ground water a discharge consent

shall be obtained from the relevant environmental agency. Any additive to
the abstracted water would result in the discharge water being an effluent.

7.1.8 When effluent is discharged into public sewers a trade effluent consent or a
trade effluent agreement shall be obtained from the water and/or sewerage
company and all discharges shall comply with the agreed conditions.

7.1.9 The heat pump shall be dismantled and disposed of in accordance with all
current legislation.

7.1.10 All compressors or associated components shall be placed on a drip tray to

collect any leaking oil. The drip tray shall be emptied regularly and the oil
114 collected appropriately recycled or treated as hazardous/special waste.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

7.1.11 All ancillary buildings and equipment shall be dismantled or demolished to

The requirements — Stage 7: Decommissioning

an acceptable standard and in accordance with all current legislation and
any specific agreements with regulatory and other bodies.
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Best practice
Best practice would be:

BP7.1a for all traces of the installation shall be removed and the site
reinstated such that no visible evidence remains.

Objective 7.2: To decommission the source side

Why is this objective important?
Although the ultimate aim of a GWSHP system is to provide an environmental benefit
there may be negative environmental impacts during decommissioning that need to
be identified and minimised.

Reducing health and safety risks is of primary importance. This section is not
intended to be comprehensive but will emphasise particular risks associated with the
decommissioning of GWSHP systems. It is recommended advice is sought from risk
management authorities, such as the environmental agencies and local authorities,
before any work is undertaken.
Minimum requirements
7.2.1 As each situation is different in terms of its location, geological setting,
borehole construction, dimensions, hazards and intended site after use,
guidance shall be obtained from the relevant environmental agency around
the specific requirements for the site, for England see Good practice for
decommissioning redundant boreholes and wells (EA, 2012b) [available on
request from the Environment Agency].
7.2.2 Before decommissioning a borehole, consideration shall be given as to
whether it can be retained as a monitoring facility. If it is to fulfil part of a
planning condition or other legal monitoring requirement, discussions shall
take place with the relevant environmental agency. Consideration shall be
given to improved headworks to allow access while ensuring no
contamination pathway from the surface to the groundwater.
7.2.3 When a borehole or well is to be backfilled, information on the geological
strata encountered by the borehole and how it was constructed (including
depth, diameter and casing details) shall be obtained from site records or
the original driller’s log. The British Geological Survey (BGS) or Geological
Survey of Northern Ireland (GSNI) national water well archive and other
borehole databases shall also be consulted.
7.2.4 When planning the decommissioning works, in addition to any site specific
after-use considerations, the method shall address the following objectives:
• remove the hazard of an open hole (safety issues)
• prevent the borehole acting as a conduit for contamination of
groundwater
• prevent the mixing of contaminated and uncontaminated groundwater
from different aquifers
• prevent the flow of groundwater from one geological horizon to another
• prevent the wastage of groundwater from the overflow of artesian
115
boreholes.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

7.2.5 All pipework shall be removed together with any other infrastructure and the
The requirements — Stage 7: Decommissioning

condition of any borehole casing and grout shall be examined to ascertain

whether its retention in the hole would prejudice any of the objectives of the
abandonment. Where the casing has corroded or broken, or the grouting

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failed it may be necessary to remove materials to prevent any flow of
groundwater around the outside of the borehole. If this is required, expert
advice shall be sought from a suitable specialist on appropriate techniques
and associated risks.
7.2.6 For artesian boreholes, the decommissioning process shall aim to confine the
groundwater to the aquifer from which it came. To control the artesian flow,
one of the following shall be used:
• pumping the borehole to produce the necessary drawdown
• pumping nearby boreholes
• extending the casing above ground level beyond the elevation to which
water will rise in the borehole (the potentiometric or piezometric
surface)
• introducing dense, non-polluting fluids into the borehole
• introducing a pre-cast plug at an appropriate level within the hole
• using an inflatable packer and pressure grouting the void space below it.
7.2.7 The backfilled borehole/well shall be completed with an impermeable plug
and cap to prevent entry of potentially contaminated surface run-off or
other liquids.

7.2.8 Accurate records shall be kept of the abandonment details for future
reference, including:
• the reasons for abandonment (for example water quality problems)
• measurement of groundwater level prior to backfilling
• the depth and position of each layer of backfilling and sealing materials
• the type and quantity of backfilling and sealing materials used
• any changes made to the borehole/well during the abandonment (for
example casing removal)
• any problems encountered during the abandonment procedure.
7.2.9 The location of disused boreholes and wells shall be clearly marked on site
records.

7.2.10 The relevant environmental agency and British Geological Survey or

Geological Survey of Northern Ireland (GSNI) shall be notified of the
abandoned well location and structure.
7.2.11 Notice shall be given to the relevant environmental agency and the necessary
applications forms shall be completed to revoke the abstraction licence and
surrender the discharge permit for the system.
Best practice
Best practice would be to:

7.2a mark or deeply inscribe well caps with the word ‘WELL’. Even if
done crudely it can avoid considerable risk, delay or uncertainty in
the event of the structure being discovered during excavation by
others in the future, who may not otherwise know what the
116 feature is.
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Appendices
Appendix A: Glossary of terms and acronyms
Appendix B: Key legislation
Appendix C: Useful contacts
Appendix D: Calculating system efficiency
Appendix E: Diversity factors for instantaneous domestic hot water systems
for dwellings
Appendix F: Environmental best practice checklist
Appendix G: References and further reading
Appendix A: Glossary of terms and abbreviations Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Appendix A: Glossary of terms and abbreviations

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AHU Air handling unit.

Air conditioning All the processes required to closely manage the air within a space, i.e. heating,
cooling, humidity control, ventilation and filtration of incoming air. It is frequently
misunderstood to mean cooling only.

AMR Automatic meter reading.

ASHP Air source heat pump.

BEMS Building energy management system.

Bleed In the context of a standing column well heating and/or cooling systems, bleed is
where some of the water from the system discharge, usually less than 10%, is
diverted to be used for another purpose, e.g. domestic consumption, irrigation or
to waste to improve system efficiency. These systems are considered consumptive
by the water authorities and environmental agencies.

BMS Building management system.

Borehole A long, narrow vertical hole drilled frequently, but not necessarily, to access
groundwater.

Capex Capital expenditure.

CDM Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 2015.

CEEQUAL Civil Engineering Environmental Quality Assessment and Award Scheme.

Closed loop A type of ground heat exchanger that consist of pipework (usually plastic) through
which a fluid is circulated to collect heat from or reject heat into the ground or
body of water in which it is installed.

Comfort cooling Sensible cooling only, and may refer to tempering the indoor air temperature by a
few degrees rather than chilling it to a predetermined temperature.

CoP Coefficient of performance: an expression of the output of a machine in heating

mode as a proportion of input power (compressor and fans) and hence is the rated
capacity divided by the rated power input. In practice this is expressed as a single
figure or as a percentage.

CoSP Coefficient of system performance: a ratio that describes the efficiency of a heat
pump taking into account the input power from internal control circuits and
compressor, as well as fan and pump power required to overcome any fluid
resistances of its own heat exchangers (but not those external to the unit).
Therefore it is the rated capacity divided by the rated total power input and is more
representative of the unit’s efficiency than the simple CoP. In practice, it has
become the de facto measure of CoP and is expressed as a single figure or as a
percentage. This ratio is now described in BS EN 14511-1 (BSI, 2018).

COSHH Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 2002.

cSPF Calculated seasonal performance factor (see also SPF and SCoP): uses BS EN
15316-4-2 (BSI, 2017d) as the calculation method.

CRC Carbon Reduction Commitment.

DC Direct current.

Delta-T or ∆T The temperature difference between the water abstracted and the water
discharged, or any other relevant temperature difference in the HVAC system.

DHW Domestic hot water.

DX Direct expansion: used to describe the situation where refrigerant in a heat pump is
used to directly heat (or cool) the final medium being heated.

118 DP Differential pressure.

 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Drawdown In subsurface hydrogeology, drawdown is the change in hydraulic head observed at

Appendix A: Glossary of terms and abbreviations

a well in an aquifer, typically due to pumping a well as part of an aquifer test or
well test.

DSEAR Dangerous Substances and Explosive Atmospheres Regulations 2002.

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DSM Dynamic simulation model.

EC Energy centre.

ECA Enhanced Capital Allowance.

ECO Energy Company Obligation.

EER Energy efficiency ratio: describes the efficiency of a heat pump machine in cooling
mode. The rated capacity is divided by the rated total power input. In practice this
is expressed as a single figure or as a percentage.

ETL Energy Technology List.

EU ETS EU Emissions Trading System.

Free cooling Cooling which is delivered without having to pay for the low temperature resource.
This can be outdoor air, surface or groundwater. The discharge flow after a heat
pump in heating mode can be a useful source of free cooling.

GHG Greenhouse gas.

GIS Geographic information system.

GSHP Ground source heat pump.

GWSHP Groundwater source heat pump.

Heat exchanger A device for the transfer of heat energy from one medium to another. It can take a
variety of different forms; the commonest in everyday use is a central heating
radiator where hot water is circulated through pipes or plates and gives its heat up
to the surrounding air.

Heat transfer fluid Historically a calcium chloride solution was used, which is why it is sometimes
erroneously called ‘brine’. Today heat pumps in the UK generally use an aqueous
mixture containing biocides and corrosion and scale inhibitors and, if required, an
anti-freeze component, often monoethylene glycol (MEG) or polyethylene glycol
(PEG). Note: sometimes called ‘thermal transfer fluids’.

HN Heat networks (also commonly referred to as district heating).

Heat pump A device for transferring energy in the form of useful heat from one place to
another. It cannot store, make or destroy heat energy — it simply moves it. There
are a number of techniques that exploit heat transfer; the most common in use is
the refrigeration cycle. A heat pump is capable of transforming a large quantity of
low grade, low temperature heat.

Hybrid Multivalent systems can also be described as hybrid systems.

Hydraulic Use of water or another liquid heat transfer medium such as glycol as the heat-
transfer medium in heating and cooling systems. Also referred to as hydronic.

IRR Internal rate of return.

LCA Life cycle assessment.

Leptospirosis Weil’s disease.

Load Building or other use (e.g. a swimming pool) or industrial process that uses the
heating or cooling generated.

MCERTS Monitoring Certification Scheme.

Mono-energetic An installation where there is one source of heating backed up by some direct
electric heating.
119
Mono-valent An installation where there is only one source of heating.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Multi-valent An installation with multiple sources of heat, e.g. where a heat pump is support
Appendix A: Glossary of terms and abbreviations

with both solar and an oil boiler.

NPV Net present value.

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NRM RICS New Rules of Measurement.

Open-loop A heat collection system whereby water is extracted from either the ground or an
open water source (i.e. lake, river or sea) and is passed directly through a water
source heat pump. This water may be re-injected or passed to waste; in the latter
case water charges may be incurred.

Open water Open water can also be used to describe surface water.

OPEX Operational expenditure.

P&L Profit and loss account.

Reducing agent An element (such as iron or calcium) that loses (‘donates’) an electron in a redox
(reduction–oxidation) chemical reaction. Since the reducing agent is losing
electrons, it is said to have been oxidized.

Reverse cycle A reverse cycle system is a refrigeration system that can, by means of a valve
heat pump that reverses the flow of the refrigerant fluid, change the operation of the system
from heating to cooling.

RHI Renewable Heat Incentive.

SCADA Supervisory control and data acquisition.

SAP Standard Assessment Procedure.

SCoP Seasonal coefficient of performance: an efficiency metric of heat pumps that

describes performance of the unit over a typical season where the source
temperature varies. Frequently used with heat pumps where the source
temperature changes considerably over the year and hence efficiency and/or output
varies. It is determined using the calculation method given in BS EN 14825 (BSI,
2018).

SBEM Simplified Building Energy Model.

SEER Seasonal energy efficiency ratio: an efficiency metric of reverse cycle heat pumps
that describes the performance of the unit over a typical cooling season where the
source temperature varies. Used mostly with air source heat pumps where the
source temperature varies over the year leading to variations in efficiency and/or
output.

SPF Seasonal performance factor: similar to SCoP in that it is a ratio expressing the
efficiency of a heat pump by describing heat output to total energy input taking
into account variations in performance over the heating season. Under BS EN
15316-4-2 (BSI, 2017d), input energy includes auxiliary energy that may be all or
part of pump/fan power. Care must be exercised as to whether this is intended to
include any additional boost heat from other sources (e.g. electric immersion
heater) and the full pump/fan power to overcome all resistances of circuits (i.e. not
just the heat exchangers of the heat pump). See Appendix D for definitions of
system boundaries.

SWSHP Surface water source heat pump.

TER Target Emission Rate.

TFEE Target Fabric Energy Efficiency.

TTF Thermal transfer fluid, e.g. glycol.

Turbidity A measure of the degree to which the water loses its transparency due to the
presence of suspended particulates.

Water well A water well is an excavation or structure created in the ground by digging, driving,
120 boring, or drilling to access groundwater.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Appendix B: Key legislation

Appendix B: Key legislation
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This appendix outlines the legislation that is likely to impact on an open-loop GWSHP
project. It is not intended to be comprehensive nor in sufficient detail to test
compliance. It is essential readers consult the latest regulations.

It should be noted that some regulations are devolved to the administrations of

Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland and there are important differences (see
Appendix C for contact details of regulatory bodies).

Health and Safety legislation

Although the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 is fundamental, the Construction
Design Management Regulations 2015 (CDM) shall govern all stages from design
through to operation. The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations
2002 (COSHH) and the Dangerous Substances and Explosive Atmospheres
Regulations 2002 (DSEAR) may apply. During the operating phase the control of
Legionella risk is an important consideration and HSE Code of Practice L8 (HSE, 2013)
and associated guidance HSG274 (HSE, 2014) shall be followed. The Fluorinated
Greenhouse Gases Regulations 2015 (F-gas Regulations), the Pressure Equipment
Directive (2014/68/EU) (PED) and BS EN 378-4: Refrigerating systems and heat
pumps. Safety and environmental requirements. Operation, maintenance, repair and
recovery (BSI, 2016) shall be considered.

Planning legislation
The installation of an open-loop GWSHP is usually considered to be permitted
development and may not need an application for planning permission. When
installing a GWSHP in the grounds of a non-domestic building, planning permission is
required if the total surface area covered by the installation (including any pipes)
exceeds 0.5 hectares (Town and Country Planning Act 1990, amendment 2012).

The Town and Country Planning (Environmental Impact Assessment) Regulations

2011 can apply even when the project is considered permitted development. These
regulations apply the EU directive on the assessment of the effects of certain public
and private projects on the environment (usually referred to as the Environmental
Impact Assessment Directive) to the planning system in England.

Planning permission may be required for temporary works for storage of materials
and other construction purposes. Permissions will be needed from any land owner in
addition to planning permission. An easement (a right to cross or otherwise use
someone else’s land for a specified purpose) may be required.

Planning approval may impose other construction conditions, e.g. dealing with
removal of waste, storage of materials, dust and noise nuisance. There may be a
requirement to comply with the Considerate Contractors Scheme.

Environmental Regulations

Environmental Permit and Abstraction Licence

See Tables 6 to 9 below, for details of regulatory permissions for delivering

abstraction and discharge for the Environment Agency (EA) in England, Natural
Resources Wales (NRW) in Wales, Scottish Environment Agency (SEPA) in Scotland
121
and Northern Ireland Environment Agency (NIEA) in Northern Ireland.
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Table 6 Regulatory permissions for delivering abstraction and discharge for the Environment Agency
Appendix B: Key legislation

(EA), England (source Groundwater control: design and practice (Preene et al., 2016); reproduced by
permission of CIRIA)
Abstraction permission Discharge permission

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EA regulates abstraction licensing under the Discharge to surface water or groundwater:
Water Resources Act 1991:
• Flow rate ≤ 20 m3/day: no permission EA regulates water discharge activities (discharges
required. No requirement to notify EA. to surface water) and groundwater activities
(discharges to ground) under The Environmental
• Abstraction for 27 days or less, any flow rate Permitting (England and Wales) Regulations 2016.
> 20 m3/day (water not put to use):
temporary licence required.  here dewatering pumping is for less than three
W
• Abstraction for 28 days or more, flow rate months, the EA has granted an exception that
> 20 m3/day (water not put to use): full dewatering flows can be discharged to surface
licence required for portion put to use, waters without the need for an Environment
transfer licence required for portion not put to Permit, provided that the water is
use. uncontaminated and will not cause adverse
effects on aquatic life. In all other circumstances
Note: the flow rate quoted for the different levels an Environmental Permit is required for discharge
of licensing is the total dewatering flow rate from of dewatering flows to surface water or to
the site or project, not the flow rate from groundwater.
individual sumps, pumps, or wells.
If water treatment technologies are used to
remove contaminants or otherwise treat water
before discharge, a mobile plant permit and
deployment form will also be required from the
EA for the groundwater treatment plant.
Discharge to sewer:

Trade Effluent Consent required (from Regional

Water Company).

Table 7: Regulatory permissions for delivering abstraction and discharge for Natural Resources Wales
(NRW), Wales (source Groundwater control: design and practice (CIRIA, 2016); reproduced by
permission of CIRIA)
Abstraction permission Discharge permission
Governing regulations: Water Resource Act 2012 Discharge to surface water or groundwater:
• Flow rate < 20 m3/day: no permission
required; no requirement to notify NRW. (NRW) regulated under Water Resources Act 2012
• Abstraction for 27 days or less, any flow Where dewatering pumping is for less than three
rate 20 m3/day (water not put to use): months, the NRW has granted an exception that
temporary licence required. dewatering flows can be discharged to surface
• Abstraction for 28 days or more, flow rate waters without the need for an Environment
> 20 m3/day (water not put to use): full Permit, provided that the water is
licence required for portion put to use, uncontaminated and will not cause adverse
transfer licence required for portion not put to effects on aquatic life. In all other circumstances
use. an Environmental Permit is required for discharge
of dewatering flows to surface water or to
Note: the flow rate quoted for the different levels groundwater.
of licensing is the total dewatering flow rate from
the site or project, not the flow rate from If water treatment technologies are used to
individual sumps, pumps, or wells. remove contaminants or otherwise treat water
before discharge, a mobile plant permit and
deployment form will also be required from the
EA for the groundwater treatment plant under
the Environmental Permitting (England and Wales)
Regulations 2010.
Discharge to sewer:

Trade Effluent Consent required (from Regional

Water Company).

122
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Table 8 Regulatory permissions for delivering abstraction and discharge for Scottish Environment

Appendix B: Key legislation

Protection Agency (SEPA), Scotland (source Groundwater control: design and practice (Preene et al.,
2016); reproduced by permission of CIRIA)
Abstraction permission Discharge permission
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Governing regulations: The Water Environment Discharge to surface water or groundwater:

(Controlled Activities) (Scotland) Regulations 2011
(as amended) (SEPA) regulated under The Water Environment
(Controlled Activities) (Scotland) Regulations 2011
Dewatering abstractions that comply with General (as amended).
Binding Rule 15 (GBR15) require no notification to
SEPA provided that GBR15 is complied with. The No requirement to notify SEPA for discharge of
requirements of GBR15 can be summarised as: uncontaminated groundwater abstracted directly
• In geological strata where groundwater flow from a dewatering system without contact with
rates are low (e.g. silts, days, low permeability any other drainage run-off. This only applies to
bedrock), groundwater may only be abstracted uncontaminated groundwater.
for less than 180 consecutive days.
For contaminated discharges:
• In geological strata where groundwater flow is
high (e.g. sands and gravels and sandstones) • Discharge rate < 10 m3/day: registration with
groundwater may only be abstracted for a SEPA required.
total of five separate days, in any 180 • Discharge rate 10 m3/day to 100 m3/day:
consecutive day period. simple licence required.
• Groundwater must not be abstracted within • Discharge rate > 100: complex licence
250 m of a wetland or within 250 m of any required.
(non-dewatering) abstraction
Discharge to sewer:
• All reasonable steps must be taken to ensure
that the quantity of sediment in the abstracted
water is minimal. Trade Effluent Consent required (from Scottish
Water).
• Discharge of the abstracted water must be via
a surface water drainage system authorised by
SEPA or Scottish Water (as appropriate).

Dewatering abstractions that do not comply with

GBR15 are subject to the following requirements:
• Flow rate < 10 m3/day: compliance with
General Binding Rule 2 (GBR2) is required. No
requirement to notify SEPA provided that
GBR2 is complied with.
• Flow rate 10 m3/day to 50 m3/day: registration
with SEPA required.
• Flow rate 50 m3/day to 2000 m3/day: simple
licence required.
• Flow rate >2000 m3/day, or boreholes greater
than 200 m depth: complex licence required.

Note: the flow rate quoted for the different levels

of licensing is the total dewatering flow rate from
the site or project, not the flow rate from
individual sumps, pumps, or wells.

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 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Table 9 Regulatory permissions for delivering abstraction and discharge for Northern Ireland
Appendix B: Key legislation

Environment Agency (NIEA), Northern Ireland (source Groundwater control: design and practice (Preene
et al., 2016); reproduced by permission of CIRIA)
Abstraction permission Discharge permission

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Governing regulations: Water Abstraction and Discharge to surface water or groundwater:
Impoundment (Licensing) Regulations (Northern
Ireland) 2006 Trade effluent and site drainage discharge consent
• Flow rate < 10 m3/day:compliance with required under the Water (Northern Ireland) Order
permitted controlled activities (PCA) is 1999 (NIEA)
required. No requirement to notify NIEA Discharge to sewer:
provided that PCAs are complied with.
• Flow rate 10 m3/day to 20 m3/day: compliance Trade Effluent Consent required (from Northern
with PCAs is required. NIEA must be notified. Ireland Water).
• Flow rate 20 m3/day to 100 m3/day: simple
licence required.
• Flow rate > 100 m3/day: complex licence
required.

Note: the flow rate quoted for the different levels

of licensing is the total dewatering flow rate from
the site or project, not the flow rate from
individual sumps, pumps, or wells.

Coal Authority permissions

Those wishing to gain access to abandoned coal mine workings for the purpose of
extracting heat from minewater will require the permission of the owner of the coal
mine workings. In virtually all circumstances in England, Scotland and Wales (but not
Northern Ireland), the owner will be the Coal Authority and will issue a Minewater
Heat Recovery Access Agreement.

Water industry legislation

Devolved water legislation means separate water industry acts, orders and
regulations apply across the UK. Early consultation with the local water supplier is
recommended to avoid late changes to design, installation and abortive/rectification
costs.

Water industry Acts and Orders

These are:

—— England and Wales: the Water Industry Act 1991 (as amended)

—— Northern Ireland: The Water and Sewerage Services (Northern Ireland) Order
2006 (as amended)

—— Scotland: the Water (Scotland) Act 1980 (as amended).

The provisions within these Acts and Orders cover water company infrastructure
within the highway and other areas to ensure they are able to maintain a reliable
wholesome supply and ensure they have sufficient access to their assets.

Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations and Byelaws

These are:

—— England and Wales: The Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999

124 —— Scotland: The Water Supply (Water Fittings) (Scotland) Byelaws 2014
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

—— Northern Ireland: The Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations (Northern

Appendix B: Key legislation

Ireland) 2009.

The Water Fittings Regulations and Byelaws play an important role in protecting
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public health, safeguarding water supplies and promoting the efficient use of water
within customers’ premises. They apply to water supplied by the water undertaker
from the point where water enters the property’s underground pipe (usually at the
stop tap at the property boundary), to where the water is used in plumbing systems,
water fittings and water-using appliances, such as washing, cooking, central heating
and sanitary purposes.

There are a number of interface points where the regulations and byelaws need to be
followed, the supply of water make-up at the energy centre, the co-ordination of a
buried heat network with water infrastructure and the supply of domestic hot water
services within buildings. Additionally, advanced notification is a requirement and it is
recommended this is done at an early stage.

Building Regulations

For England and Wales, Part L (2013) of the Building Regulations 2010 (as amended)
deals with the conservation of fuel and power in domestic and commercial buildings.
For Scotland, the equivalent is Part F of the Building (Scotland) Regulations 2004 (as
amended). For Northern Ireland, the equivalent is Section 6 of the Building
Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2012 (as amended). The legislation covers new-build
and refurbishment projects.

Under Part L, compliance for dwellings is calculated using the Standard Assessment
Procedure (SAP) taking into account Target Fabric Energy Efficiency (TFEE). The TFEE
standards are not applied to non-dwellings but include the Target Emission Rate
(TER).

In addition to Part L 2013, section 9 of the Domestic Building Services Compliance

Guide (NBS, 2013b; Scottish Government, 2015) deals extensively with heat pumps.
The guide covers ground source, water source and air source heat pumps.

Energy-related Products Directive

Directive 2009/125/EC Regulation 547/2012/EC, on ecodesign requirements for water

pumps, sets minimum efficiency requirements on water pumps set out under the
Ecodesign Directive for energy related products. This regulation mainly addresses
manufacturers of water pumps placing these products on the European market.
However, customers may also be affected and should be aware.

EU and Government schemes and incentives

Renewable Heat Incentive

The Renewable Heat Incentive (RHI) supports the deployment of renewable and
low-carbon heating technologies. The scheme helps to bridge the gap between the
cost of renewable heating systems and the conventional alternatives. Ofgem is
responsible for accrediting applications to the scheme and making payments to
participants (see https://www.ofgem.gov.uk/environmental-programmes).

Microgeneration Certification Scheme

Microgeneration Certification Scheme (MCS) is a nationally recognised quality

assurance scheme, supported by BEIS. MCS certifies microgeneration technologies
used to produce electricity and heat from renewable sources (see https://www.
125
microgenerationcertification.org).
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Energy Technology List (ETL)

Appendix B: Key legislation

The Energy Technology List (ETL) is a register of products that may be eligible for
100% tax relief under the Enhanced Capital Allowance (ECA) scheme for energy
saving technologies. The Carbon Trust manages the list and promotes the ECA

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scheme on behalf of government (see https://www.gov.uk/guidance/energy-
technology-list). Water source (internal water loop only) split and multi-split systems,
including variable refrigerant flow (VRF), are eligible under the scheme.

Climate Change Levy

The Climate Change Levy (CCL) is a tax on energy delivered to non-domestic users in
the UK (See https://www.gov.uk/green-taxes-and-reliefs/climate-change-levy). It is
designed to incentivise energy efficiency and to reduce carbon emissions. Introduced
on 1 April 2001 under the Finance Act 2000, the CCL has formed part of the UK’s
Climate Change Programme.

The levy applies to most business users across industry, commerce, agriculture, public
administration, and other services. Users in the domestic, charitable and transport
sectors are typically exempt.

EU Emissions Trading System (EUETS)

If the Energy Centre has more than 20 MW thermal input, then it will need to be
included within the EUETS (see https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/ets_en). This will
require payments based on the fuel used however there are free allocations for heat
pump systems. An opt-out provision was set by BEIS’s legislation for small emitters
and hospitals in the UK for the Phase 3 of the EUETS.

126
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Appendix C: Useful contacts

Appendix C: Useful contacts
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United Kingdom Coal Authority

200 Lichfield Lane
Department of Business, Energy & Industrial Mansfield
Strategy Nottinghamshire
1 Victoria Street NG18 4RG
London
SW1H 0ET Telephone: 0345 762 6848
Email: thecoalauthority@coal.gov.uk
Telephone: 020 7215 5000 Website: https://www.gov.uk/government/
Email: enquiries@beis.gov.uk organisations/the-coal-authority
Website: www.gov.uk/beis

National Parks UK
Ground Source Heat Pump Association Plas y Ffynnon
39 Dryburgh Road Cambrian Way
London Brecon
SW15 1BN LD3 7HP

Telephone: 0330 2234 302 Email: info@nationalparks.gov.uk

Email: info@gshp.org.uk Website: www.nationalparks.gov.uk
Website: www.gshp.org.uk

Water Regulations Advisory Scheme (WRAS)

Unit 13, Willow Road
Heat Pump Association
Pen-y-Fan Industrial Estate
2 Waltham Court
Crumlin
Milley Lane
Newport
Hare Hatch
Gwent
Reading
NP11 4EG
RG10 9TH
Telephone: 0333 207 9030
Telephone: 0118 940 3416 Email: info@wras.co.uk
Fax: 0118 940 6258 Website: www.wras.co.uk
Email: info@heatpumps.org.uk
Website: www.heatpumps.org.uk

England
Well Drillers Association
Environment Agency
Website: www.welldrillers.org National Customer Contact Centre
PO Box 544
Rotherham
S60 1BY
British Drilling Association
Telephone: 01773 778751 Telephone: 03708 506506
Fax: 01773 782724 Minicom (for the hard of hearing): 03702 422549
Email: office@britishdrillingassociation.co.uk Email: enquiries@environment-agency.gov.uk
Website: www.britishdrillingassociation.co.uk Website: www.gov.uk/government/organisations/
environment-agency

British Geological Survey Natural England

Environmental Science Centre (for access, rights of way, protected areas)
Nicker Hill 4th Floor, Foss House, Kings Pool, 1–2
Keyworth Peasholme Green
Nottingham York
NG12 5GG YO1 7PX

Telephone: 0115 936 3100 Telephone: 0300 060 3900

Fax: 0115 936 3200 Email: enquiries@naturalengland.org.uk
Email: enquiries@bgs.ac.uk Website: www.gov.uk/government/organisations/
127
Website: www.bgs.ac.uk natural-england
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Scotland Geological Survey of Northern Ireland

Appendix C: Useful contacts

Dundonald House
Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA) Upper Newtownards Road
Belfast
Telephone: 03000 99 66 99 BT4 3SB

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Website: www.sepa.org.uk
Telephone: 028 9038 8462
Fax: 028 9038 8461
Email: gsni@detini.gov.uk
Wales Website: https://www.bgs.ac.uk/gsni

Natural Resources Wales (NRW)

c/o Customer Care Centre
Ty Cambria
29 Newport Rd Europe
Cardiff
International Energy Agency
CF24 0TP
31–35 rue de la Fédération
75739 Paris Cedex 15
Telephone: 0300 065 3000
France
Email: enquiries@naturalresourceswales.gov.uk
Website: www.naturalresourceswales.gov.uk
Telephone: +33 1 40 57 65 00
Fax: +33 1 40 57 65 09
Northern Ireland Email: info@iea.org
Northern Ireland Environment Agency (NIEA) Website: www.iea.org
Klondyke Building
Cromac Avenue
Gasworks Business Park European Heat Pump Association (AISBL)
Malone Lower Rue d’Arlon 63–67
Belfast 1040 Brussels
BT7 2JA Belgium
Telephone: 0300 200 7856
Telephone: +32 2 400 10 17
Email: nieainfo@daera-ni.gov.uk
Email: info@ehpa.org
Website: www.daera-ni.gov.uk/northern-ireland-
environment-agency Website: http://www.ehpa.org

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 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Appendix D: Calculating system efficiency

Appendix D: Calculating system efficiency
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Section B1.3 briefly discusses the methodologies used in this Code of Practice for
assessing and comparing the efficiency of heat pump systems, both with each other
and with various fossil fuel installations. These draw on definitions laid out by
SEPEMO (SEasonal PErformance factor and Monitoring for heat pump systems in the
building sector), an EU-project that ran from June 2009 to May 2012 (see http://
sepemo.ehpa.org). It developed a universal methodology for the field measurement
of heat pump systems and calculation of seasonal performance factor (SPF) to reflect
the conditions ‘in real installations’.

SPF is a measure of heat pump system efficiency and can be used to accurately
compare different heat pumps installations across different climates. The main
parameters influencing a heat pump systems performance are:

—— the heat pump unit

—— the quality of installation (design and execution)

—— the type, design and temperature level of the heating system

—— the building energy demand (heat load)

—— user behaviour

—— climatic conditions.

The standardised methodology of measuring the SPF makes it possible to compare

the heat pump system with fossil fuel heating systems such as oil or gas. By this
comparison it is also possible to calculate the CO2 emissions and primary energy
reduction potential from different heat pump systems compared to other heating
systems.

There are various ways that SPF can be established, which use different systems
boundaries (see Table 10 and Figure 51 below). Due to the fact that the units can
operate in heating and/or cooling mode the system boundaries and the SPF
calculation methodology is separated into heating and cooling modes.

For more detail, including example calculations, refer to D4.2./D 2.4. Concept for
evaluation of SPF (version 2.2) (EHPA, 2012).

129
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Table 10 System boundaries for the calculation or measurement of system efficiency (based on EHPA,
Appendix D: Calculating system efficiency

2012)
System boundary Components covered for Notes
stated mode

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SPF1 Heating: heat pump unit only This is similar to CoP (heating) or
EER (cooling) as defined in BS EN
Cooling: cooling unit only 14511, except that CoP is
instantaneous and has to be
quoted with an associated
source and sink temperature
while SPF is a seasonal average.
SPF2 Heating: This level of system boundary
responds to SCOPNET (heating)
• heat pump unit or SEERON (cooling) in prEN
• equipment needed to make 14825.
the source energy available
for the heat pump

Cooling:
• cooling unit
• equipment to dissipate the
heat energy
SPF3 Heating: SPF3 represents the heating/
cooling system and thereby it
• heat pump unit can be used for comparison to
• equipment needed to make conventional heating systems
the source energy available (e.g. oil or gas). For monovalent
• back-up heater systems SPF3 and SPF2 are
identical.
Cooling:
• cooling unit
• equipment needed to
dissipate the heat energy
• all auxiliary drives of the
cooling system
SPF4 Heating: This level corresponds to the
total heating/cooling system
• heat pump unit performance for a building.
• equipment to make the
source energy available
• back-up heater
• all auxiliary drives including
the auxiliary of the heat sink
system

Cooling:
• studied cooling system
• possible additional cooling
systems
Note: Some commentators use the term SPF5 to indicate system efficiency, which is the total efficiency
of the whole heat pump circuit including all emitters. To the authors’ understanding, this boundary is
not defined in SEPEMO and could either stop at heat exchangers or include secondary system circuit
losses.

130
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Appendix D: Calculating system efficiency

SPF H4
SPF H3
SPF H2 Indoor
T
H T
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T
E

Hot T
water Space
E
E tank heating
buffer
H Heat
tank
T T pump H T
H
SPFH1 E

T T H

E H T

Outdoor T

Mandatory sensors Optional sensors

T Temperature sensors T Temperature sensors

E Electricity meter E Electricity meter

H Heat metering H Heat metering

Figure 51 Example schematic of a heating system showing boundaries as described in Table 10 (adapted
from EHPA (2012), Figure 1)

131
Appendix E: Environmental best practice checklist Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Appendix E: Environmental best practice checklist

This publication is supplied by CIBSE for the sole use of the person making the download. The content remains the copyright property of CIBSE
The following table is taken from GSHPA’s Good Practice Guide for Ground Source
Heating and Cooling (2017) and is reproduced by permission of the GSHPA.

Activity Closed loop Open-loop Required by

(operational to (operational)* Environment
prevent pollution Agency
or reduce risk of
liability)*
Siting of scheme (contaminated land,
✔ ✔ ✔
source protection zones, etc.)
Determine environmental impact of
✔ ✔ ✔
scheme
Assessment of geological conditions
✔† ✔ ✔
(multiple layers, artesian conditions)
Ensure pipework integrity to prevent
✔
leaks
Pressure testing of scheme ✔
Type of thermal transfer fluid to be used ✔
Operational monitoring of pressure in
✔
loop
Development of care and maintenance
✔ ✔
and emergency plan
Monitoring volumes abstracted and
✔ ✔
discharged
Monitoring of temperatures ✔ ✔ ✔
Testing recharge well ✔
Test pumping to determine quality and
✔ ✔
quantity of water available
Determine the potential risk of flooding,
impact on third party assets (subsistence/ ✔
movement)
Determine long term sustainability of
scheme (will include testing and possibly ✔ ✔
thermal modelling)
* To ensure the system is operating efficiently (for owners’ and operators’ own information)
† If a vertical scheme

132
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Appendix F: References and further reading

Appendix F: References and further reading
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References
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Banks D, Athresh A, Al-Habaibeh A and Burnside N (2017) ‘Water from abandoned mines as a heat
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BSI (2015c) BS 8558: 2015: Guide to the design, installation, testing and maintenance of services
Appendix F: References and further reading

supplying water for domestic use within buildings and their curtilages. Complementary guidance to BS
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(London: British Standards Institution)

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energy requirements and system efficiencies. Space heating generation systems, heat pump systems,
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BSI (2017b) BS EN 12831-1: 2017: Energy performance of buildings. Method for calculation of the
design heat load. Space heating load, Module M3-3 (London: British Standards Institution)

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CIBSE (2003) Commissioning management CIBSE Commissioning Code M (London: Chartered Institution

Appendix F: References and further reading

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Services Engineers)
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CIBSE (2008) Energy benchmarks CIBSE TM46 (London: Chartered Institution of Building Services
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CIBSE (2010) Non-domestic hot water heating systems CIBSE AM14 (London: Chartered Institution of
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CIBSE (2012) Energy efficiency in buildings CIBSE Guide F (London: Chartered Institution of Building
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CIBSE (2013a) Evaluating operational energy performance of buildings at the design stage CIBSE TM54
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CIBSE (2013b) Minimising the risk of Legionnaires’ disease CIBSE TM13 (London: Chartered Institution of
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CIBSE (2013c) Embodied carbon and building services CIBSE Research Report 9 (London: Chartered
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CIBSE (2014a) Maintenance engineering and management CIBSE Guide M (London: Chartered Institution
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CIBSE (2015) Environmental design CIBSE Guide A (London: Chartered Institution of Building Services
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CIBSE (2016) Surface water source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK CIBSE CP2 (London:
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HSE (2014a) Avoiding danger from underground services HSG47 (3rd edn) (Bootle: Health and Safety
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 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Additional references

Appendix F: References and further reading

Andersson O (2011) Well problems and maintenance in McCorry M and Jones G. Ll. (eds) Geotrainet
Training Manual for Drillers of Shallow Geothermal Systems (Brussels: Geotrainet, European Federation
of Geologists) (available at http://geotrainet.eu/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Drillers-Manual-
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Final-V2-10.11.pdf) (accessed 23.04.19)

Banks D, Fraga Pumar A and Watson I (2009) ‘The operational performance of Scottish minewater-based
ground source heat pump systems’ Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology 42 (3)
347–357.

Bell RA, Darling WG, Ward RS, Basava–Reddi L, Halwa L, Manamsa K and Ó Dochartaigh BE (2017) ‘A
baseline survey of dissolved methane in aquifers of Great Britain’ Science of the Total Environment
601–602 1803–1813 (December 2017) (available at https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0048969717312998?via%3Dihub) (accessed 23.04.19)

BGS (online) Geology of Britain viewer (London: British Geological Society) (http://mapapps.bgs.ac.uk/
geologyofbritain/home.html) (accessed 23.04.19)

BGS (online) Open-loop Ground Source Heat Pump viability screening map (England and Wales) — WMS
(London: British Geological Society) (http://www.bgs.ac.uk/data/services/gshpwms.html) (accessed
23.04.19)

BGS (online) Web Map Services (WMS) (London: British Geological Society) (http://www.bgs.ac.uk/data/
services/wms.html) (accessed 23.04.19)

BGS (online) Borehole scans (London: British Geological Society) (http://www.bgs.ac.uk/data/

boreholescans/home.html) (accessed 23.04.19)

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137
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Appendix F: References and further reading

on the Minewater Project and the experiences at pilot locations in Midlothian and Heerlen (Heerlen:
Minewater Project) (available at http://www.skrconline.net/content/images/stories/documents/mine_
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Misstear B, Banks D and Clark L (2006) Water wells and boreholes (Chichester: Wiley) ISBN: 978-0-470-
84989-7

O’Neill ZD, Spitler JD and Rees SJ (2006) ‘Performance Analysis of Standing Column Well Ground Heat
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O’Neill ZD, Spitler JD and Rees SJ (date unknown) ‘Modeling of Standing Column Wells in Ground Source
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Stockton College, New Jersey

Orio CD, Johnson CN, Rees SJ, Chiasson A, Deng Z and Spitler JD (2005) ‘A Survey of Standing Column
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Orio CD (2010) Construction of standing column wells (Hampstead NH: Water Energy Distributors)

Paksoy HÖ, Snijders A, Stiles L (2009) ‘State-of-the-art review of aquifer thermal energy storage systems
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Standing Column Well Performance’ ASHRAE Transactions 110 (1) 3–13

REHVA (date unknown) Low temperature heating and high temperature cooling Guidebook No 7
(Brussels: REHVA)

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gov/ds/2005/156/pdf/WV_Data_Series156.pdf) (accessed 23.04.19)

WRAS (2000) Water Regulations Guide (Gwent: Water Regulations Advisory Scheme)

WRAS (online) Water Fittings and Materials Directory (Gwent: Water Regulations Advisory Scheme)
(www.wras.co.uk/approvals_directory) (accessed 23.04.19)

Young B, Shiret A, Hayton J and Griffiths W (2013) Design of low temperature domestic heating systems
BRE Trust Report FB 59 (Garston: BRE)

Zero Carbon Hub (2014) Closing the Gap Between Design and As Built Performance (London: Zero
Carbon Hub) (available at http://www.zerocarbonhub.org/sites/default/files/resources/reports/Closing_
the_Gap_Between_Design_and_As-Built_Performance-Evidence_Review_Report_0.pdf) (accessed
23.04.19)

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 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Appendix F: References and further reading

Further reading
This publication is supplied by CIBSE for the sole use of the person making the download. The content remains the copyright property of CIBSE

Standards
Standard number Title Notes
(listed in order of
standard number)
British (BS), European (EN) and International (ISO) Standards
BS EN 253:2009 District heating pipes. Preinsulated
+A1:2015 bonded pipe systems for directly
buried hot water networks. Pipe
assembly of steel service pipe,
polyurethane thermal insulation and
outer casing of polyethylene
BS EN 378-4:2016 Refrigerating systems and heat
pumps. Safety and environmental
requirements. Operation,
maintenance, repair and recovery
BS EN 805:2000 Water supply. Requirements for
systems and components outside
buildings
BS EN 806-3:2006 Specifications for installations inside
buildings conveying water for human
consumption. Pipe sizing. Simplified
method
BS EN 806-4:2010 Specifications for installations inside
buildings conveying water for human
consumption. Installation
BS EN 1434-1:2015 Thermal energy meters. General
+A1:2018 requirements
BS 5422:2009 Method for specifying thermal
insulating materials for pipes, tanks,
vessels, ductwork and equipment
operating within the temperature
range -40 °C to +700 °C
BS 8558:2015 Guide to the design, installation,
testing and maintenance of services
supplying water for domestic use
within buildings and their curtilages.
Complementary guidance to BS EN
806
BS EN ISO 9001:2015 Quality management systems.
Requirements
BS EN 12828:2012 Heating systems in buildings. Design
+A1:2014 for water-based heating systems
BS ISO 13612-2:2014 Heating and cooling systems in
buildings. Method for calculation of
the system performance and system
design for heat pump systems.
Energy calculation
BS EN ISO 14001:2015 Environmental management systems. Certification for environmental
Requirements with guidance for use management
BS EN ISO 14044:2006 Environmental management. Life
+A1:2018 cycle assessment. Requirements and
guidelines
Table continues

139
Appendix F: References and further reading Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Standard number Title Notes

(listed in order of
standard number)
BS EN 15316-4-8:2017 Energy performance of buildings.

This publication is supplied by CIBSE for the sole use of the person making the download. The content remains the copyright property of CIBSE
Method for calculation of system
energy requirements and system
efficiencies. Space heating
generation systems, air heating and
overhead radiant heating systems,
including stoves (local), Module
M3-8-8
BS EN 15450:2007 Heating systems in buildings. Design
of heat pump heating systems
BS EN 15632-2:2010 District heating pipes. Pre-insulated
+A1:2014 flexible pipe systems. Bonded plastic
service pipes. Requirements and test
methods
BS EN 15632-4:2009 District heating pipes. Pre-insulated
flexible pipe systems. Non bonded
system with plastic service pipes;
requirements and test methods
BS EN 15698-1:2009 District heating pipes. Preinsulated
bonded twin pipe systems for directly
buried hot water networks. Twin pipe
assembly of steel service pipe,
polyurethane thermal insulation and
outer casing of polyethylene
BS EN 15804:2012 Sustainability of construction works.
+A1:2013 Environmental product declarations.
Core rules for the product category
of construction products
BS EN 15978:2011 Sustainability of construction works.
Assessment of environmental
performance of buildings. Calculation
method
BS EN ISO/IEC 17025: General requirements for the
2017 competence of testing and
calibration laboratories
BS ISO 31000:2018 Risk management. Guidelines Certification for risk management
BS ISO 45001:2018 Occupational health and safety Certification for occupational safety
management systems. Requirements
with guidance for use
BS EN 50598-2:2014 Ecodesign for power drive systems, Defines IE (international efficiency)
+A1:2016 motor starters, power electronics & classes for variable speed drives. To
their driven applications. Energy be incorporated in the ErP as part of
efficiency indicators for power drive the Extended Product Approach.
systems and motor starters
BS ISO 55000:2014 Asset management. Overview,
principles and terminology
Danish Standard
DS 439:2009 Code of Practice for domestic water
supply installations
Association of German Engineers (VDI) Standard
VDI 4640 Blatt 2 Thermal use of the underground
— Ground source heat pump systems
BRE Standard
BES 6001 BRE Environmental & Sustainability BRE standard for responsible sourcing
Standard — Framework Standard for
Responsible Sourcing

140
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Guidance

Appendix F: References and further reading

Organisation Publications
American Society of Heating, Procedures for Commercial Building Energy Audits (2nd
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning edition) (2011)
This publication is supplied by CIBSE for the sole use of the person making the download. The content remains the copyright property of CIBSE

Engineers (ASHRAE)
Building Engineering Services Guide to the Use of Plastic Pipework (TR11) (2006)
Association (BESA)
Building Research Establishment (BRE) Design of low-temperature domestic heating systems: A
guide for system designers and installers (FB59) (2013)

Making the most of renewable energy systems (DG531)

(2014)

Green Guide to Specification (4th edition) (BR390) (2009)

Building Services Research and Environmental code of practice for buildings and their
Information Association (BSRIA) services (2nd edition) (COP6/99) (1999)

Heat Pumps — A guidance document for designers

(BG7/2009) (2009)

Heating controls in large spaces (TN23/97) (1997)

Illustrated Guide to Renewable Technologies (BG1/2008)

(2008)

Embodied Carbon — the Inventory of Carbon and Energy

(ICE) (BG10/2011) (2011)

Screeds with underfloor heating — Guidance for a defect-

free interface (IEP11/2003) (2003)

Sustainable housing — options for independent energy,

water supply and sewerage (AG26/97) (1997)

Underfloor Heating and Cooling (BG4/2011) (2011)

Water Treatment for Closed Heating and Cooling Systems

(BG 50/2013) (2013)

Life Cycle Assessment — an introduction (BG 52/2013)

(2013)
Domestic Building Services Panel Underfloor Heating: Design and Installation Guide (2016)

Domestic Heating Design Guide (2017)

Chartered Institution of Building Services Guide A: Environmental design (2007)
Engineers (CIBSE)
Guide B: Heating, ventilating, air conditioning and
refrigeration (4 volumes) (2016)

Guide C: Reference data (2007)

Guide F: Energy efficiency in buildings (2012)

Guide L: Sustainability (in preparation)

Building performance modelling (2nd edition) (AM11)

(2015)

Non-domestic hot water heating systems (AM14) (2010)

Sustainable low energy cooling: an overview (KS03) (2005)

How to design a heating system (KS08) (2006)

Energy efficient heating: an overview (KS14) (2009)

Table continues
141
Appendix F: References and further reading Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Organisation Publications
Chartered Institution of Building Services Energy assessment and reporting methodology (2nd
Engineers (CIBSE) (continued) edition) (TM22) (2006)

This publication is supplied by CIBSE for the sole use of the person making the download. The content remains the copyright property of CIBSE
Resource efficiency of building services (TM56) (2013)

Building log book toolkit (2nd edition) (TM31) (2006)

Research Report 9: Embodied carbon and building services

(2013) (https://www.cibse.org/knowledge/knowledge-
items/detail?id=a0q20000008I754AAC)
The Coal Authority Guidance notes and application form for minewater heat
recovery access agreements (2016) (https://assets.
publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/
uploads/attachment_data/file/569600/Guidance_Notes_
and_Application_Form_for_Minewater_Heat_Recovery_
Access_Agreements_2016.pdf)
CIRIA Environmental good practice on site guide (4th edition)
(C741D) (2015)

Environmental handbook for building and civil engineering

projects. Part 1: design and specification (C512) (2000)

Guide to sustainable procurement in construction (C695)

(2011)
Environment Agency/Department for Groundwater Protection [online] (https://www.gov.uk/
Environment, Food & Rural Affairs government/collections/groundwater-protection)

Owning a watercourse [online] (https://www.gov.uk/

guidance/owning-a-watercourse)
European Commission Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of
Chemicals (REACH) Regulation (EC 1907/2006)

Classification, Labelling and Packaging of substances and

mixtures (CLP) Regulation (CE 1272/2008)

Directive on establishing a framework for Community

action in the field of water policy (2000/60/EC)

Measuring instruments directive (MID) (2014/32/EU)

Directive on the protection of groundwater against

pollution and deterioration (2006/118/EC)
European Heat Pump Association (EHPA)/ Heat Pump Implementation Scenarios until 2030 (2016)
Ecofys (https://www.ehpa.org/fileadmin/red/03._Media/03.02_
Studies_and_reports/Heat_Pump_Implementation_
Scenarios.pdf)
Greater London Authority (GLA) Sustainable Design and Construction: Supplementary
Planning Guidance (2014) (https://www.london.gov.uk/
sites/default/files/osd34_sustainable_design_construction_
spg.pdf)
Ground Source Heat Pump Association Good practice guide for ground source heating and cooling
(GSHPA) (version 2) (2017)
Health and Safety Executive (HSE) Controlling noise at work (L108) (2012) (http://www.hse.
gov.uk/pubns/books/l108.htm)

Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations

2002. Approved Code of Practrice and guidance (6th
edition) (ACOP L5) (2013) (http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/
books/l5.htm)

Dangerous substances and explosive atmospheres.

Dangerous Substances and Explosive Atmospheres
Regulations 2002. Approved Code of Practice and guidance
(2nd edition) (ACOP L138) (2013) (http://www.hse.gov.uk/
pubns/books/l138.htm)
Table continues
142
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Appendix F: References and further reading

Organisation Publications
Health and Safety Executive (HSE) Electricity at work: Safe working practices (3rd edition)
(continued) (HSG 85) (2013) (http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/books/
hsg85.htm)
This publication is supplied by CIBSE for the sole use of the person making the download. The content remains the copyright property of CIBSE

Reporting accidents and incidents at work. A brief guide to

the Reporting of of Injuries Diseases and Dangerous
Occurrence Regulations 1995 (RIDDOR) (INDG453) (2013)
(http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg453.htm)

Safe work in confined spaces. Confined Spaces Regulations

1997. Approved Code of Practice, Regulations and
guidance (ACOP L101) (2014) (http://www.hse.gov.uk/
pubns/books/l101.htm)

Managing Health and Safety in Construction. Construction

(Design and Management) Regulations 2015. Guidance on
Regulations (L135) (2015) (http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/
books/l153.htm)

Personal protective equipment at work (3rd edition) (L25)

(2015) (http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/books/l25.htm)

Manual handling. Manual Handling Operations Regulations

1992. Guidance on Regulations (ACOP L23) (2016) (http://
www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/books/l23.htm)

EH40/2005 Workplace exposure limits. Containing the list

of workplace exposure limits for use with the Control of
Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 2002 (as
amended) (EH40/2005) (2018) (http://www.hse.gov.uk/
pubns/books/eh40.htm)

Managing for health and safety (HSG65) (2013) (http://

www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/books/hsg65.htm)

Safety of pressure systems. Pressure Systems Safety

Regulations 2000. Approved Code of Practice and guidance
on Regulations (ACOP L122) (2014) (http://www.hse.gov.
uk/pubns/books/l122.htm)

Safe use of work equipment. Provision and Use of Work

Equipment Regulations 1998. Approved Code of Practice
and guidance (ACOP L22) (2014, amended 2018) (http://
www.hse.gov.uk/work-equipment-machinery/puwer.htm)

Working at height. A brief guide (INDG401) (2014) (http://

www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg401.pdf)

Workplace health, safety and welfare. Workplace (Health,

Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1992. Approved Code of
Practice and guidance (ACOP L24) (2014, amended 2018)
(http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/books/l22.htm)

Legionnaires’ disease: Technical guidance (HSG274) (2014)

[3 parts] (http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/books/hsg274.htm)
HM Government/NBS Domestic Building Services Compliance Guide (2013 edition
incorporating 2018 amendments) (https://www.gov.uk/
government/publications/conservation-of-fuel-and-power-
approved-document-l)

Non-Domestic Building Services Compliance Guide (2013

edition) (https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/
conservation-of-fuel-and-power-approved-document-l)
Institution of Engineering and Code of Practice for Electrical Safety Management (2013)
Technology (IET)
Table continues

143
Index Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Organisation Publications
Office of Gas and Electricity Markets Non-Domestic Renewable Heat Incentive. Guidance Volume
(Ofgem) One: Eligibility and How to Apply (Version 5) (2015)
(https://www.ofgem.gov.uk/sites/default/files/docs/2015/10/

This publication is supplied by CIBSE for the sole use of the person making the download. The content remains the copyright property of CIBSE
guidance_volume_1_v5_publish_0.pdf)

Non-Domestic Renewable Heat Incentive.. Guidance

Volume Two: Ongoing Obligations and Payments (Version
7) (2016) (https://www.ofgem.gov.uk/ofgem-
publications/89240/guidancevolume2v7finalmarch2016-
pdf)

Non-Domestic Renewable Heat Incentive. Metering

Placement Examples (Version 1) (2014) (https://www.
ofgem.gov.uk/publications-and-updates/renewable-heat-
incentive-guidance-non-domestic-scheme-metering-
placement-examples)
Scottish Government Building Standards technical handbook 2017: non-
domestic buildings. Section 3: Environment and Section 6:
Energy (2017) (https://www.gov.scot/publications/building-
standards-2017-non-domestic)

Building Standards technical handbook 2017: domestic

buildings. Section 3: Environment and Section 6: Energy
(2017) (https://www.gov.scot/publications/building-
standards-2017-domestic)
Scottish Environmental Protection Supporting Guidance (WAT-SG-62): SEPA’s requirements for
Agency (SEPA) activities related to geothermal energy (https://www.sepa.
org.uk/media/219751/sepa-s-requirements-for-activities-
related-to-geothermal-energy.pdf)
Swedish District Heating Association District Heating Substations Technical Regulation F101
(https://www.energiforetagen.se/globalassets/
energiforetagen/det-erbjuder-vi/publikationer/f101-district-
heating-substations-design-and-installation.pdf)

144
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Index
Index
This publication is supplied by CIBSE for the sole use of the person making the download. The content remains the copyright property of CIBSE

Note: page numbers in Caphouse Mining Museum, data collection 88–90, 103
italics refer to figures and Yorkshire 30 see also monitoring
illustrations; page carbon savings 55, 73, 87 decommissioning 113–116
numbers in bold refer to check valves 28, 35 delta-T 7, 61, 66, 84, 118
tables. client responsibilities 54 demand estimation 19, 55,
climate change impacts 73 63–64, 78–80
climate change legislation 2, 4 design 18–21, 75–92
absorption heat pumps 14, 15
Climate Change Levy (CCL) 126 design data 76
abstraction permission 122–
clogging 27, 27, 110 ‘dipole’ 35
124
see also incrustation discharge permissions 95, 98,
abstraction wells 27–28, 28
closed loop source side network 114, 122–124
design 81–82
(SSN) 39 Distribution Network Operators
with discharge to surface
closed-loop systems 29, 37, (DNOs) 19, 61
water or sewer 36
118 district heating, see heat
multiple 32, 33, 33, 62
Coal Authority permissions 60, networks (load-side)
open-loop doublet systems 83, 124 doublet pairs 35
32–36, 34
coefficient of performance drawdown 28, 37, 119
standing column wells
(CoP) 7, 20, 20, 22, 118 dynamic simulation model
(SCWs) 36–38, 37
coefficient of system (DSM) 119
yield 28, 59–60, 76–77, 101
performance (CoSP) 118
access for maintenance 78, 86
commissioning 99–105 economic benefit 4
adsorption heat pumps 15, 15
heat pump and immediate eductor pipe (porter shroud)
alarms 110 supply side equipment 37, 38
annual heating and cooling 102
demand, see seasonal electrical energy consumption,
management plan 100–101 see parasitic energy
heating and cooling
source side of heat pump loads
demand
101–102 electrical supply 61, 62
aquifer thermal energy storage
complementary technologies grid carbon intensity
(ATES) 14, 32, 48–50
42–43 reduction 2, 55, 72
aquifers 24–27
cone of depression 28
investigation 58–59 renewable systems 87
cone of uplift 35
thermal breakthrough 33, specification 85
34 Construction (Design and
embodied carbon 87, 94
Management) (CDM)
vertically separate 34 emissions monitoring 111
Regulations 2015 77
yield 28, 59–60, 76–77 energy assessment tools 64
construction and installation
artesian boreholes 25, 116 93–98 energy conservation 125
‘consumptive’ systems 34, 36 energy consumption 19–20,
backup systems 42–43, 86 contaminated groundwater 26, 21, 66, 70
benchmarks for demand 64 29, 81 see also demand estimation
bivalent systems 67, 68 contamination prevention 86, energy efficiency ratio (EER)
bleed 33, 36–37, 37, 118 94, 97–98, 114 23, 23, 119
boreholes 27–28 Control of Substances Energy Technology List (ETL)
decommissioning 115–116 Hazardous to Health 126
depth 36, 37 Regulations 2002 Energy-related Products
lining 94 (COSHH) 78, 121 Directive 125
spacing and positioning 33, control strategy 43, 67, 68–69, environmental benefit/impact
35–36, 62 70 4, 7
British Standards 9, 139–140 cooling efficiency metrics 23 assessment 35, 72–73,
buffer tanks 19 corrosion risk 59, 81, 82 86–87
building energy management costs environmental considerations
system (BEMS) 39, 67, estimates 61, 62 83
103, 109, 112 operating 70, 71 best practice checklist 132
Building Regulations 125 see also financial analysis in construction 94
building usage pattern 19 consultations 60, 61
Dangerous Substances and monitoring and reporting
calculated seasonal Explosive Atmospheres 94, 103, 108–109
performance factor Regulations 2002 regulations 94, 109,
145
(cSPF) 22, 23, 118 (DSEAR) 78, 121 121–125
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

Environmental Impact heat pumps (continued) materials sourcing 87

Index

Assessment (EIA) notations 15 see also embodied carbon

Regulations 61, 83, 87, reverse cycle 18, 48, 48, measurement rules 70
121 120 metering 9, 80, 88, 88–90,
EU Emissions Trading System selection 66–67

This publication is supplied by CIBSE for the sole use of the person making the download. The content remains the copyright property of CIBSE
103, 131
(EUETS) 126 sizing 19 see also data collection
European Standards 139–140
specification 84–85 Microgeneration Certification
system performance 21, Scheme (MCS) 4, 125
feasibility stage 57–74 22–23 mine water 29–31
F-gas regulations 109, 114, types 14–15 Coal Authority permissions
121
heat transfer fluid 119 60, 83, 124
financial analysis 71–72, 91–92
Heerlen, the Netherlands, monitoring 111–112
financial incentives 125–126
mine water project 31 environmental 109, 111
flow and return temperatures,
hybrid technologies 39–40 operational performance
see operating temperatures
hydraulic system interface 88–90, 103
flow rates 65, 101, 102
85–86 water quality 87, 89, 103
permissions 122, 123, 124
see also metering
fouling 81, 98
impurities, see contaminated Monitoring Certification
see also clogging
groundwater Scheme (MCERTS) 111
free cooling and heating
incrustation 27, 59, 81, 82, multiple abstraction wells 32,
44–47, 119
110 33, 33, 62
information exchanges 7 multivalent/multivector systems
geological considerations
information sources 127–128, 42–43, 66, 67, 68–69
24–25, 55, 58
141–144
glossary 118–120
injection dip tube 35 New York, St. Patrick’s
groundwater sources 24–31
injection water level (IWL) 35 Cathedral 38, 39
abstraction/discharge
permissions 60–61, injection wells ‘non-consumptive’ systems 32,
83–84, 122–124 design 81–82 35
contaminated 26, 29, 81 open-loop doublet systems
depth below surface 36, 37 32–36, 34 objectives 7, 9
energy potential 59, 81 standing column wells One New Change, London 39,
feasibility studies 58–60 36–38, 37, 38, 39 40
from flooded mines and injection zone screen 35 operating costs 70, 71
quarries 29–31 installation 96–98 operating flow rates 65, 101,
geological considerations instrumentation 9, 70, 71 102
24–25, 55, 58 see also data collection operating pressure 82, 96–97
investigation 58–59, 80–81 International (ISO) Standards operating temperatures 18, 61,
key variables 26 139–140 65–66, 84
measured UK temperatures see also delta-T; heat
25, 25 distribution
key support tasks 7
testing 80–81 temperatures
see also aquifers; water operational performance 21,
Legionella control 65, 78, 108 21, 22–23
wells
legislation 121–126 monitoring 88–90, 103
guidance 141–144
climate change 2, 4 targets 55
see also regulatory see also coefficient of
handover 104–105
requirements performance (CoP)
hazardous substances 78, 108,
Leptospirosis (Weil’s disease) operations and maintenance
121
95 (O&M) 70–71, 107–112
health and safety 77–78,
licences, see permissions environmental
95–96, 108, 121
life cycle assessment (LCA) 72, considerations 108–109
heat distribution temperatures
73, 87 health and safety 108
7, 14, 18, 66
life cycle costs 55, 71 maintenance schedule
heat emitters 18, 66
heat exchangers 16, 29, 31, 32, load diversity 42 110–111
85–86, 119 load estimation 19, 55, 63–64, monitoring and reporting
heat meters 79, 89, 103 78–80 111–112
heat networks (load side) 31, O&M manual 104
41–42, 119 maintenance 70–71 organisations 127–128,
heat pumps 14–21 access for 78, 86 141–144
energy consumption 19–20, schedule 110–111
21, 70 see also operations and parasitic energy loads 19–20,
146 key design issues 18–21 maintenance (O&M) 21, 70
 Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

peak demand renewable energy systems 42, Stockholm Arlanda Airport

Index
estimation 19, 55, 63, 64, 87 46–47
78–80 Renewable Heat Incentive (RHI) strategic aims 2–3, 8
see also multivalent/ 125 surface water source heat
multivector systems replacement plant 70, 78 pump (SWSHP) 3, 120
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performance, see operational reporting requirements 111– system performance, see

performance 112 operational performance
permissions 60–61, 83–84 reputational benefit 4 temperatures, see operating
responsibilities 8, 9, 10–11 temperatures
Coal Authority 60, 83, 124
‘rest’ water level 36 terminology 6
water discharges 95, 98,
114, 122–124 retrofit installations 43, 65, 69, test wells 58, 80
72, 79 testing
pipework
reverse cycle heat pump 18, groundwater sources 80–81
discharge 82
48, 48, 120 pressure tests 98
fouling 81, 97–98, 110
RIBA Plan of Work 2013 6, 8 test records 110
materials 82
rights of way 61, 84 see also commissioning
operating pressure 82,
risk assessment 73–74, 108 thermal balance 16–17, 18, 42
96–97
risk registers 73, 90–91 thermal breakthrough 33, 34
pressure and temperature
monitoring 111 roles and responsibilities 8, 9, thermal energy storage 19, 32
routes 61, 62, 96 10–11 thermal smart grid 31
thermal transfer fluid (TTF) 120
sizing 82
safety, see health and safety top-up boilers 43, 86
testing, cleaning and
purging 97–98 sanitary seal 28 Total Efficiency Ratio (TER) 16
welding 97 SCADA (supervisory control and Trafford Town Hall, Manchester
data acquisition) 89, 89, 50
planning permission 61, 83,
109, 112
121
seasonal coefficient of underground services 95, 96
plant rooms 9, 70, 86
performance (SCoP) 22, underground thermal energy
Portcullis House, London 45 23, 120 storage (UTES), 32
porter shroud 37, 38 seasonal energy efficiency ratio
power consumption, see (SEER) 23, 23, 120 vapour compression heat
parasitic energy loads seasonal heating and cooling pumps 14, 15
preparation and briefing stage demand 19, 63–64,
53–56 78–80 Wandsworth Riverside Quarter
pressure, see operating seasonal performance factor 44, 49, 50
pressure (SPF) 22–23, 120, 129, waste disposal 114
pressure drops 18, 96 130, 131
water discharges 36, 95
pressure tests 98 security cap 28
permissions 95, 98, 114,
procurement approach 7 sensitivity analysis 73, 74, 122–124
production zone screen 28 90–91
water industry legislation
project brief 54–56 sensors 9, 89, 103, 131 124–125
project stages 6–7, 8 sewer discharges 36 water level 28, 35, 36, 37, 59,
public relations 95 Shettleston, Glasgow, 103
Glenalmond Street water quality 26–27, 80–81
pump intake screen 28
housing development
pump performance factor (PPF) monitoring 87, 89, 103
30–31
20 water table 36
short cycling 19
pumping water level (PWL) 28 water treatment 62, 98
simultaneous heating and
water wells
cooling loads 16, 16–17,
quality assurance 78, 97 17, 38 discharge to surface water/
quarries, flooded 29–31 sewer 36
site layout and access 62
open-loop doublet systems
sizing
32–36, 34
refrigerants 15, 18, 70, 78, 87 heat pumps 19
rehabilitation 110–111
F-gas regulations 70, 94, pipework 82
spacing, positioning and
109, 114, 121 see also demand estimation design 33, 33, 35–36,
regulatory requirements source side networks (SSNs) 62
borehole logs 27 41–42 standing column wells
environmental 94, 109, specification 54–56 36–38, 37, 38, 39
121–125 standards 9, 139–140 see also abstraction wells;
health and safety 78 standing column wells (SCWs) boreholes; injection
rehabilitation 110–111 36–38, 37 wells
remote monitoring and static water level (SWL) 28 Weil’s disease, see Leptospirosis
147
surveillance 90, 110 step-drawdown test 101, 110 well-heads 81, 96
 This publication is supplied by CIBSE for the sole use of the person making the download. The content remains the copyright property of CIBSE

Open-loop groundwater source heat pumps: Code of Practice for the UK

The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers

Open-loop groundwater
222 Balham High Road, London, SW12 9BS
+44 (0)20 8675 5211
www.cibse.org

source heat pumps:

The Ground Source Heat Pump Association
39 Dryburgh Road, London SW15 1BN
+44 (0) 20 8785 4887
www.gshp.org.uk

The Heat Pump Association

2 Waltham Court, Milley Lane, Hare Hatch, Reading, RG10 9TH
+44 (0)118 940 3416
Code of Practice for the UK
www.heatpumps.org.uk

Harnessing energy for heating and cooling

from water in the ground

ISBN 978-1-912034-44-4

CP3
2019
CP3

9 781912 034444