NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 193

FOREWORD TO THE NDS COMMENTARY

The National Design Specification for Wood Construc- included. Interpretive discussion of how a provision should
®

tion (NDS ) was first issued in 1944 as the National Design be applied is given where users have suggested the intent
®

Specification for Stress-Grade Lumber and Its Fastenings. of a requirement is ambiguous.

In 1977 the title of the Specification was changed to its It is intended that this NDS Commentary be used in
present form. The 2015 edition is the sixteenth edition of conjunction with competent engineering design, accurate
the publication. fabrication, and adequate supervision of construction. AWC C
The Commentary presented herein is intended to does not assume any responsibility for errors or omissions
respond to user needs for background information and in the document, nor for engineering designs, plans, or con-
interpretive discussion of the provisions of the Specifica- struction prepared from it. Particular attention is directed

COMMENTARY
tion. The Commentary follows the same subject matter to Section C2.1.2, relating to the designer’s responsibility
organization as the Specification itself. Discussion of a to make adjustments for particular end uses of structures.
particular provision in the Specification is identified in the Those using this document assume all liability arising
Commentary by the same section or subsection number from its use. The design of engineered structures is within
assigned to that provision in the Specification. The Com- the scope of expertise of licensed engineers, architects, or
mentary on each provision addressed consists of one or other licensed professionals for applications to a particular
more of the following: background, interpretation, and structure.
example. Information presented under background is in- Inquiries, comments, and suggestions from the readers
tended to give the reader an understanding of the data and/ of this document are invited.
or experience on which the provision is based. References American Wood Council
containing more detailed information on the subject are

Errata February 2018

is included

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194 NDS COMMENTARY: GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR STRUCTURAL DESIGN

C1 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
FOR STRUCTURAL DESIGN
C1.1 Scope

C1.1.1 Practice Defined to require design of structural assemblies utilizing metal

connector plates in accordance with principles of engineer-
C1.1.1.1 This Specification defines a national standard ing mechanics such as those addressed in the ANSI/TPI
of practice for the structural design of wood elements and standard for design of metal plate connected wood truss
their connections. construction.
C1.1.1.2 Where the structural performance of as- C1.1.1.5 The data and engineering judgments on which
semblies utilizing panel products are dependent upon the the Specification are founded are based on principles of
capacity of the connections between the materials, such engineering mechanics and satisfactory performance in
as in shear walls or diaphragms, the design provisions service. However, they are not intended to preclude the
for mechanical connections in the Specification may be use of other products or design procedures where it can
used for such assemblies when such application is based be demonstrated that these products or design procedures
on accepted engineering practice or when experience has provide for satisfactory performance in the intended ap-
demonstrated such application provides for satisfactory plication. Other criteria for demonstrating satisfactory
performance in service. performance may be proprietary or specialized design
C1.1.1.3 Requirements for the design of structural standards applicable to a particular component type. The
assemblies utilizing metal connector plates in accordance appropriateness and acceptability of alternate criteria are
with principles of engineering mechanics were moved determined by the designer and the code authority having
from the mechanical connections chapter to NDS 1.1.1.3 jurisdiction.
in the 2012 edition of the Specification in recognition of
the scope of the referenced ANSI/TPI standard for design
of metal plate-connected wood truss construction which C1.1.2 Competent Supervision
includes more than design of the metal connector plates
alone. This relocation was also coordinated with removal There are several areas in which competent supervi-
of metal connector plate requirements from the Specifica- sion should be required such as joint details and placement
tion, such as applicability of adjustment factors and the of fasteners. Special attention should be given to end de-
wet service factor, because they were redundant with those tails of columns and beam-columns to assure that design
in the ANSI/TPI standard. It is the intent of this section assumptions related to load eccentricity are met.

C1.2 General Requirements

C1.2.1 Conformance with C1.2.2 Framing and Bracing

Standards
Unless otherwise specified in the Specification, all ref-
The provisions of this Specification assume confor- erence design values assume that members are adequately
mance with the standards specified. framed, anchored, tied and braced. Adequate bracing and
anchorage of trusses and truss members to assure appro-
priate resistance to lateral loads is particularly important.
Good practice recommendations (142) for installation
between trusses of vertical sway (cross) bracing, continu-
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 195

ous horizontal bottom chord struts and bottom chord cross members should be used during construction to assure such
bracing are given in NDS Appendix A.10. members will withstand wind and temporary construction
In addition to providing adequate permanent bracing loads before adjacent members and cladding materials
and bridging in the structure to resist wind and other rack- required by the design are installed.
ing forces, sufficient temporary bracing of load-carrying

C1.3 Standard as a Whole

C
The provisions of this Specification are intended to be
used together. Unless otherwise noted, pertinent provisions

COMMENTARY: GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR STRUCTURAL DESIGN

from each chapter apply to every other chapter.

C1.4 Design Procedures

The Specification addresses both allowable stress de- C1.4.4 Load Combinations
sign (ASD) and load and resistance factor design (LRFD)
formats for design with wood structural members and their The reduced probability of the simultaneous occur-
connections. In general, design of elements throughout a rence of combinations of various loads on a structure, such
structure will utilize either the ASD or LRFD format; how- as dead, live, wind, snow and earthquake, is recognized
ever, specific requirements to use a single design format for both ASD and LRFD in the model building codes and
for all elements within a structure are not included in this ASCE 7(3). Specific load reductions for ASD or load
Specification. The suitability of mixing formats within a combinations for LRFD apply when multiple transient
structure is the responsibility of the designer. Consider- loads act simultaneously.
ation should be given to building code limitations, where For ASD, some codes provide for a reduction in
available. ASCE 7 – Minimum Design Loads for Buildings design load for wind or earthquake even when both are
and Other Structures (3), referenced in building codes, not considered to act simultaneously. This particular load
limits mixing of design formats to cases where there are reduction is accounted for in such codes by allowing all
changes in materials. materials a 1/3 increase in allowable stress for these load-
ing conditions. Because individual jurisdictions and code
C1.4.1 Loading Assumptions regions may account for load combinations differently, the
building code governing the structural design should be
The design provisions in the Specification assume consulted to determine the proper method.
adequacy of specified design loads. All modifications for load combinations are entirely
separate from adjustments for load duration, CD, or time
effect, λ, which are directly applicable to wood design
C1.4.2 Governed by Codes values (see C2.3.2 and C2.3.7). It should be emphasized
that reduction of design loads to account for the probability
Design loads shall be based on the building code or of simultaneous occurrence of loads and the adjustment of
other recognized minimum design loads such as ASCE wood resistances to account for the effect of the duration
7 - Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for of the applied loads are independent of each other and
Buildings and Other Structures (3). both adjustments are applicable in the design calculation.

C1.4.3 Loads Included

This section identifies types of loads to consider in

design but is not intended to provide a comprehensive list
of required loading considerations.

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196 NDS COMMENTARY: GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR STRUCTURAL DESIGN

C1.5 Specifications and Plans

C1.5.1 Sizes and sale of lumber and panel products has been a source of
confusion to some designers, particularly those unfamiliar
To assure that the building is constructed of members with wood structural design practices. The standard nomi-
with the capacity and stiffness intended by the designer, the nal sizes and the standard net sizes for sawn lumber are
basis of the sizes of wood products given in the plans and established for each product in national product standards
specifications should be clearly referenced in these docu- (152). For proprietary or made-to-order products, special
ments. The use of nominal dimensions in the distribution sizes should be specified.

C1.6 Notation
The system of notation used in the Specification helps with different cases for different adjustment factors. The
to identify the meaning of certain frequently used symbols. symbols “F” and “F'” denote reference and adjusted design
Adjustment factors, identified by the symbol “C”, modify values, respectively; where adjusted design values repre-
reference design values for conditions of use, geometry, sent reference design values multiplied by all applicable
or stability. The subscripts “D”, “F”, “L”, etc., are used to adjustment factors. The symbol "f" indicates the actual or
distinguish between different adjustment factors. In certain induced stress caused by the applied loads. The subscripts
cases, upper and lower case subscripts of the same letter “b”, “t”, “c”, “v”, and “cz” indicate bending, tension
(“D” and “d”) are used to denote two different adjustments parallel to grain, compression parallel to grain, shear, and
(load duration factor and penetration depth factor for split compression perpendicular to grain stress, respectively.
ring and shear plate connections, respectively). There is
no particular significance to the use of the same letter

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 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 197

C2 DESIGN VALUES FOR

STRUCTURAL MEMBERS
C2.1 General
C
C2.1.1 General Requirement The designer has the final responsibility for determin-

COMMENTARY: DESIGN VALUES FOR STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

ing the proper adjustment of design values for specific
The Specification addresses both ASD and LRFD for- loading and end use conditions. Particular attention is
mats for structural design with wood products (see C1.4). required to those uses where two or more extreme condi-
tions of service converge. An example of such a use is
C2.1.2 Responsibility of Designer one where it is known that the full design load will be
to Adjust for Conditions of Use applied continuously and the structural members will be
consistently exposed to water at elevated temperatures. As-
The Specification identifies adjustments to reference sessment of the consequences of a failure of an individual
design values for service conditions generally encountered member in the structure is an integral part of the designer’s
in wood construction. However, this Specification does responsibility of relating design assumptions with design
not address all possible design applications or end use value adjustments appropriate to the end use conditions.
conditions.

C2.2 Reference Design Values

Reference design values used in this Specification and
tabulated in the NDS Supplement are ASD values based
on normal load duration and moisture conditions specified.

C2.3 Adjustment of Reference Design Values

C2.3.1 Applicability of Adjustment lumber, prefabricated wood I-joists, and wood structural
Factors panels. The approach of adjusting a reference value in
accordance with the applicable adjustment factors to
The Specification requires adjustment of reference arrive at either an ASD or LRFD adjusted design value
design values for specific conditions of use, geometry and is illustrated in the following example for sawn lumber
stability. Such modifications are made through application bending stress, Fb:
of adjustment factors. The adjustment factors are cumula-
tive except where indicated otherwise. In addition to the ASD: Fb' = Fb(CD)(CM)(Ct)(CL)(CF)(Cfu)(Ci)(Cr)
adjustment factors given in this section, other adjustments
of reference design values for special conditions of use LRFD: Fb' = Fb(CM)(Ct)(CL)(CF)(Cfu)(Ci)(Cr)(2.54)(0.85)(l)
may be required. Such additional adjustments may include where:
modifications for creep effects, variability in modulus of Fb = Reference bending design value, psi
elasticity, and fire retardant treatment.
CD = Load duration factor applicable for ASD only
Each product chapter of the Specification provides
a unique table to identify the applicability of adjustment (CM)(Ct)(CL)(CF)(Cfu)(Ci)(Cr) = Adjustment factors from NDS
factors for determining design values for sawn lumber, 4.3 and Table 4.3.1
structural glued laminated timber, structural composite
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198 NDS COMMENTARY: DESIGN VALUES FOR STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

2.54 = Format conversion factor, KF, from Table load records available for some of these areas shows that
4.3.1 applicable for LRFD only the duration of the maximum snow load specified in ASCE
0.85 = Resistance factor, f, from Table 4.3.1
7 is much shorter than the two months duration previously
applicable for LRFD only assumed for all snow loads. The Specification provides
for use of a larger snow load adjustment than 1.15 when
l = Time effect factor, applicable for LRFD only information is available on the duration of the design snow
load for a specific area.
C2.3.2 Load Duration Factor, CD Seven Day Loads. Where the minimum roof uniform
(ASD Only) load specified by the applicable building code exceeds the
design snow load for the area and the specific building
C2.3.2.1 Load duration factors (CD) are applicable to design, it is conventional practice to consider this load a
all reference design values except modulus of elasticity construction type load for which a seven day or 1.25 load
and compression perpendicular to grain. Exclusion of duration factor is applicable. If the roof snow load is less
modulus of elasticity from load duration adjustment has than 92 percent of the minimum roof load specified, the
been a provision of the Specification since the first edi- latter will be the limiting of the two load conditions.
tion. Load duration factors are based on the effect of time One Day Loads. Prior to 1987, a one day or 1.33
under load on ultimate load-carrying capacity. Increased factor was used as the load duration adjustment for wind
deflection or deformation is a separate consideration, inde- and earthquake loads. In the current Specification, the
pendent of ultimate strength. Compression perpendicular load duration factor for these loads has been based on a
to grain design values were subject to adjustment for load 10 minute load duration.
duration when such values were based on proportional Ten Minute Loads. The ten minute or 1.6 load dura-
limit test values. For compression perpendicular to grain tion factor is to be used with wind and earthquake loads
design values that are based on a deformation limit, the in the current Specification. For allowable stress design
load duration factor does not apply. (ASD), wind loads in the model building codes and ASCE
7 are maximum loads expected to occur less than once in
Table 2.3.2 Frequently Used Load 50 years and to have durations of from one to 10 seconds.
Duration Factors, CD Peak earthquake loads are known to have cumulative dura-
tions less than 5 minutes rather than the one day duration
Permanent Loads. In addition to construction dead traditionally assigned. The ten minute load duration fac-
loads due to materials, foundation soil loads and con- tor is conservatively estimated as the adjustment for the
centrated loads from equipment designed as part of the cumulative effect of these two load conditions.
structure should be considered long-term loads that will Impact Loads. Loads in this category are considered
be applied continuously or cumulatively for more than ten to be those in which the load duration is one second or less.
years. Special continuous loadings related to the particu- Such a duration is associated with an adjustment factor of
lar purpose or use of the structure, such as water loads in 2.0 based on the general relationship between strength and
cooling towers or heavy machinery in industrial buildings, load duration (see NDS Appendix B). Pressure treatment
also may be associated with durations exceeding ten years. of wood with preservatives or fire retardant chemicals may
Ten Year or Normal Loading. Loads traditionally reduce energy absorbing capacity as measured by work-
characterized as normal are code specified floor loads, to-maximum-load in bending; therefore, use of the 2.0
either uniform live or concentrated, which include fur- load duration factor in these applications is not permitted
niture, furnishings, movable appliances and equipment, (173). Connections or wood structural panels are also not
all types of storage loads, and all people loads. Although permitted to use the 2.0 load duration factor.
maximum human traffic loads may be infrequent and C2.3.2.2 Design of structural members is based on the
of short duration, such as those occurring on balconies, critical combination of loads representing different dura-
exterior walkways and stairways, this type of loading is tions and resistances adjusted for these different durations.
considered normal loading. Note that load duration adjustments are not applicable to
Two Month Loads. A two month load duration adjust- modulus of elasticity (see C2.3.2.1), hence, a member
ment factor of 1.15 was used for all code specified snow subject to buckling should be analyzed for the critical
loads prior to 1986. Maximum snow loads published in load combination after the critical buckling design value
ASCE 7 (3) based on probability of occurrence are signifi- has been calculated.
cantly greater in some high snow regions than the loads C2.3.2.3 Reduction of design loads to account for the
previously used in those areas. Evaluation of annual snow probability of simultaneous occurrence of loads and the
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 199

adjustment of wood resistances to account for the effect of (183). For temperatures over 150°F, permanent decreases
the duration of the applied loads are independent of each in strength are greater for heating in water than in dry air.
other and both adjustments are applicable in the design The use of 150°F as a nominal threshold for the
calculation (see C1.4.4). beginning of permanent strength loss is substantiated by
available test data showing an approximate 10 percent
C2.3.3 Temperature Factor, Ct loss in bending strength (modulus of rupture) for material
exposed for 300 days in water at 150°F and then tested at
Temperature adjustments in the Specification apply room temperature (183). Exposure in air at the same tem-
when structural members are exposed to temperatures be- perature would result in a smaller permanent strength loss. C
tween 100°F and 150°F for extended periods of time, such Cold Temperatures. Adjustments for increasing refer-
as in industrial applications in which structural members ence design values for cooling below normal temperatures
are in close proximity to or in contact with heated fluids are difficult to establish in building design because of the

COMMENTARY: DESIGN VALUES FOR STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

used in manufacturing processes. In general, adjustment of variable nature of low temperature environments. Struc-
reference design values in the Specification for temperature tural members that might be exposed to below freezing
should be considered for applications involving sustained temperatures continuously for up to several months also are
heavy dead or equipment loads, or water immersion, or exposed to normal temperatures during periods of the year
wet or high moisture content service conditions, when when the full design load might be resisted. For special
sustained or frequent extended exposure to elevated tem- applications such as arctic construction or transportation
peratures up to 150°F will occur. of cryogenic materials where the design load is always
Use of lumber or glued-laminated timber members in associated with low temperature environments, data from
applications involving prolonged exposure to temperatures other sources may be used to make appropriate adjustments
over 150°F should be avoided. Where such exposures do of design values (183, 51).
occur, adjustments for both immediate and permanent Elevated Temperatures Encountered in Nor-
strength reductions should be made. Permanent effects mal Service. Temperatures higher than ambient can be
should be based on the cumulative time the members will reached in roof systems as a result of solar radiation. The
be exposed to temperature levels over 150°F during the temperatures reached in such systems are a function of
life of the structure and the strength losses associated with many variables, including hour of day, season of year,
these levels (183). Roof systems and other assemblies sub- cloud cover, wind speed, color of roofing, orientation,
ject to diurnal temperature fluctuations from solar radiation ventilation rate, presence of insulation and thickness of
are not applications that normally require adjustment of sheathing. Measurements of roof system temperatures in
reference design values for temperature. actual buildings (64) show that structural framing members
Reversible Effects at or Below 150°F. The increase in in such roofs seldom if ever reach a temperature of 150°F,
the strength properties of wood when cooled below normal and when such levels are reached the duration is very short
temperatures and the decrease in these properties when it and is confined to the face of the member on which the
is heated up to 150°F are immediate and generally revers- sheathing is attached. Even in the severest of radiation and
ible. When the temperature of the wood returns to normal design conditions, the temperature of structural beams,
temperature levels, it recovers its original properties. In rafters, and truss members in wood roofs generally do not
general, these reversible effects are linear with temperature reach 140°F. Normal temperature environments return as
for a given moisture content (51). The magnitude of the in- the sun sets.
crease or decrease, however, varies with moisture content. The foregoing considerations and successful field
The higher the moisture content, the larger the increase in experience are the basis for the long standing practice of
wood strength properties with decreasing temperature and applying the reference design values tabulated in the Speci-
the larger the decrease in wood strength properties with fication without adjustment for temperature to structural
increasing temperature. wood roof members in systems designed to meet building
Permanent Effects Over 150°F. Prolonged exposure code ventilation requirements. Reference design values
to temperatures over 150°F can cause a permanent loss in also are appropriate for use with wood members directly
strength when cooled and tested at normal temperatures. exposed to solar radiation but otherwise surrounded by
The permanent effect is in addition to the immediate or ambient air, such as members used in bridges, exterior
reversible effect that occurs at the exposure temperature. balconies and stairways, and exterior vertical and horizon-
Permanent losses in strength resulting from exposures tal structural framing.
over 212°F are greater for heating in steam than in water

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200 NDS COMMENTARY: DESIGN VALUES FOR STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

C2.3.4 Fire Retardant Treatment factor, KF, for each material property is tabulated in lieu
of the equation format of KF (i.e., KF = constant/f) used
Fire retardant treatments are proprietary and chemi- in prior editions of the Specification.
cal formulations vary between manufacturers. The fire
retardant treatment manufacturers have established design C2.3.6 Resistance Factor, N (LRFD
values for wood products treated with their commercial Only)
formulations. It should be noted that use of individual
company design value recommendations for fire retardant Specified resistance factors, f, in NDS Table 2.3.6 and
treated wood products is subject to approval of the author- Appendix N, Table N2 are based on resistance factors de-
ity having jurisdiction. fined in ASTM D5457 (17). Resistance factors are assigned
to various wood properties with only one factor assigned
C2.3.5 Format Conversion Factor, to each stress mode (i.e., bending, shear, compression,
Kf (LRFD Only) tension, and stability). In general, the magnitude of the
resistance factor is considered to, in part, reflect relative
Format conversion factors convert reference design variability of wood product properties. Actual differences
values (allowable stress design values based on normal in product variability are accounted for in the derivation
load duration) to LRFD reference resistances as described of reference design values.
in ASTM D5457 (17). Specified format conversion factors,
KF, in NDS Table 2.3.5 and Applicability of Adjustment C2.3.7 Time Effect Factor, λ (LRFD
Factor Tables in Chapters 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 and Ap- Only)
pendix Table N1 are based on similar factors contained
in ASTM D5457. The time effect factor, λ (LRFD counterpart to the
The LRFD reference resistance is a strength level de- ASD load duration factor, CD), varies by load combination
sign value for short term loading conditions. Consequently, and is intended to establish a consistent target reliability
the format conversion factor includes: 1) a conversion index for load scenarios represented by applicable load
factor to adjust an allowable design value to a higher combinations. With the exception of the load combination
strength-level design value, 2) a conversion factor to for dead load only, each load combination can be viewed as
adjust from a 10-year to a 10-minute (short-term) load addressing load scenarios involving peak values of one or
basis, and 3) a conversion factor to adjust for a specified more “primary” loads in combination with other transient
resistance factor, f. loads. Specific time effect factors for various ASCE 7 (3)
The term, LRFD reference resistance, is not spe- load combinations are largely dependent on the magni-
cifically defined or calculated in the Specification but is tude, duration, and variation of the primary load in each
included as part of the LRFD adjusted design value which combination. For example, a time-effect factor of 0.8 is
includes all applicable adjustments to the reference design associated with the load combination 1.2D + 1.6 (Lr or S
value. Because format conversion factors are based on or R) + (L or 0.8W) to account for the duration and varia-
calibrating ASD and LRFD formats for certain reference tion of the primary loads in that combination (roof live,
conditions, they apply only to reference design values in snow, or rain water, or ice loads). The effect of transient
this Specification and should not apply where LRFD ref- loads in a particular load combination or even changes in
erence resistances are determined in accordance with the the load factors within a given combination is considered
reliability normalization factor method in ASTM D5457. to be small relative to the effect of the primary load on the
To be consistent with ASD, which does not adjust load duration response of the wood. Consequently, specific
compression perpendicular to grain stresses for duration of time-effect factors need not change to address load fac-
load and to parallel changes in ASTM D5457, the format tor or load combination changes over time. Footnote 2 of
conversion factor, KF, for compression perpendicular to NDS Table N3 provides clarification that the specific load
grain was changed from 2.08 to 1.67 in the 2012 edition factors shown are for reference only and are intended to
of the Specification and the adjustment for time effect was provide flexibility in assignment of the time effect factor
removed. Also, beginning with the 2012 edition of the in the event of changes to specified load factors.
Specification, the numeric value of the format conversion

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 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 201

C3 DESIGN PROVISIONS AND

EQUATIONS
C3.1 General
C
C3.1.1 Scope symmetrical members and fasteners are used unless the
induced moments are taken into account. A lapped joint

COMMENTARY: DESIGN PROVISIONS AND EQUATIONS

This Chapter provides general design provisions is an example of an unsymmetrical connection where the
for structural wood members and connections. Product- induced bending moments need to be considered.
specific adjustments to these provisions are included in
product Chapters 4 through 9 of the Specification. Spe- C3.1.4 Time Dependent
cific connection design provisions are addressed in NDS Deformations
Chapters 11 through 14.
Consideration of time dependent deformations in built-
C3.1.2 Net Section Area up members should provide for equal inelastic deformation
of the components. One application addressed by this sec-
C3.1.2.1 These provisions direct the designer to take tion is the use of a flange member to strengthen or stiffen
into account the effects of removing material from the a single main member in a truss without increasing the
cross-sectional area. Specific provisions pertaining to size of other members in the same plane (142). Because
notches in bending members are given in NDS 3.2.3. component connections in these built-up systems do not
Provisions for calculation of shear strength in notched provide full composite action, judgment must be used to
bending members are given in NDS 3.4.3. For compres- establish the level of contribution of these components and
sion parallel to grain, NDS 3.6.3 provides for the use of the time dependent effects on these connections. Member
gross section area when the reduced section of a column creep effects should also be considered in making this
does not occur in the critical part of the length that is most assessment.
subject to potential buckling.
C3.1.2.2 To avoid possible misapplication when non- C3.1.5 Composite Construction
uniform patterns are used, the provision requires staggered
or offset fasteners in adjacent rows to be considered in Structural composites of lumber and other materi-
the same critical section if the parallel to grain distance als utilize the characteristics of each to obtain desirable
between them is less than 4 diameters. structural efficiencies and/or extended service life. Tim-
C3.1.2.3 Where the parallel to grain distance between ber-concrete bridge decks, timber-steel flitch beams and
staggered split ring or shear plate connectors is less than or plywood-lumber stress-skin panels and box beams are such
equal to one diameter, they should be considered to occur composites. Proven design procedures for timber-concrete
in the same critical section and used to determine net area. beams and timber-steel members are available in wood
The limit should be applied to the parallel to grain offset engineering handbooks and textbooks (58, 142). Detailed
or stagger of split rings or shear plates in adjacent rows. design and fabrication information for plywood-lumber
structural components are available from APA-The Engi-
C3.1.3 Connections neered Wood Association (106). The American Institute
of Timber Construction provides design information for
Particular attention should be given to the design of composites involving glued laminated timber (140).
joints involving multiple fasteners and to those subject
to moment forces. Only fastener types having the same
general load-slip or stiffness characteristics should be
employed in the same joint (see C11.1.4).
The provisions are intended to ensure each member
in the joint carries its portion of the design load and that
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202 NDS COMMENTARY: DESIGN PROVISIONS AND EQUATIONS

C3.2 Bending Members - General

C3.2.1 Span of Bending Members C3.2.3 Notches

The design span length for simple, continuous, and C3.2.3.1 Notches are a special problem in bending
cantilevered bending members is defined as the clear span members due to the stress concentrations occurring at the
plus one-half the required bearing length at each reaction corners and the difficulty of calculating the effects of shear
to avoid unrealistic moment determinations where supports and perpendicular to grain stresses occurring at such loca-
are wider than the required bearing. tions. These stress concentrations can be reduced by using
gradually tapered rather than square corner notches (181).
C3.2.2 Lateral Distribution of C3.2.3.2 A notch having a depth of up to 1/6 the
Concentrated Load bending member depth and a length up to 1/3 the bending
member depth is assumed to have little practical effect on
Lateral distribution of concentrated loads to adjacent bending member stiffness (184, 181).
parallel bending members can be estimated using accepted
engineering practice (see C15.1).

C3.3 Bending Members - Flexure

C3.3.3 Beam Stability Factor, CL diaphragm can be assumed to provide effective lateral
support. Alternatively, the beam can be braced at points
The beam stability factor, CL, adjusts the reference of bearing and designed as an unbraced member in ac-
bending design value for the effects of lateral-torsional cordance with NDS 3.3.3.
buckling. Lateral-torsional buckling is a limit state where C3.3.3.1 For rectangular members, lateral-torsional
beam deformation includes in-plane deformation, out-of- buckling does not occur where the breadth of the bend-
plane deformation and twisting. The load causing lateral ing member is equal to or greater than the depth and the
instability is called the elastic lateral-torsional buckling load is applied in the plane of the member depth (184,
load and is influenced by many factors such as loading and 60). Note that lateral-torsional buckling does not occur in
support conditions, member cross-section, and unbraced circular members.
length. In the 2012 and prior editions of the Specification, C3.3.3.2 The rules for determining lateral support
the limit state of lateral torsional buckling is addressed us- requirements based on depth to breadth ratios for sawn
ing an effective length format whereby unbraced lengths lumber bending members given in NDS 4.4.1 are alternate
are adjusted to account for load and support conditions provisions to those of NDS 3.3.3. Specific span and load-
that influence the lateral-torsional buckling load. Another ing conditions may be checked to compare the relative
common format uses an equivalent moment factor to ac- restrictiveness of the respective provisions.
count for these conditions. AWC Technical Report 14 (138) C3.3.3.3 When the compression edge of a bending
describes the basis of the current effective length approach member is continuously supported along its length and
used in the NDS and summarizes the equivalent moment bearing points are restrained against rotation and lateral
factor approach and provides a comparison between the displacement, lateral-torsional buckling under loads in-
two approaches. ducing compressive stresses in the supported edge are
It is common to assume buckling is not an issue in de- generally not a concern. However, the possibility of stress
signing load-bearing beams used as headers over openings. reversal, such as that associated with wind loading, should
However, long span header beams of slender cross-sections be considered to assure that the tension side of the bending
demand particular attention to stability issues. An example member under the predominant loading case is adequately
would be dropped garage door headers in which the load is supported to carry any expected compressive forces. Also,
transferred into the beam through a cripple wall that does bending members with large depth to breadth ratios should
not provide lateral support to the beam. In this instance, be braced on the tension edges.
raising the beam in the wall and attaching it directly to the C3.3.3.4 Where load is applied to the compression
top plate which is braced by a horizontal floor or ceiling edge of a bending member using uniformly-spaced pur-
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 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 203

lins that are adequately attached to the compression edge, Formulas given in the footnote for load conditions not
the unsupported length, 𝓁u, of the bending member is the covered by the formulas in the body of the table represent
distance between purlins (61). The bending member must the most limiting formula for the 𝓁ud range from those
also be braced at points of bearing. Consistent with the given for specified load conditions. For more information
intent of NDS 3.3.3.4, the nonmandatory phrase “and/or on the derivation of these formulas, see TR14 (138).
lateral displacement” was removed and does not appear C3.3.3.6 The beam slenderness ratio, RB, is comparable
in 2012 and later editions of the Specification because the to the slenderness ratio for solid columns, 𝓁ed, in terms
requirement to “prevent rotation” at points of bearing is of its effect on bending member design strength.
not optional and prevention of lateral displacement does C3.3.3.7 Limiting the beam slenderness ratio, RB, to C
not necessarily prevent rotation. a maximum value of 50 is a good practice recommenda-
C3.3.3.5 Formulas are provided for determining the tion intended to preclude design of bending members with
effective span length, 𝓁e, from the unsupported length, high buckling potential. This limit parallels the limit on

COMMENTARY: DESIGN PROVISIONS AND EQUATIONS

𝓁u, for different loading and support conditions (138). slenderness ratio for columns, 𝓁ed (60).
The 𝓁e values for small span-to-depth ratios, 𝓁ud < 7 are C3.3.3.8 The beam stability factor equation is appli-
limited to address unrealistically large 𝓁e values that oth- cable to all beam slenderness ratios (RB). This equation
erwise would be calculated for these short, deep bending provides a means of combining the bending design stress
members (60). (Fb*) with the critical buckling design stress (FbE) to es-
The constants in the formulas for effective length in timate an “effective” bending design value. The volume
NDS Table 3.3.3 include a 15 percent increase in 𝓁u to factor, CV, shall be included in the calculation of Fb* when
account for the possibility of imperfect torsional restraint CV is greater than 1.0 which can be the case for SCL per
at lateral supports. The formulas given in the table are ap- Section 8.3.6.
plicable where loads are applied to the compression edge of C3.3.3.10 See C3.9.2 on biaxial bending.
the bending member, the most conservative loading case.

C3.4 Bending Members - Shear

C3.4.1 Strength in Shear Parallel structural glued laminated timber, structural composite
to Grain (Horizontal Shear) lumber, and mechanically laminated timber. Built-up com-
ponents, such as trusses, are specifically excluded because
C3.4.1.1 Shear strength perpendicular to the grain, also of field experience that indicated the procedures might not
referred to as cross-grain or vertical shear, refers to shear be adequate for shear design of top-hung parallel chord
stresses in the radial-tangential plane tending to cut the trusses and similar components that contained load-bearing
wood fibers perpendicular to their long axis. The strength web and top chord connections near points of support.
of wood in this plane is very high relative to shear strength Shear design of built-up components is required to be
parallel to grain, or horizontal shear, which refers to shear based on testing, theoretical analysis, and/or documented
stresses in the longitudinal-radial or longitudinal-tangential experience due to the complexity of determining the effects
plane tending to slide one fiber past another along their of stress concentrations, the influence of embedded metal
long axes. As both parallel and perpendicular to grain shear connectors, and questions regarding the applicability of
occur simultaneously, parallel to grain shear strength is the general practice of ignoring loads close to supports.
always the limiting case. Therefore, reference shear design
values, Fv, are horizontal or parallel to grain shear stresses. C3.4.2 Shear Design Equations
Shear in the tangential-longitudinal or radial-lon-
gitudinal plane tending to roll one fiber over another Actual shear stress parallel to grain, fv, in a circular
perpendicular to their long axes is termed rolling shear. bending member may be determined as:
Rolling shear, which occurs in structural plywood appli-
cations as shear in the plane of the plies, is not a design fv = 4V / 3A (C3.4.2-1)
consideration in most lumber or timber product applica- where:
tions.
V = shear force, lbs
C3.4.1.2 Shear design provisions in NDS 3.4 are
A = cross-sectional area of circular member, in.
limited to solid flexural members such as sawn lumber,
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204 NDS COMMENTARY: DESIGN PROVISIONS AND EQUATIONS

For cross-laminated timber, the reference design shear, C3.4.3.2 (b) The equation for calculating the adjusted
Vr, is provided by the CLT manufacturer and is designated shear in members of circular cross section end-notched on
in NDS Chapter 10 as Fs(Ib/Q)eff. the tension face parallels that for end-notched rectangular
bending members. The area of the circular member (An)
C3.4.3 Shear Design at the notch replaces the width (b) and depth at the notch
(dn) in the equation for the rectangular beam. It has been
C3.4.3.1 (a) For purposes of calculating shear forces, shown that maximum shear stresses near the neutral axis of
ignoring uniform loads within a distance equal to the an unnotched circular member calculat­ed using (VQ)(Ib),
bending member depth, “d”, of the support face assumes or (4V)(3A), are within 5 percent of actual stresses (108).
such loads are carried directly to the support by diagonal Therefore, the adjusted design shear of a tension-side
compression through the member depth. Concentrated notched circular member is conservatively estimated using
loads within a distance “d” may be reduced proportion- the factor 2/3 rather than 3/4 in the equation.
ally to the distance from the face of the support. Where a C3.4.3.2 (c) Procedures used to calculate the adjusted
member is loaded with a series of closely-spaced framing shear in bending members of other than rectangular or cir-
members (such as a girder loaded by floor joists), a uniform cular cross section containing end notches on the tension
load condition may be assumed even though the framing face should account for any effects of stress concentrations
members can be viewed as individual point loads. that may occur at reentrant corners.
C3.4.3.1 (b) Placement of the critical moving load is C3.4.3.2 (d) See C3.2.3.1.
assumed to be one beam depth from the support. Other C3.4.3.2 (e) Shear strength of bending members is less
loads within a distance, d, of the support are permitted to affected by end notches on the compression face than on
be ignored similar to the provisions of NDS 3.4.3.1(a). the tension face (181).
C3.4.3.1 (c) Placement of two or more moving loads C3.4.3.3 The shear force, V, is the shear in the beam
should be evaluated to determine the location that provides determined as a result of structural analysis of the bending
the maximum shear stress. Other loads within a distance, member for all loads including those imparted by connec-
d, of the support are permitted to be ignored similar to the tions (as shown in Figures 3E and 3I in the NDS). It is not
provisions of NDS 3.4.3.1(a). the load applied at the connection which can be either less
C3.4.3.2 (a) The equation for determining the adjusted than or greater than the actual shear in the beam.
design shear of a tension-side notched member reduces the C3.4.3.3 (a) An equation for calculating the shear
effective shear capacity by the square of the ratio of the resistance at connections located less than five times the
remaining member depth (dn) to the unnotched member depth of the member from its end is similar to that for
depth (d). This relationship has been verified by tests of end-notched rectangu­lar bending members where the ratio
bending members at various depths (115) and is related de/d is comparable to the factor dn/d.
to the concentration of tension and shear stresses occur- C3.4.3.3 (b) For connections that are at least five times
ring at the reentrant corner of the notch. Both d and dn are the member depth from the end, net section is permitted
measured perpendicular to the length of the member where to be used for calculating the shear resistance.
member length is represented by the longitudinal axis of C3.4.3.3 (c) Bending members supported by concealed
the member. Therefore, for a sloped member such as a roof or partially hidden hangers whose installation involves ker-
rafter, d and dn are measured as the distance perpendicular fing or notching of the member are designed for shear using
to the rafter’s longitudinal axis, not the horizontal projected the notched bending member provisions of NDS 3.4.3.2.
length of the rafter.

C3.5 Bending Members - Deflection

C3.5.1 Deflection Calculations For solid rectangular and circular bending members,
reference modulus of elasticity values are considered to
Reference modulus of elasticity design values, E, in contain a shear deflection component equivalent to that
the Specification for wood bending members are average occurring in a rectangular bending member on a span-depth
values. Individual pieces will have modulus of elasticity ratio of between 17 and 21 under uniformly distributed
values higher or lower than the reference average value. load. Assuming a modulus of elasticity to modulus of
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 205

rigidity ratio (E/G) of 16, shear-free modulus of elasticity environmental conditions, the rate of creep will decrease
may be taken as 1.03 and 1.05 times the reference value over time (52, 62).
for sawn lumber and glued laminated timber, respectively. Where creep is decreasing over time, total creep
Standard methods for adjusting modulus of elasticity to occurring in a specific period of time is approximately
other load and span-depth conditions are available (4). proportional to the stress level (123, 185). Total bending
Experience has shown that use of average modulus creep increases with increase in moisture content (34,
of elasticity values provide an adequate measure of the 139) and temperature (112); and is greater under variable
immediate deflection of bending members used in normal compared to constant relative humidity conditions (112).
wood structural applications. It should be noted that the Creep deflection that is increasing at a constant rate should C
reduced modulus of elasticity value, Emin, is used in beam be considered a possible danger signal; and when creep
stability analyses and contains both a statistical and a deflection is increasing at an increasing rate, imminent
safety level reduction. failure is indicated (8, 139, 185).

COMMENTARY: DESIGN PROVISIONS AND EQUATIONS

Code specified maximum wind, snow, and live loads
C3.5.2 Long Term Loading are pulse type loadings with low frequency of occur­rence.
Thus creep deflection is not a significant factor in most
The reference modulus of elasticity values provide situations. Where dead loads or sustained live loads repre-
a measure of the immediate deflection of a member that sent a relatively high percentage of the total design load,
occurs when a load is applied. If the load is sustained, creep may be a design consideration. In such situations,
the member will exhibit a slow but continual increase in total deflection from long-term loading, ΔT, is estimated
deflection over time, otherwise known as creep. At mod- by increasing the immediate deflection, ΔLT, associated
erate to low levels of sustained stress and under stable with the long-term load component by the time dependent
deformation factor, Kcr, provided in the Specification.

C3.6 Compression Members - General

C3.6.2 Column Classifications 1. When the reduced section occurs in the criti-
cal buckling zone, the net section area shall
C3.6.2.1 Simple solid columns are defined as single be used to calculate fc(net) , and fc(net) ≤ Fc'.
piece members or those made of pieces glued together to 2. When the reduced section occurs outside the
form a single member. Such glued members are considered critical buckling zone, the gross section area
to have the grain of all component pieces oriented in the shall be used to calculate fc(gross) and fc(gross) ≤
same direction and to be made with a phenolic, resorcinol, Fc'. In addition, the net section area shall be
or other rigid adhesive. The performance of columns used to check for crushing, fc(net) ≤ Fc*.
made using elastomeric adhesives are not covered by the
provisions of the Specification except where it has been C3.6.4 Compression Members
established that the adhesive being used possesses strength Bearing End to End
and creep properties comparable to those of standard rigid
adhe­sives. Compression design values parallel to grain (Fc*) are
C3.6.2.2 Design provisions for spaced columns are applicable for bearing stresses occurring at the ends of
covered in NDS 15.2. compres­sion members. See C3.10.1.
C3.6.2.3 Mechanically-laminated built-up columns
are not designed as solid columns. Design provisions for C3.6.5 Eccentric Loading or
these built-up columns are covered in NDS 15.3. Combined Stresses

C3.6.3 Strength in Compression See C3.9 and C15.4.

Parallel to Grain
C3.6.6 Column Bracing
In reduced section members, the actual compression
stress parallel to grain, fc, shall be checked as follows: Column bracing should be designed using accepted
engineering practice. Design of bracing systems is beyond
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206 NDS COMMENTARY: DESIGN PROVISIONS AND EQUATIONS

the scope of the Specification; however, prescriptive rec- When continuous decking or sheathing is attached to
ommendations are provided in Appendix A. the top of the arch or compression chord, it is common
practice to assume that the slenderness ratio is the length
C3.6.7 Lateral Support of Arches, between points of lateral support divided by the depth of
Studs, and Compression Chords of the arch or chord, 𝓁e1d1.
Trusses Use of the depth of the stud as the least dimension in
calculating the slenderness ratio in determining the axial
Where roof joists or purlins are used between arches load-carrying capacity of sheathed or clad light-frame
or compression chords, the column stability factor, CP, wall systems is a long standing practice. Experience has
should be calculated using the larger of: shown that wood structural panels, fiberboard, hardboard,
(i) the slenderness ratio, 𝓁e1d1, based on distance gypsumboard, or other sheathing materials provide ad-
between points of lateral support and the depth equate lateral support of the stud across its thickness when
of the arch or chord (NDS Figure 3F). properly fastened.
(ii) the slenderness ratio, 𝓁e2d2, based on the dis-
tance between purlins or joists and the breadth
of the arch or chord (NDS Figure 3F).

C3.7 Solid Columns

C3.7.1 Column Stability Factor, CP Allowing a temporary 𝓁ed ratio of 75 during construc-
tion is based on satisfactory experience with temporary
C3.7.1.2 In general, the effective length of a column is bracing of trusses installed in accordance with truss industry
the distance between points of support that prevent lateral standards (148); recognition that in most cases the assembly
displace­ment of the member in the plane of buckling. It will carry only dead loads until load distributing and racking
is common practice in wood construction to assume most resisting sheathing elements are installed; and experience
column end conditions to be pin connected (translation with a similar provision in steel design. In the latter regard, a
fixed, rotation free) even though in many cases some par- K𝓁r limit of 300 (𝓁ed of 87) is permitted during construc-
tial rotational fixity is present. Where the end conditions tion with cold-formed steel structural members (126). The
in the plane of buckling are significantly different from critical buckling design load of a column with an 𝓁ed ratio
the pinned assumption, recommended coefficients, Ke, for of 75 is approximately 45 percent that of a column with an
adjustment of column lengths are provided in Appendix equivalent cross-section and an 𝓁ed ratio of 50.
G of the Specification. C3.7.1.5 The column stability factor equation is
As shown in Table G1 of NDS Appendix G, the recom- applicable to all column slenderness ratios (𝓁ed). This
mended coefficients are larger than the theoretical values equation provides a means of combining the compression
for all cases where rotational restraint of one or both ends design stress (Fc*) with the critical buckling design stress
of the column is assumed. This conservatism is introduced (FcE) to estimate an “effective” compression design value
in recognition that full fixity is generally not realized in (30, 68, 81, 97, 191).
practice. The recommended values of Ke are the same as The parameter “c” was empirically established from
those used in steel design (125) except for the sixth case the stress-strain relationship of very short columns (𝓁ed of
(rotation and translation fixed one end, rotation free and 2.5). The column stability factor equation provides a good
translation fixed other end) where a more conservative approximation of column strength if the short column tests
coefficient (20 percent larger than the theoretical value) adequately characterize the properties and non-uniformities
is specified based on the ratio of theoretical/recommended of the longer columns (101). By empirically fitting the
value in the third case. column stability factor equation to column strength data, es-
C3.7.1.4 The limitation on the slenderness ratio of timates of “c” closely predicted test results at all 𝓁ed ratios
solid columns to 50 precludes the use of column designs (189, 191, 190). A significant advantage of the methodol-
susceptible to potential buckling. The 𝓁ed limit of 50 is ogy is that by selecting column test material representative
comparable to the K𝓁r limit of 200 (𝓁ed of 58) used in of the non-uniform properties across the cross section and
steel design (125). along the length that are associated with permitted grade
characteristics such as knots, slope of grain and warp, the
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 207

combined effects of these variables on column behavior are or stiffness of unsupported spliced connections, use of a
included in the resultant value of “c” (190). reduced KcE value should be considered. Included in such
NDS equation 3.7-1 is formulated based on the as- evaluations should be the possibility of eccentric applica-
sumption of a rectangular cross section and design property tion of the axial load and the need to design the member
presentation in terms of adjusted stress (i.e. Fc* and E'min). as a beam-column (see NDS 15.4).
An alternative format applicable for rectangular and non-
rectangular sections where member properties are given in C3.7.2 Tapered Columns
terms of adjusted stress times applicable section property
(i.e. Fc*A and Emin'I) is given as: Analyses showed the general one-third rule (NDS C
Equation 3.7-3) was conservative for some end support
2 conditions but unconservative for others (36). The use
1+ α 1 + α c  α c (C3.7.1-1)
Cp = c −  of a dimension taken at 1/3 the length from the smaller

COMMENTARY: DESIGN PROVISIONS AND EQUATIONS

2c  − c
 2c  end underestimated the buckling load by 35 percent for a
where: tapered column fixed at the large end and unsupported at
P the small end, and 16 percent for a tapered column simply
α c = cE* (C3.7.1-2) supported (translation fixed) at both ends. Alternatively,
Pc the 1/3 rule was shown to overestimate the buckling load
Pc* = Fc*A (C3.7.1-3) by 13 percent for a tapered column fixed at the small end
and unsupported at the large end. These estimates were
(C3.7.1-4) for a minimum to maximum diameter (dimension) ratio of
π2 E min ′I
PcE = 0.70. For these specific support conditions, NDS Equation
 2e 3.7-2 provides more realistic estimates of column strength.
and NDS Equation 3.7-3 remains applicable for other support
αc = ratio of the critical column buckling conditions.
resistance to reference compression The one end fixed - one end unsupported or simply
resistance parallel to grain supported conditions referenced in NDS 3.7.2 correspond
to the fifth and sixth buckling mode cases in NDS Ap-
PcE = column buckling resistance, lbs
pendix G. The condition of both ends simply supported
Pc* = reference axial compression resistance corre­sponds to the fourth case. Values for the constant
parallel to grain multiplied by all applicable “a”, given under “Support Conditions” in NDS 3.7.2,
adjustment factors except CP (i.e. Fc*A), lbs are considered applicable when the ratio of minimum to
Fc* = reference compression design value maximum diameter equals or exceeds 1/3 (36).
parallel to grain multiplied by all applicable The effective length factor, Ke, from NDS Appendix
adjustment factors except CP, psi G is used in conjunction with the representative dimen-
sion (equivalent prism) when determining the stability
A = area of cross section, in.2
factor, CP, for tapered columns. It is to be noted that the
Emin' = adjusted modulus of elasticity for beam actual compression stress parallel to grain, fc, based on the
stability and column stability calculations, minimum dimension of the column is not to exceed Fc*.
psi

I = moment of inertia, in4 C3.7.3 Round Columns

𝓁e = effective length of compression member Round columns are designed as square columns of
between planes of lateral support, in. equivalent cross-sectional area and taper since the solid
For rectangular cross sections, column buckling resis- column provisions and equations in NDS 3.7.1 have been
tance, PcE, is based on the smaller of Emin'I1/ℓe1 and Emin'I2/ derived in terms of rectangular cross-sections. An alterna-
ℓe2 where subscripts 1 and 2 denote principal axes between tive form of the equations in NDS 3.7.1, applicable to both
planes of lateral support. rectangular and nonrectangular cross-sections, is provided
C3.7.1.6 Continuous exposure to elevated temperature in Section C3.7.1.5.
and moisture in combination with continuous application
of full design loads is an example of a severe service
condition. Particularly when such design environ­ments
are coupled with design uncertainties, such as end fixity
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208 NDS COMMENTARY: DESIGN PROVISIONS AND EQUATIONS

C3.8 Tension Members

C3.8.2 Tension Perpendicular to heavy loads are acting through the tension side of a bending
Grain member (see NDS Table 12.5.1C, footnote 2) should be
avoided. These connections should be designed to ensure
Average strength values for tension perpendicular to that perpendicular to grain loads are applied through the
grain that are available in reference documents (181, 183) compression side of the bending member, either through
apply to small, clear specimens that are free of shakes, direct connections or top-bearing connectors.
checks and other seasoning defects. Such information in- If perpendicular to grain tension stresses are not avoid-
dicates that tension design values perpendicular to grain of able, use of stitch bolts or other mechanical reinforcement
clear, check- and shake-free wood may be considered to be to resist these loads should be considered. When such a
about one-third the shear design value parallel to grain of solution is used, care should be taken to ensure that the
comparable quality material of the same species (9). How- reinforcement itself does not cause splitting of the mem-
ever, because of undetectable ring shakes, checking and ber as a result of drying in service (140). Ultimately, the
splitting that can occur as a result of drying in service, very designer is responsible for avoiding tension perpendicular
low strength values for the property can be encountered to grain stresses or for assuring that mechanical reinforcing
in commercial grades of lumber. For this reason, no sawn methods are adequate.
lumber tension design values perpendicular to grain have Radial stresses are induced in curved, pitch tapered,
been published in the Specification. Cautionary provisions and certain other shapes of glued laminated timber beams.
have been provided to alert the designer to avoid design Radial tension design values perpendicular to grain are
configurations that induce tension perpendicular to grain given in NDS 5.2.2 and have been shown to be adequate
stresses wherever possible. Connections where moderate to by both test (23, 24, 113) and experience.

C3.9 Combined Bending and Axial Loading

C3.9.1 Bending and Axial Tension where the subscripts indicate the principle axes.
Reference bending design values, Fb, are not adjusted
Theoretical analyses and experimental results show for slenderness, CL, in NDS Equation 3.9-1 because the
the linear interaction equation for combined bending and tension load acts to reduce the buckling stress and the com-
tension stresses yields conservative results (189). It can be bined stress is not the critical buckling condition. Critical
shown that the effect of moment magnification, which is buckling is checked separately using NDS Equation 3.9-2.
not included in the equation, serves to reduce the effective An alternative formulation of Equation C3.9.2-1 in
bending ratio rather than increase it. terms of induced axial tension load and induced bending
Where eccentric axial tension loading is involved, moment is given as:
the moment associated with the axial load, (6Pe)(bd 2),
should be added to the actual bending stress induced by T M1 M 2
+ + ≤ 1.0 (C3.9.2-2)
the bending load when applying the interaction equation. T′ M1* M*2
The eccentricity, e, should carry the sign appropriate to
the direction of eccentricity: positive when the moment T = induced axial tension load, lbs
associated with the axial load is increasing the moment
T' = adjusted axial tension resistance (i.e. Ft'A),
due to the bending load and negative when it is reducing
lbs
the moment.
Where biaxial bending occurs with axial tension, the M1 = induced bending moment in the strong axis,
interaction equation can be expanded to: in.-lbs

M1* = reference strong axis moment resistance

multiplied by all applicable adjustment
f t f b1 f b 2 (C3.9.2-1)
+ + ≤ 1.0 factors except CL (i.e. Fb1*S1), in.-lbs
Ft′ Fb*1 Fb*2
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 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 209

M2 = induced bending moment in the weak axis, An alternative formulation of Equation C3.9-3 pre-
in.-lbs sented in terms of induced axial load and induced bending
M2* = reference weak axis moment resistance
moment follows:
multiplied by all applicable adjustment 2
factors except CL (i.e. Fb2*S2), in.-lbs P M1 M2
  + + ≤ 1.0 (C3.9.2-3)
 P′  M ′(1 − P P M1
1 ) M 2 ′(1 − − )
PcE1 PcE 2 M bE
C3.9.2 Bending and Axial
Compression
where: C
The interaction equation given in NDS 3.9.2 (NDS P = induced axial compression load, lbs
Equation 3.9-3) addresses effects of beam buckling and P' = adjusted axial compression resistance (i.e.

COMMENTARY: DESIGN PROVISIONS AND EQUATIONS

bending about both principal axes, and closely matches FcA'), lbs
beam-column test data for in-grade lumber as well as
similar earlier data for clear wood material (189, 187). M1 = induced bending moment in the strong axis,
in.-lbs
The ratio of actual (induced) to adjusted compression
stress in NDS Equation 3.9-3 is squared based on tests of M1' = adjusted strong axis moment resistance
short beam-columns made from various species of 2×4 (i.e. Fb1'S1), in.-lbs
and 2×6 lumber (68, 193, 189). The squared relationship
M2 = induced bending moment in the weak axis,
in Equation 3.9-3 is intended to be used for all wood in.-lbs
member sizes.
The moment magnification adjustment for edgewise M2' = adjusted weak axis moment resistance (i.e.
bending in NDS Equation 3.9-3 is (1&fcFcE1). This ad- Fb2'S2), in.-lbs
justment is consistent with similar adjustments for other PcE1 = critical column buckling resistance in the
structural materials, and is based on theoretical analysis, strong axis, lbs (see C3.7.1.5)
confirmed by tests of intermediate and long wood beam-
columns (189, 187). PcE2 = critical column buckling resistance in the
weak axis, lbs (see C3.7.1.5)
The moment magnification adjustment for flatwise
bending in NDS Equation 3.9-3 is [1- (fcFcE2) − (fb1FbE)2]. MbE = critical beam buckling moment (i.e. 2.4
The first term, (1&fcFcE2), is consistent with the adjust- Emin' I2/𝓁e), in.-lbs where Emin'I2 represents
ment for edgewise bending discussed previously. The adjusted weak axis stiffness for beam
second term, (fb1FbE)2, represents the amplification of fb2 stability and column stability calculations
from fb1. This second term is based on theoretical analy-
sis (187) and has been verified using beam-column tests and
made on clear Sitka spruce (99, 187). The biaxial bending 2
calculations in NDS Equation 3.9-3 conservatively model P  M1 
cantilever and multi-span beam-columns subject to biaxial
+  ≤ 1.0 (C3.9.2-4)
PcE 2  M bE 
loads (192).
NDS Equation 3.9-4 checks an intermediate cal- where:
culation for members subjected to flatwise bending in
combination with axial compression, with or without edge-
wise bending. When a flatwise bending load is checked π2 Emin′I
P < PcE1 = 2 1 (C3.9.2-5)
with the third term of the stress interaction equation (NDS  e1
Equation 3.9-3), the axial and edgewise bending interac-
tion in the denominator can become a negative value. The
occurrence of the negative value indicates an overstress. π2 Emin′I
P < PcE 2 = 2 2 (C3.9.2-6)
However, use of this negative term in the stress interaction  e2
equation (NDS Equation 3.9-3) overlooks the overstress
in flatwise bending and incorrectly reduces the overall
interaction. 2.4 Emin′I 2
M < M bE = (C3.9.2-7)
e

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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
210 NDS COMMENTARY: DESIGN PROVISIONS AND EQUATIONS

For additional equations involving combined bending

and axial compression including eccentric axial compres-
sion loading, see C15.4.

C3.10 Design for Bearing

C3.10.1 Bearing Parallel to Grain C3.10.4 Bearing Area Factor, Cb

Where end-grain bearing is a design consideration, Provisions for increasing reference compression per-
the actual compression stress parallel to grain, fc, shall not pendicular design values for length of bearing are based
exceed the compression design value parallel to grain, Fc*. on the results of test procedures in ASTM D 143 (5) which
For purposes of this section, the term “actual compressive involve loading a two-inch wide steel plate bearing on a
bearing stress parallel to grain” and the term “compression two-inch wide by two-inch deep by six-inch long speci-
stress parallel to grain,” fc, are synonymous. men. Research at the USDA Forest Products Laboratory
Examples of end-grain bearing configurations are end- on proportional limit stresses associated with bolt and
to-end compression chord segments laterally supported by washer loads showed that the smaller the width of the
splice plates, butt end-bearing joints in individual lamina- plate or bearing area relative to the length of the test speci-
tions of mechanically laminated truss chords, roof-tied men, the higher the proportional limit stress (146, 178).
arch heel connections, notched chord truss heel joints, and Early research conducted in Australia and Czechoslovakia
columns supporting beams. Where the actual compression confirmed the nature and magnitude of the bearing length
stress parallel to grain at the point of bearing is less than effect (178).
or equal to 75 percent of the compression design value The effect of length of bearing is attributed to the
parallel to grain (fc ≤ 0.75 Fc*), direct end-to-end bear- resisting bending and tension parallel to grain strengths
ing of wood surfaces is permitted provided that abutting in the fibers at the edges of the bearing plate (84, 178).
end surfaces are parallel and appropriate lateral support Because of the localized nature of the edge effect, the
is provided. The required use of a metal bearing plate contribution provided decreases as the length of the area
or equivalently durable, rigid, homogeneous material in under compressive load increases. When the bearing plate
highly loaded end-to-end bearing joints (fc > 0.75 Fc*) is covers the entire surface of the supporting specimen (full
to assure a uniform distribution of load from one member bearing), test values will be lower than those obtained in
to another. the standard two-inch plate test. For the case of complete
surface or full bearing (bearing length equals supporting
C3.10.2 Bearing Perpendicular to member length), such as may occur in a pressing opera-
Grain tion, compression perpendicular to grain is approximately
Ignoring any non-uniform distribution of bearing 75% of the reference compression perpendicular to grain
stress that may occur at the supports of a bending member design value. Deformation will also exceed that associated
as a result of the deflection or curvature of that member with the standard test.
under load is long standing design practice. Note that potential buckling perpendicular to grain is
a design consideration that is not evaluated as part of the
C3.10.3 Bearing at an Angle to ASTM D143 (5) test procedures. One method of checking
Grain for buckling perpendicular to grain would be to use the
provisions for column buckling parallel to grain in NDS
NDS Equation 3.10-1 for calculating the compres- 3.7.1 with mechanical properties from approved sources.
sive stress at an angle to grain was developed from tests Bearing adjustment factors are useful in special cases
on Sitka spruce and verified for general applicability by such as highly loaded washers, metal supporting straps or
tests on other species (184, 54, 59). The equation applies hangers on wood beams, highly loaded foundation studs
when the inclined or loaded surface is at right angles to bearing on wood plates and crossing wood members. See
the direction of load. The equation is limited to Fc' when C4.2.6 for discussion of deformation occurring in this
the angle between direction of grain and direction of load, support condition relative to metal or end-grain bearing
θ, is 0° and Fc⊥' when this angle is 90°. Stresses on both on side or face-grain.
inclined surfaces in a notched member should be checked
if the limiting case is not apparent.
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 211

C4 SAWN LUMBER
C4.1 General
C4.1.1 Scope allowable knot sizes based on the strength ratio concept.
Under this concept, the effect of a knot or other permitted C
The design requirements given in Chapters 1 through strength reducing characteristic is expressed as the ratio
3 of the Specification are applicable to sawn lumber except of the assumed strength of the piece containing the char-

COMMENTARY: SAWN LUMBER

where indicated otherwise. Chapter 4 of the Specification acteristic to the strength of clear, straight-grain wood of
contains provisions which are particular to sawn lumber. the same species (8).
Grades established under the National Grading Rule
C4.1.2 Identification of Lumber are:

C4.1.2.1 The design provisions of the Specification Structural Light Framing 2"–4" thick, 2"–4" wide
applicable to sawn lumber are based on (i) use of lumber Select Structural
that displays the official grading mark of an agency that No. 1
has been certified by the Board of Review of the American No. 2
Lumber Standard Committee (ALSC), established under No. 3
the U.S. Department of Commerce’s Voluntary Prod- Light Framing 2"–4" thick, 2"–4" wide
uct Standard PS 20 (152); and (ii) use of design values Construction
tabulated in the NDS Supplement–Design Values for Wood Standard
Construction (NDS Supplement) are a compendium of Utility
reference design values published by grading rules-writing
agencies approved by the ALSC Board of Review (152). Studs 2"–4" thick, 2"–6" wide
Those agencies publishing approved grading rules and Stud
design values are given in the Design Values Supplement
to the Specification under “List of Sawn Lumber Grading Structural Joists & Planks 2"–4" thick, 5" and wider
Agencies.” It is the responsibility of the designer to assure Select Structural
that the design values given in the NDS Supplement are No. 1
applicable to the material so identified. If design values No. 2
other than those tabulated in the NDS Supplement are No. 3
used, it is the designer’s responsibility to assure that the Design values for dimension lumber are based on
reliability and adequacy of the assignments are such that in-grade tests of full-size pieces. Design values for
they may be used safely with the design provisions of the Structural Light Framing and Structural Joists and Planks
Specification. are consolidated under the common grade names (Select
The requirement that glued lumber products bear a Structural, No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3) and separate width
distinct grade mark indicating that the joint integrity is adjustments or values by width are provided (see NDS
subject to qualification and quality control clarifies that Supplement Tables 4A and 4B). There has been no change
the bond strength of the joint itself is to be monitored on in the visual descriptions or maximum size of knots and
a continuous basis under an inspection program. other characteristics permitted in each width class of
the grades established under the National Grading Rule.
C4.1.3 Definitions C4.1.3.3 “Beams and Stringers” are uniformly
defined in certified grading rules as lumber that is 5"
C4.1.3.2 Categories and grades of “Dimension” lum- (nominal) or more in thickness, and width 2" or more
ber are standardized under the National Grading Rule for greater than the thickness. Such members, for example
Softwood Dimension Lumber which was authorized by 6×10, 6×12, 8×12, 8×16, and 10×14, are designed for use
the American Softwood Lumber Standard PS20 (152). The on edge as bending members. Grades for which design
rule provides standard use categories, grade names, and
grade descriptions. The National Grading Rule includes
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
212 NDS COMMENTARY: SAWN LUMBER

values are given in this Specification (NDS Supplement C4.1.5.3 Beams and Stringers and Posts and Timbers
Table 4D) are: are manufactured in the Green condition to standard Green
dimensions (152). The reference design values for such
Select Structural lumber, which are applicable to dry conditions of service,
No. 1 include adjustments for the effects of shrinkage. Standard
No. 2 Green sizes, therefore, are to be used in engineering com-
C4.1.3.4 “Posts and Timbers” are defined as lumber putations with these grades.
that is 5” (nominal) or more in thickness and width not
more than 2” greater than thickness. These members, such C4.1.6 End-Jointed or Edge-Glued
as 6×6, 6×8, 8×10, and 12×12, are designed to support Lumber
axial column loads. Grades of lumber in this classification
are the same as those for “Beams and Stringers.” Posts Design values tabulated in the NDS Supplement ap-
and Timbers also may be used as beams; however, other ply to end-jointed lumber of the same species and grade
grades and sections may be more efficient where strength as unjointed sawn lumber when such material is identified
in bending is a major consideration. by the grademark or inspection certificate of an approved
agency (see C4.1.2.1). This identification indicates the
C4.1.4 Moisture Service Condition glued product is subject to ongoing quality monitoring,
of Lumber including joint strength evaluation, by the agency.
End-jointed, face-glued and edge-glued lumber may
Design values tabulated in the Specification for sawn be used interchangeably with sawn lumber members of
lumber apply to material surfaced in any condition and the same grade and species. The limitation on the use of
used in dry conditions of service. Such conditions are finger-jointed lumber marked “STUD USE ONLY” or
those in which the moisture content in use will not ex- “VERTICAL USE ONLY” to those applications where any
ceed a maximum of 19 percent. Adjustment factors, CM, induced bending or tension stresses are of short duration
are provided in NDS Supplement Tables 4A through 4F is a provision to minimize possible joint creep associated
for uses where this limit will be exceeded for a sustained with long-term loads. Bending and tension stresses associ-
period of time or for repeated periods. ated with wind loads and seismic loads are examples of
Applications in which the structural members are short duration stresses permitted in finger-jointed lumber
regularly exposed directly to rain and other sources of marked for “STUD USE ONLY” or “VERTICAL USE
moisture are typically considered wet conditions of service. ONLY.”
Members that are protected from the weather by roofs or
other means but are occasionally subjected to wind-blown C4.1.7 Resawn or Remanufactured
moisture are generally considered dry (moisture content Lumber
19 percent or less) applications. The designer has final
responsibility for determining the appropriate moisture Material that has been regraded after resawing quali-
content basis for the design. fies for design values tabulated in the Supplement only
Design values tabulated for Southern Pine timbers when identified by the grademark or inspection certificate
and Mixed Southern Pine timbers in NDS Supplement of an approved agency (see C4.1.2.1).
Table 4D have already been adjusted for use in wet service
conditions. These values also apply when these species are
used in dry service conditions.

C4.1.5 Lumber Sizes

C4.1.5.1 The minimum lumber sizes given in NDS

Supplement Table 1A are minimum-dressed sizes estab-
lished in the American Softwood Lumber Standard, PS
20 (152).
C4.1.5.2 Dry net sizes are used in engineering com-
putations for dimension lumber surfaced in any condition.
When lumber is surfaced in the Green condition, it is
oversized to allow for shrinkage (152).
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 213

C4.2 Reference Design Values

C4.2.1 Reference Design Values pression perpendicular to the grain, Fc^, in these tables are
based on ASTM D245 provisions (8).
Design values tabulated in NDS Supplement Tables Timbers
4A through 4F have been taken from grading rules that Design values and adjustment factors for size, wet
have been certified by the Board of Review of the Ameri- service, and shear stress given in NDS Supplement Table
can Lumber Standard Committee as conforming to the 4D for Beams and Stringers and Posts and Timbers are C
provisions of the American Softwood Lumber Standard, based on the provisions of ASTM D245 (8).
PS 20 (152). Such grading rules may be obtained from Decking
the rules writing agencies listed in the NDS Supplement. Design values for Decking in NDS Supplement Table

COMMENTARY: SAWN LUMBER

Information on stress-rated board grades applicable to the 4E are based on ASTM D245 provisions except for the
various species is available from the respective grading wet service factor, CM, for Fb which is based on ASTM
rules agencies. D1990. Reference bending design values, Fb, in Table 4E
for all species and species combinations except Redwood
C4.2.2 Other Species and Grades are based on a four-inch thickness. A 10 percent increase
in these values applies when two-inch decking is used (see
Where design values other than those tabulated in the CF adjustment factor in the Table).
Specification are to be used, it is the designer’s responsibil-
ity to assure the technical adequacy of such assignments C4.2.3.3 Machine Stress Rated (MSR) Lumber
and the appropriateness of using them with the design and Machine Evaluated Lumber (MEL)
provisions of the Specification (see C4.1.2.1). Design values for Fb, Ft, Fc, and E given in NDS
Supplement Table 4C for mechanically graded dimension
C4.2.3 Basis for Reference Design lumber apply to material that meets the qualification and
Values quality control requirements of the grading agency whose
grademark appears on the piece. Stiffness-based stress-
C4.2.3.2 Visually Graded Lumber rating machines are set so that pieces passing through the
Dimension machine will have the average E desired. For these ma-
In 1977, the softwood lumber industry in North chines, values of Fb are based on correlations established
America and the U.S. Forest Products Laboratory began between minimum bending strength for lumber loaded
a testing program to evaluate the strength properties of on edge and E. Similarly, Ft and Fc values are based on
in-grade full-size pieces of visually-graded dimension test results for lumber in each Fb-E grade. Density-based
lumber made from most commercially important species grading machines operate under similar principles, using
in North America (65). The testing program, conducted various density-based algorithms as the basis for grading
over an eight year period, involved the destructive test- decisions. For both machine types, machine settings are
ing of over 70,000 pieces of lumber from 33 species or monitored and routinely verified through periodic stiffness
species groups. The test method standard, ASTM D4761, and strength testing. Mechanically graded lumber also is
covers the mechanical test methods used in the program required to meet certain visual grading requirements which
(14). The standard practice, ASTM D1990, provides the include limitations on the size of edge knots and distorted
procedures for establishing design values for visually grain on the wide face. Such limitations, expressed as a
graded dimension lumber from test results obtained from maximum proportion of the cross-section occupied by the
in-grade test programs (7). characteristics, generally range from 1/2 to 1/6 depending
Design values for bending, Fb, tension parallel to on the level of Fb.
grain, Ft, compression parallel to grain, Fc, and modulus of Machine Stress Rated (MSR) lumber is material that
elasticity, E, for 14 species or species combinations listed is categorized in classes of regularly increasing strength
in Tables 4A and 4B of the NDS Supplement are based on (Fb, Ft, and Fc) and E assignments. As Fb values increase,
in-grade test results. Further, the grade and size models Ft values increase at a greater rate, starting from 0.39 of
developed under ASTM D1990 have been employed to the Fb value for the 900f grade to 0.80 of the Fb value
establish grade and size relationships for those species for the 2400f and higher grades. Alternatively, Fc values
whose index strengths are established by D245 methods. increase at a lower rate than Fb values, starting from 1.17
All design values for shear parallel to grain, Fv, and com- of the Fb value for the 900f grade to 0.70 of the Fb value
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
214 NDS COMMENTARY: SAWN LUMBER

for the 3300f grade. Fb, Ft, and E values for MSR lumber stresses where loads are applied on the wide face, should
in NDS Supplement Table 4C are essentially the same as be adjusted by the applicable size factor in NDS Supple-
those published in the 1986 edition. Previously, Fc values ment Table 4D. Posts and Timbers are graded for bending
were taken as 80 percent of the corresponding Fb value. in both directions and can be used in biaxial bending
As noted, these assignments now vary depending on level design situations.
of Fb.
Design values for Machine Evaluated Lumber (MEL) C4.2.6 Compression Perpendicular
are characterized by several different levels of E, Ft, or Fc to Grain, Fc^
for each level of Fb rather than assignment of qualifying
material to specific stress classes, each of which has a Reference compression design values perpendicular
generally unique assignment for each property. The MEL to grain in the 1977 and earlier editions of the Specifica-
approach allows a greater percentage of total lumber tion were based on proportional limit stresses and were
production from a mill to be mechanically rated than is adjusted for load duration. This practice changed when
possible under the MSR classification system. ASTM D245 provisions were revised to recognize com-
pression perpendicular to grain as a serviceability limit
C4.2.4 Modulus of Elasticity, E state where the property is used as a measure of bearing
deformation (8). Since 1982, lumber Fc^ values referenced
Design values for Modulus of Elasticity, E, are esti- in the Specification have been based on a uniform 0.04-
mates of the average values for the species and grade of inch deformation level for the condition of a steel plate
material. Reference modulus of elasticity for beam and on wood bearing condition. Such values are not adjusted
column stability, Emin, is based on the following equation: for load duration.
The change in the basis of compression design values
E (1 − 1.64COVE ) (1.03) (C4.2.4-1) perpendicular to grain was an outgrowth of the introduc-
Emin = tion of ASTM D2555 in 1966. This standard gave new
1.66
clear wood property information for western species and
where: prescribed strict criteria for assignment of properties to
E = reference modulus of elasticity combinations of species (see C4.2.3.2). Implementation of
this information and the grouping criteria through ASTM
1.03 = adjustment factor to convert E values to a
D245 in 1971 resulted in a significant reduction in the Fc^
pure bending basis
design value for a commercially important species group.
1.66 = factor of safety The reduction caused bearing stress to become the limiting
design property for the group in truss and other structural
COVE = coefficient of variation in modulus of
elasticity (see NDS Appendix F)
applications even though lumber of the group in these uses
had performed satisfactorily at the previous higher bearing
Emin represents an approximate 5% lower exclusion stress level for over 25 years.
value on pure bending modulus of elasticity, a 1.03 ad- Subsequent evaluation indicated that bearing perpen-
justment factor to convert from an apparent bending E at dicular to the grain loads are not associated with structural
a span-to-depth ratio of 17:1 to a true bending E, and a failure and that deformation levels at proportional limit
1.66 factor of safety. For more discussion, see NDS Ap- stresses could vary 100 percent between species in the
pendix D. standard ASTM D143 test. This test consists of loading a
2-inch wide steel plate bearing on the middle of a 2-inch
C4.2.5 Bending, Fb by 2-inch by 6-inch long wood specimen (5). It was con-
cluded that a uniform deformation limit was the preferred
C4.2.5.1 When reference Fb values for dimension basis for establishing design loads concerned with bearing
grades are applied to members with the load applied to the perpendicular to the grain. New methodology was devel-
wide face, the flat use factor, Cfu , is to be used (see C4.3.7). oped to enable the stress at any deformation level to be
C4.2.5.4 Grade requirements for Beams and Stringers estimated for any species based on its proportional limit
do not consider the effects of allowable knots and other stress (26, 27). This methodology was coupled with field
permitted characteristics on the bending strength of the experience to establish a deformation limit of 0.04 inches
member under loads applied to the wide face. Therefore, in the standard 2-inch specimen as an appropriate design
reference bending design values, Fb, for Beams and String- stress base for applied loads of any duration. Stresses at
ers in NDS Supplement Table 4D, used when checking 0.04-inch deformation for individual species were sub-
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 215

sequently published in ASTM D2555 and provisions for 2.5 times that of a metal to wood joint. The Fc^ values given
basing compression design values perpendicular to grain in the 1982 edition of the Specification and continued in
on a deformation limit were introduced into ASTM D245. the present edition are about 60 percent greater than the
In view of the outward load redistribution that occurs proportional limit–normal load based values published
through the thickness of a member not subjected to a in earlier editions but are applicable to wind, earthquake,
uniform bearing load along its length, and taking into ac- snow and other load durations without adjustment.
count the effects of bearing deformation on the structure, The equation given in NDS 4.2.6 for adjusting refer-
establishment of a deformation limit state in terms of strain ence Fc^ values to a 0.02-inch deformation limit is based on
rate (deformation divided by member thickness) was not regression equations relating proportional limit mean stress C
considered appropriate. On the basis of field experience, to deformation at the 0.04 and the 0.02 levels (27). Use
bearing stresses and deformations derived from the stan- of this reduced compression design value perpendicular
dard test of steel plate on 2 inch deep wood member are

COMMENTARY: SAWN LUMBER

to grain may be appropriate where bearing deformations
judged applicable to all lumber sizes. For the same stress, could affect load distribution or where total deflections of
deformation of a joint consisting of two wood members members must be closely controlled. Bearing deformation
both loaded perpendicular to grain will be approximately is not a significant factor in most lumber designs.

C4.3 Adjustment of Reference Design Values

C4.3.1 General the beginning of the table. These factors and those used to
develop the size specific values given in NDS Supplement
Applicable adjustment factors for sawn lumber are Table 4B for certain species combinations are based on the
specified in Table 4.3.1 of the Specification. adjustment equation for geometry given in ASTM D1990
(7). This equation, based on in-grade test data, accounts for
C4.3.2 Load Duration Factor, CD differences in Fb, Ft, and Fc related to width and for differ-
(ASD Only) ences in Fb and Ft related to length (test span). Reference
values in Tables 4A and 4B for Fb and Ft are based on the
See C2.3.2. following standardized lengths:

C4.3.3 Wet Service Factor, CM Width, in. Length, ft

2 to 6 12
The wet service reduction value, CM, for Fb, Ft, Fc, 8 to 10 16
and E in NDS Supplement Tables 4A and 4B are based on 12 and wider 20
provisions of ASTM D1990 (7). For Fv and Fc^, the values
of CM, are based on ASTM D245. The wet service factors For constant length, the ASTM D1990 size equation
account for the increase in cross-section dimensions as- provides for significantly greater reductions in bending
sociated with this exposure. design values, Fb, as width increases than comparable
previous adjustments for this property. Width adjustments
C4.3.4 Temperature Factor, Ct for tension design values parallel to grain, Ft, and compres-
sion design values parallel to grain, Fc, in the equation are
See C2.3.3. applicable. Additionally, the modification of Fb and Ft for
length is presented in the D1990 equation. Based on the
C4.3.5 Beam Stability Factor, CL total conservatism of these combined adjustments relative
to past practice, use of design values in NDS Supplement
See C3.3.3. Tables 4A and 4B for any member span length is consid-
ered appropriate.
C4.3.6 Size Factor, CF C4.3.6.2 Bending design values for Beams & String-
ers and Posts & Timbers in NDS Supplement Table 4D
C4.3.6.1 Design values for Fb, Ft, and Fc in NDS Sup- apply to a 12 inch depth. The NDS size factor equation
plement Table 4A for all species and species combinations for adjusting these values to deeper members is based on
are adjusted for size using the size factors, CF, referenced at the formula given in ASTM D245.
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
216 NDS COMMENTARY: SAWN LUMBER

C4.3.6.3 Beams of circular cross section (see C4.3.6.2). The incising effect on larger member sizes is gener-
C4.3.6.4 Values of Fb referenced for decking in NDS ally less than nominal 2x4 size lumber due to the larger
Supplement Table 4E are for members 4 inches thick. The cross-section and the common practice on timbers of using
increases of 10 and 4 percent allowed for 2 inch and 3 inch lower incision densities (<800/ft2).
decking are based on the NDS size equation in 4.3.6.2. Alternatively, incising factors for specific incising
patterns, in conjunction with dimension lumber or timber
C4.3.7 Flat Use Factor, Cfu sizes may be obtained from the company providing the
incising and reported in their design documents. These
Adjustment factors for flat use of bending members are incising factors may either be determined by test or by
based on the 1/9 power size equation discussed in C4.3.6.2 calculation using reduced section properties, and shall
and C4.3.6.4. Relative to the test results that are available, account for damage to wood around edges and below the
the ASTM D245 equation gives conservative Cfu values. bottom of incisions (199, 200).
The flat use factor, Cfu, is to be used cumulatively with the For larger sizes, such as timbers, reviews of early
size factor, CF. Since Cfu is equal to or greater than 1.0 for testing of timbers and railway ties (105, 199) indicated
dimension lumber 2" to 4" thick, its use is permitted but that a slight decrease in strength properties for timbers
not required in accordance with Section 4.3.7.1. For Beams was expected, but in some cases no strength reductions
and Stringers, since Cfu is equal to or less than 1.0, its use were reported.
is required. Posts and Timbers may use the design values For timber sizes with thicknesses larger than 5 inches,
in Table 4D without the Cfu adjustment factors (Cfu = 1.0). the effects of incising are small to minimal and Ci can be
assumed to vary from 0.95 to 1.0 depending on timber
C4.3.8 Incising Factor, Ci species and size, incision depth and density, and incision
damage to wood around edges and below the bottom of
Incising involves making shallow, slit-like holes incisions. Thus, reductions provided in Table 4.3.8 are
parallel-to-grain in the surfaces of refractory wood spe- usually not applied to larger members such as solid sawn
cies to obtain deeper and more uniform penetration of timbers.
preservatives. Treating standards require incising to im-
prove pressure treatment of thin sapwood species such as C4.3.9 Repetitive Member Factor,
Douglas fir, Spruce and Hemlock, which may have heart- Cr
wood surfaces or tend to be resistant to side penetration
of preservative solutions. The 15 percent repetitive member increase in reference
The effect of the incising process has been found to bending design values, Fb, for lumber 2 to 4 inches thick is
reduce the strength properties of wood (73, 74, 105). More based on provisions in ASTM D245 (8) and D6555 (19).
recent work on nominal 2x4 lumber of multiple species It is based on the increase in load-carrying capacity and
having either 660 or 880 incisions/ft2 has shown that in- stiffness obtained when multiple framing members are
cising effects are dependent on: the number of incisions fastened together or appropriately joined by transverse
(density) per square foot of surface area; the depth, width load distributing elements. Such an increase has been
and length of individual incisions; and the damage beneath demonstrated by both analysis and test (28, 107, 149, 194).
the boundaries of the incisions (199, 200). The incising It reflects two interactions: load-sharing or redistribution
adjustment factors for E, Fb, Ft, Fv, and Fc given in Table of load among framing members and partial composite
4.3.8 of the Specification are limited to dimension lumber action of the framing member and the covering materi-
using patterns in which the incisions are not deeper than 0.4 als (149). Application of the Cr adjustment requires no
inches and no more than 1,100 per square foot in number. assumption as to which of the two types of interaction
To verify the current practices of incising across the is involved or predominates. A Cr value of 15 percent is
Western U.S., a survey was recently conducted by Western generally considered to be conservative for sawn lumber
Wood Preservers Institute and Oregon State University assemblies (111, 177, 179).
(206). It confirmed that the current incising machines The criteria for use of the repetitive member increase
used in Pacific Northwest treating plants produced aver- are three or more members in contact or spaced not more
age incising densities of 377 incisions/ft2 with a standard than 24 inches and joined by transverse load distributing
deviation of 145 incisions/ft2. The 16 plants responding to elements such that the group of members performs as a unit
the survey used incision densities between 148-638 inci- rather than as separate pieces. The members may be any
sions/ft2. Incision depth ranged from 0.04-0.24 inches and piece of dimension lumber loaded in bending, including
averaged 0.14 inch with a standard deviation of 0.06 inch. studs, rafters, truss chords, and decking, as well as joists.
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 217

The repetitive member increase also applies to an as- C4.3.13 Pressure-Preservative

sembly of three or more essentially parallel members of Treatment
equal size and of the same orientation which are in direct
contact with each other (28). In this case the transverse The provision in the NDS for use of reference design
elements may be mechanical fasteners such as nails, nail values with lumber that has been preservative treated (170,
gluing, tongue-and-groove joints, or bearing plates. The 169, 168, 171, 172, 175) is applicable to material that has
required condition is that the three or more members act been treated and redried in accordance with AWPA Stan-
together to resist the applied moment. dards. In AWPA Standards, the maximum temperature for
kiln drying material after treatment is 165EF (22). C
C4.3.10 Column Stability Factor, CP
C4.3.14 Format Conversion Factor,
See C3.7.1.

COMMENTARY: SAWN LUMBER

KF (LRFD Only)
C4.3.11 Buckling Stiffness Factor, See C2.3.5.
CT
C4.3.15 Resistance Factor, f (LRFD
See C4.4.2. Only)
C4.3.12 Bearing Area Factor, Cb See C2.3.6.

See C3.10.4. C4.3.16 Time Effect Factor, λ (LRFD

Only)

See C2.3.7.

C4.4 Special Design Considerations

C4.4.1 Stability of Bending to cupping or twisting of deep members as a result of
Members drying in service. Intermittent bridging specified in NDS
4.4.1.2(d) is not required in combination with tension and
C4.4.1.1 Bending design values, Fb, given in NDS compression edge bracing specified in NDS 4.4.1.2(e).
Supplement Tables 4A through 4F are based on a bending The approximate rules of NDS 4.4.1.2(c) are equiva-
member having a compression edge supported through- lent to the beam stability provisions of NDS 3.3.3.3. For
out its length or having a depth to breadth ratio of one or larger depth to breadth ratios the NDS 4.4.1.2 bracing
less. When these conditions do not exist, Fb values are to rules are more restrictive than provisions of NDS 3.3.3.3.
be adjusted by the beam stability factor, CL, calculated For smaller ratios the NDS 4.4.1.2 bracing rules are less
in accordance with the procedures of NDS 3.3.3. As an restrictive, with the difference between effective bending
alternative method, bracing rules provided in NDS 4.4.1.2 stress based on the two methods increasing as Fb increases
are an acceptable method for providing restraint to pre- and E decreases.
vent lateral displacement or rotation of lumber bending C4.4.1.3 Tests of heavily stressed biaxial beam-
members (181). columns showed that the bracing members could buckle
C4.4.1.2 Sheathing, subflooring, or decking attached as a result of the combination of loads applied directly on
with two or more fasteners per piece provide acceptable the bracing member and the loads induced by the beam-
edge restraint for a joist, rafter, or beam loaded through column as it buckles (147). Bracing members providing
these load distributing elements. The requirement for lateral support to a beam-column will typically have only
bridging in the form of diagonal cross bracing or solid one edge braced (such as a sheathed purlin bracing a raf-
blocking in NDS 4.4.1.2(d) and the requirement for both ter). The bracing member should have sufficient capacity
edges to be supported in NDS 4.4.1.2(e) address: (i) redis- to carry the additional compression load produced by the
tribution of concentrated loads from long span members beam-column as it tends to buckle.
to adjacent members, and (ii) localized eccentricities due
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
218 NDS COMMENTARY: SAWN LUMBER

C4.4.2 Wood Trusses tions at the corners of the notch caused lower proportional
limit loads and caused failure to begin at lower loads than
C4.4.2.1 These provisions recognize the contribution those expected from an unnotched bending member hav-
of wood structural panel (WSP) sheathing to the buckling ing a depth equal to the net depth of the notched bending
resistance of compression truss chords (in the plane of member (184, 181).
the chord depth). Quantification of the increase in chord In the 1977 edition, as a result of field experience and
buckling resistance from plywood sheathing was based on new research related to crack propagation, the use of the
research (53, 55) involving stiffness tests of sheathed 2×4 net section procedure for determining induced bending
members, nail slip tests, use of existing methodology for moment in notched bending members was discontinued
estimating the nail slip modulus of combinations of materi- and specific notch limitations were established for different
als (155, 159), and application of a finite element analysis bending member sizes. These new provisions were contin-
program for layered wood systems (149). It was found ued in the 1986 and 1991 editions. The field performance
that the sheathing contribution increases with decrease in history considered included: (i) large bending members
modulus of elasticity of the chord, with increase in span, end-notched to the quarter points of the span which exhib-
and with increase in fastener slip modulus. Effects of ited splitting and tension perpendicular to grain separations
plywood thickness and chord specific gravity were found at relatively low loads; and (ii) the long record of satisfac-
to be of lesser significance. tory performance of light-frame construction joists notched
While research was conducted using plywood, the using good practice recommendations. Fracture mechanics
application applies to all WSP including OSB. research also confirmed and quantified the propensity of
The difference between the two Km factors reflects cracks to develop at square-cornered notches at relatively
the effect of drying on the nail load-slip modulus. The low bending loads (92, 91, 132). Narrow slit notches (3/32
equations apply to chord lengths up to 96 inches, 2×4 or inch long) were found to cause greater strength reductions
smaller chords in trusses spaced 24 inches or less, and 3/8 than wide (greater than two inches long) notches of the
inch or thicker WSP nailed to the narrow face of the chord same depth. The interaction of size and crack propagation
using recommended schedules (38). has been characterized, with crack initiation increasing
The analyses on which the equations are based as- in proportion to the square root of the bending member
sumed nails adjacent to joints between panel edges were depth for a given relative notch depth and constant induced
located one inch from the panel edge, a chord specific bending and shear stress (183).
gravity (oven dry volume basis) of 0.42 and an open joint C4.4.3.1 Tension perpendicular to grain stresses occur
without H clips between sheathing panels. Clips were with shear stresses at end notches to make a bending member
estimated to increase the CT factor by 5 percent (53). more susceptible to splitting at the corner of such notches.
Because the buckling stiffness factor decreases with The limitation on end notches in sawn lumber bending
increase in chord modulus of elasticity, the 1977 equations members to 1/4 or less the bending member depth is a good
were based on the 5 percent exclusion value of E for the practice recommendation that also reflects experi­ence and
visually graded lumber species and grade having the high- the effects of shrinkage stresses.
est reference design value. The 5 percent value was used C4.4.3.2 The allowance of notches on both the ten-
because this is the basis for the E value used to establish sion and compression sides of two and three inch thick
the Euler column buckling load. It should be noted that sawn lumber bending members up to 1/6 the depth of the
the decrease in the relative contribution of sheathing that member in the outer thirds of a single span is consistent
occurs as chord E increases above the 5 percent exclusion with good practice recommendations for light-frame
level is more than offset by the increase in the E of the construction (180). The satisfactory field performance of
chord itself. notched joists meeting these limitations, without use of
the net section at the notch to determine actual stress, is
C4.4.3 Notches attributed in part to the fact that reference bending design
values (Fb) for the dimension grades of lumber already
Prior to 1977, the Specification provided for the use include section reductions for edge knots ranging from 1/6
of the net section at the notch for determining the bending to 1/2 the depth of the member. The restriction on interior
strength of a notched bending member. This provision was notches in the tension side of nominal four inch and thicker
based on early research which indicated that use of the net sawn lumber bending members is based on experience with
section at the notch was a sufficiently conservative design larger bending members and fracture mechanics analyses,
basis for commercial grades of sawn lumber (184, 181). as well as consideration of the shrinkage stresses that occur
It was recognized even at that time that stress concentra- in such members when seasoning in service. Such stresses
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 219

contribute to the perpendicular to grain stress conditions

existing at the notch corners.
C4.4.3.3 The design provisions for shear in notched
bending members given in NDS 3.4.3 include a magnifi-
cation factor to account for tension perpendicular to grain
stresses that occur with shear stresses making a bending
member more susceptible to splitting at the corner of such
notches.
C

COMMENTARY: SAWN LUMBER

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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
220 NDS COMMENTARY: STRUCTURAL GLUED LAMINATED TIMBER

C5 STRUCTURAL GLUED
LAMINATED TIMBER
C5.1 General
Structural glued laminated timber, consisting of in U.S. Department of Agriculture Technical Bulletin 691
multiple layers of wood glued together with the grain of (166). These procedures provided for the use of lower
all layers approximately parallel, began its growth as a grades of lumber in the inner laminations than in the outer
significant structural material in the United States in the laminations. A simplified method of establishing design
1930’s. Technology developed in the formulation and use values from basic stresses also was given which was based
of casein glues to fabricate structural members in wood on use of only two grades of lumber: one allowing knots
aircraft during and after World War I was extended to the up to one-fourth the width of the piece and one allowing
construction of larger structural framing members used in up to one-eighth the width of the piece.
buildings (181). The resistance of these glues to elevated Design procedures for structural glued laminated
relative humidities coupled with the use of pressing sys- timber were codified as national standards of practice
tems that could provide continuous pressure to all glue in 1943 as part of the War Production Board’s Directive
lines enabled the manufacture of large beams, arches and No. 29 (153) and then in 1944 as part of the first edition
other curved shapes with assured durability. The subse- of the National Design Specification (96). Design values
quent development of resorcinol and other synthetic resin established in the first edition were the same as those for
glues with high moisture resistance expanded the uses of the grade of sawn lumber used (based on the procedures
structural glued laminated timber to bridges, marine con- in Miscellaneous Publication 185) except that increases
struction and other applications involving direct exposure for seasoning were permitted in compression parallel to
to the weather. grain and for all properties except shear parallel to grain
Glued laminated members are made of dry lumber when lumber two inches or less in thickness was used. In
laminations in which the location and frequency of knots addition, increases were permitted for constructions in
and other strength reducing characteristics can be con- which knot limitations were twice as restrictive as those
trolled. The result is a structural product in which splits, applicable to inner laminations. The procedures published
checks and loosening of fasteners associated with drying in 1939 in Technical Bulletin 691 also were allowed as
in service are greatly reduced and relatively high strength alternative methods.
is achieved. The regional lumber rules writing agencies used
The early development of design values for structural the new Forest Products Laboratory procedures (49) to
glued laminated timber paralleled that for visually graded establish specifications for the design and fabrication of
lumber. In 1934, methods published in the U.S. Department structural glued laminated lumber which provided design
of Agriculture’s Miscellaneous Publication 185 for the values for various species and lamination grade combina-
grading and determination of working stresses for struc- tions. Design values established by these regional agencies
tural timbers (167) were also applied to structural glued were published in the Specification from 1951 through the
laminated timber. Under these procedures, strength values 1968 editions.
for small, clear, straight-grained wood were reduced for A national consensus product standard covering
load duration, variability, size and factor of safety to basic minimum requirements for the production of structural
stresses; and then these stresses were further reduced to glued laminated timber was promulgated as Commercial
account for the effects of knots, slope of grain and other Standard CS253-63 by the U.S. Department of Commerce
characteristics permitted in the grade of lumber being used in 1963 (133).
as laminations. These design values were assigned by the In 1970, the American Institute of Timber Construction
manufacturers to the species and grades of structural glued (AITC) assumed responsibility for developing laminating
laminated timber being produced. combinations and related design values for structural glued
The earliest comprehensive procedures for establish- laminated timber. Beginning with the 1971 edition of the
ing design values that were specifically developed for Specification, the design values established by AITC (130,
structural glued laminated timber were published in 1939 131) have been those published in the Specification.
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 221

In 1973, the CS253 standard was revised and re- consisting of graded veneers bonded together with grain
promulgated by the U.S. Department of Commerce as parallel longitudinally, and manufactured lumber, lumber
Voluntary Product Standard PS 56-73 (134). In 1983, the of two or more pieces glued together, may be used for
standard was adopted as an American National Standard tension laminations where high tensile strength is required
through American National Standards Institute’s (ANSI) (2).
consensus process, it is now published as ANSI/AITC Adhesives and glued joints in structural glued
A190.1 (2). This product standard includes requirements laminated timber members are required to meet the testing
for sizes, grade combinations, adhesives, inspection, test- and related requirements of ANSI/AITC A190.1.
ing and certification of structural glued laminated timber C
products. Under A190.1, the grade combinations and re- C5.1.3 Standard Sizes
lated design values for structural glued laminated timber
are required to be developed in accordance with ASTM C5.1.3.1 The finished widths of structural glued

COMMENTARY: STRUCTURAL GLUED LAMINATED TIMBER

D3737 or obtained by performance testing and analysis laminated timber members are typically less than the
in accordance with recognized standards. Procedures dimensions of surfaced lumber from which it is made in
embodied in this ASTM standard, first published in 1978, order to allow for removal of excess adhesive from the
reflect the previously used methodology (49) as modified edges of the laminations and preparation of a smooth
by data from a succession of more recent full-scale test surface. This is done by removing from 3/8 to 3/4 inch
programs (2). of the width from the original lumber width by planing
or sanding.
C5.1.1 Scope For applications where appearance is not important,
structural glued laminated timbers having a finished width
C5.1.1.1 The design requirements given in Chapters 1 matching the dimensions of standard framing lumber
through 3 of the Specification are applicable to structural widths are available in a Framing appearance grade. This
glued laminated timber except where indicated otherwise. appearance grade is not generally suitable for members
Chapter 5 of the Specification contains provisions which which will be exposed to view (128).
are particular to structural glued laminated timber. Widths other than standard sizes can be specified.
The provisions of Chapter 5 contain only the basic These special widths require use of larger nominal lumber
requirements applicable to engineering design of structural which may result in significant waste. For example, a 7
glued laminated timber. Specific detailed requirements, inch glued laminated beam would require the use 2x10
such as those for curved and tapered members and con- (9.25 inch) lumber laminations while a 6-3/4 inch beam
nection details, are available from the American Institute would require 2x8 (7.25 inch) lumber laminations. While
of Timber Construction (140) and APA – The Engineered not specified as a standard size, other widths such as 3-1/2
Wood Association. inch and 5-1/2 inch may be available as stock items.
C5.1.1.2 Where design values other than those given NDS Table 5.1.3 indicates standard widths for
in NDS Supplement Tables 5A, 5B, 5C, and 5D, or as structural glued laminated timber members made from
provided in the adjustments and footnotes of these tables laminations of the indicated nominal widths. For example,
are used, it shall be the designer’s responsibility to assure structural glued laminated timber members with a net
that the values have been developed in accordance with width of 3 inches or 3-1/8 inches are manufactured from
all applicable provisions of ASTM D3737 and ANSI/ nominal 4 inch wide lumber laminations and structural
AITC A190.1. glued laminated timber members with a net width of
The design provisions in the Specification for 10-1/2 inches or 10-3/4 inches are made from nominal
structural glued laminated timber apply only to material 12 inch wide lumber laminations. Dimension lumber is
certified by an approved agency as conforming to ANSI/ not typically available in nominal widths greater than
AITC A190.1. The local building code body having 12 inches, so structural glued laminated timber members
jurisdiction over the structural design is the final authority wider than 10-3/4 inches are typically manufactured from
as to the competency of the certifying agency and the multiple-piece laminations (across the width). A 12 inch
acceptability of its grademarks. or 12-1/4 inch wide member is typically manufactured
from a nominal 6 inch wide piece of lumber placed next
C5.1.2 Definition to a nominal 8 inch wide piece of lumber (total nominal
width of lamination is 14 inches). It could also be made
Laminations of structural glued laminated timber are from a nominal 10 inch wide piece of lumber placed next
usually made of sawn lumber. Laminated veneer lumber, to a nominal 4 inch wide piece (total nominal width of
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
222 NDS COMMENTARY: STRUCTURAL GLUED LAMINATED TIMBER

lamination is 14 inches). A 14 inch or 14-1/4 inch wide C5.1.4 Service Conditions

member, is made from a nominal 10 inch piece of lumber
placed next to a nominal 6 inch piece of lumber (total C5.1.4.1 Where the equilibrium moisture content
nominal width of lamination is 16 inches). In members of members in service is less than 16 percent, the dry
composed of multiple-piece laminations across the width, service design values tabulated in NDS Supplement Tables
edge joints in the laminations are staggered so they don’t 5A, 5B, 5C, and 5D apply. A dry service condition for
align in adjacent laminations. Edge joints in members structural glued laminated timber prevails in most covered
with multiple-piece laminations (across the width) are not structures. However, members used in interior locations
typically bonded unless specifically required by the design. of high humidity, such as may occur in certain industrial
C5.1.3.2 The sizes of structural glued laminated timber operations or over unventilated swimming pools, may
are designated by the actual size after manufacture. Depths reach an equilibrium moisture content of 16 percent or
are usually produced in increments of the thickness of the more. In such conditions, wet service factors should be
lamination used. For straight or slightly curved members, applied to reference design values.
this is a multiple of 1-1/2 inches for western species and C5.1.4.2 Glued laminated members used in exterior
1-3/8 inches for southern pine. The faces of southern pine exposures that are not protected from the weather by a
lumber generally are resurfaced prior to gluing, thereby roof, overhang, or eave and are subject to water exposure
reducing the thickness of this material an additional 1/8 for a sustained period of time are generally considered wet
inch. For sharply curved members, nominal 1 inch rather conditions of use. Adjustment factors, CM, are provided in
than 2 inch thick lumber is used (140). NDS Supplement Tables 5A through 5D for uses where
When members are tapered, the depth at the beginning this limit will be exceeded. Bridges, towers, and loading
and the end of the taper should be designated. In all cases, docks represent typical wet service applications. Uses in
the length and net cross-section dimensions of all members which the member is in contact with the ground should be
should be specified. considered wet use for those portions of the member that
will attain a moisture content of 16 percent or more. Where
wet service conditions apply, the susceptibility of the
member to decay and the need for preservative treatment
(see C5.3.11) should also be considered.

C5.2 Reference Design Values

C5.2.1 Reference Design Values particular laminating combination from NDS Supplement
Table 5A Expanded is also permissible.
Reference design values in NDS Supplement Tables NDS Supplement Table 5A Expanded. Reference
5A (and Table 5A Expanded) and 5B are for members design values in this table are for softwood laminating
made with softwood species. Reference design values in combinations that have been optimized for members
NDS Supplement Tables 5C and 5D are for members made stressed in bending about the x-x axis (loads applied
with hardwood species. perpendicular to the wide face of the laminations). These
NDS Supplement Table 5A. Reference design values values apply to members having 4 or more laminations and
in this table are for softwood laminating combinations are divided into stress classes for which the combination
that have been optimized for members stressed in bending qualifies. The combination symbol in the first column
about the x-x axis (loads applied perpendicular to the wide designates a specific combination and lay-up of grades of
face of the laminations). These values apply to members lumber. For example, 16F-V6 indicates a combination with
having 4 or more laminations. The stress class in the first a bending design value, Fbx, of 1600 psi (column 3–tension
column represents multiple laminating combinations, zone stressed in tension) made with visually graded lumber
which have at least the indicated design properties. The (V). In the same format, 24F-E1 indicates an Fbx of 2400
stress class system was developed to simplify the design psi (column 3–tension zone stressed in tension) made with
and specification of structural glued laminated timbers E-rated lumber. The second column of NDS Supplement
and to allow the manufacturer to supply laminated timbers Table 5A Expanded indicates the species used for the outer
which meet the stress class requirements, while making the laminations and for the core laminations of the member.
most efficient use of available resources. Specification of a For example, DF/HF indicates Douglas Fir-Larch is used
for the outer laminations and Hem-Fir is used for the core
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 223

laminations. Lay-up details for softwood combinations are laminations near the top and bottom of the section and
available in AITC 117(131). lower grade laminations in the core. Testing of glulam
NDS Supplement Table 5B. Reference design values beams has demonstrated that the strength of tension
in this table are for softwood laminating combinations laminations is critical and that laminations of a somewhat
that have been optimized for stresses due to axial loading lower grade can be used in the compression zone of a
or to bending about the y-y axis (loads applied parallel beam without reducing the capacity of the beam. These
to the wide face of the laminations). Each combination unbalanced layups are more resource-efficient for
consists of a single grade of one species of lumber. The applications such as simply-supported beams where the
grade associated with each numbered combination can be beam is bent in only one direction. Balanced layups are C
obtained from AITC 117 (131). recommended for applications involving both positive
NDS Supplement Table 5C. Reference design values and negative bending. The top faces of glulam beams are
in this table are for hardwood laminating combinations marked “TOP” to ensure proper installation.

COMMENTARY: STRUCTURAL GLUED LAMINATED TIMBER

that have been optimized for members stressed in bending
about the x-x axis (loads applied perpendicular to the wide C5.2.4 Bending, Fbx+, Fbx-, Fby
face of the laminations). These values apply to members
having 4 or more laminations. The combination symbol Positive and negative bending design values are
in the first column designates a specific combination and tabulated for bending about the x-x axis. The positive
lay-up of grades of lumber. For example, 16F-V1 indicates bending design value, Fbx+, is used for both flexural tension
a combination with a bending design value, Fbx, of 1600 and flexural compression in sections subjected to bending
psi (column 2–tension zone stressed in tension) made with causing compression at the top edge and tension at the
visually graded lumber (V). In the same format, 24F-E2 bottom edge. The negative bending design value, Fbx-, is
indicates an Fbx of 2400 psi (column 2–tension zone stressed used for both flexural tension and flexural compression in
in tension) made with E-rated lumber. Lay-up details for sections subject to bending causing tension at the top edge
hardwood combinations are available in AITC 119 (130). and compression at the bottom edge.
NDS Supplement Table 5D. Reference design values
in this table are for hardwood laminating combinations C5.2.5 Compression Perpendicular
that have been optimized for stresses due to axial loading to Grain, Fc^x, Fc^y
or to bending about the y-y axis (loads applied parallel
to the wide face of the laminations). Each combination The appropriate design value for compression
consists of a single grade of one species of lumber. The perpendicular to grain is based on the density of the
grade associated with each numbered combination can be lamination(s) at the location of bearing stress. Design
obtained from the AITC 119 (130). values for compression perpendicular to grain on the top
and bottom of the beam are assigned based on the grade
C5.2.2 Orientation of Member of the laminations at those locations. Design values for
bearing on the side of glulam beams are assigned based on
Reference design values for structural glued laminated the lowest grade of lumber used in the layup. Because the
timber are primarily developed using provisions from laminations used on the top and bottom of glulam beams
ASTM D3737 (13). The various models contained in are commonly more dense than the core laminations,
D3737 result in different design values based on the higher values of compression perpendicular to grain are
orientation of the member with respect to transverse loads. commonly used for bearing on the top or bottom faces
These different values reflect both the use of mixed-grade than on the side.
layups and differences in the placement of strength-
reducing characteristics between laminations on edge and C5.2.6 Shear Parallel to Grain, Fvx,
laminations used flatwise. The x-x and y-y axes are defined Fvy
relative to the orientation of the laminations, not the overall
dimensions of the laminated timber cross section. Reference design values for shear have traditionally
been derived from tests of small shear-block specimens.
C5.2.3 Balanced and Unbalanced The current reference design values are based on tests of
Layups full-scale prismatic beams subjected to quasi-static load-
Multiple-grade layups of structural glued laminated ing conditions. Application of the shear reduction factor
timber are optimized for bending by placing high grade reduces the reference stress to approximately the value

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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
224 NDS COMMENTARY: STRUCTURAL GLUED LAMINATED TIMBER

derived from the shear-block tests for cases which were C5.2.8 Radial Tension, Frt
not tested as part of the full-scale test program.
The shear stress reduction of 0.84 and 0.95 for use with Radial tension stresses are induced in curved bending
members of only two laminations or three laminations, members when bending loads tend to flatten out the curve
respectively, shall be applied cumulatively with the Shear or increase the radius of curvature. In earlier editions,
Reduction Factor, Cvr, in 5.3.10. radial tension design values perpendicular to grain were
established as 1/3 the corresponding shear design value
C5.2.7 Modulus of Elasticity, Ex, parallel to grain for all species. This provision was based
Ex min, Ey, Ey min on strength data for small, clear specimens free of checks
and other seasoning effects (9). It is important to note that
Reference design values for Ex and Ey represent the the factor of 1/3 applies to the shear value for non-prismatic
average bending moduli for bending about the x-x and y-y members (FvxCvr). As a result of field experience, the radial
axes, respectively. These values include a 5% reduction to tension reference design value perpendicular to grain for
account for shear deformations and are customarily used Douglas Fir-Larch was limited to 15 psi except for condi-
for serviceability calculations. For calculations of beam and tions created by wind and earthquake loading. In 1991, this
column stability, the appropriate reference design values limit was expanded to all western species.
(Exmin and Eymin) are determined using the following equation:
E 1 − 1.645 ( CoVE )  [1.05] E 1 − 1.645 ( 0.10 )  [1.05] C5.2.9 Radial Compression, Frc
Emin = = 0.528
1.66 1.66
Because radial stresses are maximum at the neutral
where:
axis of a curved beam, the appropriate design value to use
E = reference modulus of elasticity for radial compression is the compression perpendicular
1.05 = adjustment factor to convert E values to a to grain design value for the laminations used in the core
pure bending basis of the beam. This value is equal to the design value for
bearing on the side face of a beam, Fc^y.
1.66 = factor of safety

CoVE = coefficient of variation in modulus of C5.2.10 Other Species and Grades

elasticity (see NDS Appendix F)
See C5.1.1.2.

C5.3 Adjustment of Reference Design Values

C5.3.1 General associated with this exposure. Since radial tension, Frt, is
based on shear parallel to grain, Fv, Footnote 2 in Table
Applicable adjustment factors for structural glued 5.3.1 is intended to clarify that CM for Fv is also applicable
laminated timbers are specified in Table 5.3.1 of the to Frt.
Specification.
C5.3.4 Temperature Factor, Ct
C5.3.2 Load Duration Factor, CD
(ASD Only) See C2.3.3. Since radial tension, Frt, is based on shear
parallel to grain, Fv, Footnote 2 in Table 5.3.1 is intended
See C2.3.2. to clarify that Ct for Fv is also applicable to Frt.

C5.3.3 Wet Service Factor, CM C5.3.5 Beam Stability Factor, CL

The wet service reduction value, CM, for Fb, Ft, Fv, Fc^ Reference bending design values, Fb, given in NDS
Fc, and E in NDS Supplement Tables 5A, 5B, 5C, and 5D Supplement Tables 5A, 5B, 5C, and 5D are based on
are based on provisions of ASTM D3737 (13). The wet members having a compression edge supported through-
service factors account for both the decrease in mechanical out its length or having a depth to breadth ratio of one or
properties and the increase in cross-section dimensions less. When these conditions do not exist, Fb values are to
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 225

be adjusted by the beam stability factor, CL, calculated in member orientation, and direction of loading, for appli-
accordance with the procedures of NDS 3.3.3. Because cability of the flat use factor.
the tendency of the compression portion of the beam to
buckle is a function of beam stiffness about the y-y axis C5.3.8 Curvature Factor, Cc
for beams loaded in bending about the x-x axis, all glued
laminated beam stability factor calculations are to be made When the individual laminations of structural glued
with values of modulus of elasticity for bending about the laminated timber members are bent to shape in curved
y-y axis, Eymin, modified by all applicable adjustment fac- forms, bending stresses are induced in each lamination
tors (see also C3.3.3). that remain after gluing. In addition, the distribution of C
stresses about the neutral axis of curved members is not
C5.3.6 Volume Factor, CV linear. The curvature factor, Cc, is an adjustment of refer-
ence bending design values, Fb, to account for the effects

COMMENTARY: STRUCTURAL GLUED LAMINATED TIMBER

The volume factor adjustment for structural glued of these two conditions.
laminated timber beams includes terms for the effects of The curvature factor equation given in NDS 5.3.8 is
width, length, and depth. The volume factor (CV) equation based on early tests (166). The limits on the ratio of lamina-
(NDS Equation 5.3-1) is based on research involving tests tion thickness to radius of curvature of 1/100 for southern
of beams 5-1/8 and 8-3/4 inches wide, 6 to 48 inches deep, pine and hardwoods and 1/125 for other softwood species
and 10 to 68 feet in length (90). This equation is based on are imposed to avoid overstressing or possible breaking
the volume effect equation given in ASTM D3737 (13). of the laminations.
The volume factor, CV, applies when structural glued Radii of curvature used in practice generally are larger
laminated timber bending members are loaded in bending than those allowed by the specified minimum thickness/
about the x-x axis. radius of curvature ratios. For nominal 1 inch thick lamina-
As indicated in Footnote 1 to NDS Table 5.3.1, the tions (3/4 inch net), radii of curvature of 7 feet and 9.3 feet
volume factor, CV, is not applied simultaneously with the are typically used with southern pine and other softwood
beam stability factor, CL. The smaller of the two adjust- species, respectively. For nominal 2 inch laminations (1.5
ment factors applies. This provision is a continuation of inches net), a radius of curvature of 27.5 feet is commonly
the practice of considering beam stability and bending size used for all species.
modifications separately. The practice is based on design
experience and the position that beam buckling is associ- C5.3.9 Stress Interaction Factor, CI
ated with stresses on the compression side of the beam,
whereas bending design values and the effect of volume Prismatic beam design neglects the potential interac-
on such values are related primarily to the properties of tion of shear and bending stresses, because the maximum
the laminations stressed in tension. values of these stresses occur at different locations in the
cross section. For beams with a tapered edge, the shear
C5.3.7 Flat Use Factor, Cfu stress distribution is altered. In addition, perpendicular
to grain stresses are developed along the tapered edge.
The flat use factor, Cfu, applies where glued laminated Taper cuts are, therefore, not recommended on the ten-
timber bending members are loaded in bending about the sion faces of beams since they cause tension stresses to
y-y axis. The Cfu factors given in NDS Supplement Tables develop perpendicular to grain. The stress interaction
5A, 5B, 5C, and 5D are applied only to the tabulated Fbyy factor, CI, accounts for the interaction of flexure, shear,
design values in these tables and cover only those members and perpendicular-to-grain stresses along the tapered edge.
which are less than 12" in dimension parallel to the wide The stress interaction factor, CI, does not apply simul-
face of the laminations, dy. For bending members loaded taneously with the volume effect factor, CV, for members
parallel to the wide face of the laminations with the dimen- tapered on the compression face, because, in this case,
sion of the member in this direction greater than 12", a flat the volume factor accounts for tension-side effects, and
use factor based on Equation 4.3-1 of the Specification the combined beam stability factor and stress interaction
should be used. factor account for compression-side effects. Therefore, in
Provisions reflect standard nomenclature used by the the case of a tapered compression face, the lesser of CV
glued-laminated timber industry. The term “dy” refers to or CLCI applies. Similarly, the stress interaction factor,
the member dimension parallel to the wide faces of the CI, does not apply simultaneously with the lateral stabil-
laminations. NDS Figure 5B clarifies the dimension “dy”, ity factor, CL, for members tapered on the tension face,
because in this case the beam stability factor accounts for
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
226 NDS COMMENTARY: STRUCTURAL GLUED LAMINATED TIMBER

compression side effects and the combined volume factor C5.3.12 Bearing Area Factor, Cb
and stress interaction factor account for tension side ef-
fects. Therefore, in the case of a tapered tension face, the See C3.10.4.
lesser of CVCI or CL applies.
C5.3.13 Pressure-Preservative
C5.3.10 Shear Reduction Factor, Cvr Treatment
The provision in the NDS for use of reference design
The shear reduction factor, Cvr, previously appearing as
values with structural glued laminated timber that has been
a footnote to glued-laminated timber design value tables in
preservative treated is applicable to material that has been
the NDS Supplement, was added to the 2012 edition of the
treated and redried in accordance with AWPA Standards.
Specification as an adjustment factor applicable for shear
In AWPA Standards, the maximum temperature for kiln
design of other than prismatic beams such as for the design
drying material after treatment is 165°F (22).
of notched members, curved members, tapered members,
design for radial tension, and shear design at connections.
The term “non-prismatic” is used to designate a broad
C5.3.14 Format Conversion Factor,
range of products including curved beams and arches,
KF (LRFD Only)
tapered beams, pitched and tapered curved beams, and See C2.3.5.
generally members with any geometry other than straight
or mildly cambered with constant depth. C5.3.15 Resistance Factor, f (LRFD
Only)
C5.3.11 Column Stability Factor, CP See C2.3.6.
See C3.7.1.
C5.3.16 Time Effect Factor, λ (LRFD
Only)
See C2.3.7.

C5.4 Special Design Considerations

C5.4.1 Curved Bending Members C5.4.1.4 The downward deflection of curved beams
with Constant Cross Section results in lateral displacement of the unrestrained beam ends.
This lateral displacement must be considered in the design
C5.4.1.3 The equation for determining radial stress of beams and in the connection between beams and walls.
in a curved member of constant rectangular cross sec-
tion is based on research published in 1939 (166). Radial C5.4.2 Double-Tapered Curved
stresses in curved members having variable cross section Bending Members
are determined by different procedures (46, 56). Complete
design procedures for such members are available from C5.4.2.1 The bending stress, fb, for curved beams of
other recognized sources (140). variable cross section, such as pitched tapered curved
Where the bending moment acts to reduce curvature, beams, is greater than for straight prismatic members and
the radial stress is to be checked against the adjusted ra- is increased by the bending stress factor, Kf, (NDS Equa-
dial tension design value perpendicular to grain, Frt' (see tion 5.4-2) due to the shape of the member.
C5.2.2). When mechanical reinforcing is provided which C5.4.2.2 Design of double-tapered curved members
is sufficient to resist all induced radial stresses, the actual for shear is identical to the design of prismatic members,
radial stress is still limited to no more than (1/3) Fvx'. except loads within a distance d from the support are not
Where the bending moment acts to increase curva- permitted to be neglected and the shear stress reduction
ture, the radial stress is to be checked against the adjusted factor is applied.
compression design value perpendicular to grain. The C5.4.2.3 The shape of double-tapered curved members
appropriate compression perpendicular-to-grain design alters the stress distribution for radial stresses in the curved
value for use is the value corresponding to the lamination segment of the beam, rendering Equation 5.4-1 inapplicable.
grades used in the core of the beam, Fc^. The empirical radial stress factor, Krs, is used with the flexure
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 227

formula at the section through the beam apex to estimate the should be contacted to determine the appropriate reference
value of the radial stress at that section for the case of a beam design values for field-tapered members (see also C5.3.9).
subject to pure bending moment. The empirical load-shape C5.4.4.2 Design of tapered straight members for shear
radial stress reduction factor, Crs, accounts for reduced radial is identical to the design of prismatic members, except
stresses that exist in a uniformly loaded beam. loads within a distance d from the support are not permit-
C5.4.2.4 Due to the variable cross section, strict evalu- ted to be neglected and the shear stress reduction factor
ation of the deflection of a double-tapered curved beam is applied.
requires more advanced analysis techniques such as virtual C.5.4.4.3 Due to the variable cross section, strict evalu-
work or finite element modeling. A simplified approach has ation of the deflection of a tapered beam requires more C
been developed that uses a prismatic rectangular beam of advanced analysis techniques such as virtual work or finite
equivalent depth to estimate the deflection. This approach element. A simplified approach has been developed that
is permitted to be used in lieu of more complex methods. uses a prismatic rectangular beam of equivalent depth to

COMMENTARY: STRUCTURAL GLUED LAMINATED TIMBER

Vertical deflection of double-tapered curved beams estimate the deflection. This approach is permitted to be
results in lateral displacement of the beam ends. NDS used in lieu of more complex methods.
Equation 5.4-5 provides an estimate of the displacement
at each support. The total horizontal displacement is equal C5.4.5 Notches
to 2DH.
The designer has the responsibility of determining if
C5.4.3 Lateral Stability for Tudor structural glued laminated timber bending members should
Arches be notched and how load-carrying capacity should be
calculated. Current good engineer­ing practice is to avoid
Prescriptive limitations on the ratio of tangent point all notching of such bending members on the tension side
depth to breadth (d/b) for glulam arches are based on long- except where end notch­ing at the supports is necessary. End
standing industry recommendations and field experience notches on the tension face are limited to the lesser of 1/10
over many years. of the bending member depth or 3 inches (140). Notches
In determining the adequacy of lateral support, deck- on the compression face of the beam are less severe and
ing or subflooring applied directly to a beam with two or consequently less restrictive, particularly for taper cuts.
more fasteners per piece is acceptable edge restraint for a The effect of notches located at the ends of beams is
beam loaded through such decking or subflooring. Rafters, generally limited to a reduction of shear capacity for the
joists, or purlins attached two feet or less on center to the beam. However, notches that extend a long distance from
side of a beam and stabilized through the attachment of the end of the member may also reduce the bending load-
sheathing or subflooring are acceptable edge restraint for carrying capacity and increase the deflection. For notches
a beam that is loaded through such rafters, joists, or pur- extending more than 1/3 of the length of the member, the
lins. Recent research has shown that the bottom edges of effects of the notch on bending and deflection must also be
rafters, joists, or purlins attached to the sides of beams by considered based on 5.4.4. The methods of NDS 3.4.3 are
strap hangers or similar means do not have to be fixed to used to calculate the design shear of glued laminated timber
provide adequate lateral support to the beam if their top members with end notches (140). The shear reduction factor
edges are restrained (164, 165). of 5.3.10 applies for the analysis of members with notches.
The provisions for compression-side notches do not
C5.4.4 Tapered Straight Bending consider the case of a taper cut combined with a square-
Members cornered notch such as illustrated in Figure C5.4.5. At a
minimum, for such a case, each type of modification must
C5.4.4.1 Because glulam beams are typically manu- comply with the applicable limitation. No further guidance
factured with high grades of lumber in the top and bottom is available for the evaluation of this case.
laminations and lower grades in the core (see C5.2.2 and
C5.2.3), field-tapering a member will result in reductions Figure C5.4.5 Taper Cut Combined with
in the reference design values for the section. For beams a Square-Cornered Notch
manufactured with taper in the laminating plant, the high
grades are maintained along the full length of the taper cut
to ensure that the full design value is maintained. Manufac-
turers or trade associations representing the manufacturers

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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
228 NDS COMMENTARY: ROUND TIMBER POLES AND PILES

C6 ROUND TIMBER POLES

AND PILES
C6.1 General
Round timber piles have been widely used in the To meet the growing need for uniform design recom-
United States in the construction of railroads, highways, mendations, the American Association of State Highway
harbors and dams, as well as for building foundations, since Officials (AASHTO) began to specify allowable pile
the middle of the 18th century. In addition to availability compression design values of 1200 psi for Douglas fir and
and cost, the natural taper of round timber piles makes slightly lower values for other species in the 1940’s (176).
them relatively easy to drive, compacts the soil around However, maximum pile loads in the order of 36,000 to
the pile during driving, and provides a larger diameter butt 50,000 pounds per pile also were specified which generally
end capable of withstanding driving forces and supporting was the limiting criterion.
loads from other structural members (176). In the 1950’s, AASHTO, the American Railway
The earliest standardization effort involving timber Engineering Association, and other user groups began to
piles was the establishment of uniform size and grade char- establish pile design values using the procedures of ASTM
acteristics in ASTM D25, Standard Specification for Round D245, Standard Methods for Establishing Structural
Timber Piles (10). First developed in 1915, the current edi- Grades of Lumber (176) (see C4.2.3.2). Building codes
tion of this standard includes specifications for minimum also began to establish allowable pile stresses using basic
butt and tip sizes for various pile lengths, establishes limits stresses and other information given in ASTM D245 (161).
on crook and knot sizes, and sets minimum rate of growth Uniform national standards for development of
and percent summerwood quality requirements. strength values for timber piles became available in 1970
The establishment of standard physical characteristics with the publication of ASTM D2899, Standard Method
for timber piles in ASTM D25 was subsequently followed for Establishing Design Stresses for Round Timber Piles
by the development of standard requirements for preser- (11). This consensus standard provided for the establish-
vative treatment. Such specifications were available from ment of stresses for piles of any species meeting the size
the American Wood Preservers’ Association (AWPA) and quality requirements of ASTM D25. Under D2899,
since well before World War II (184). This Association’s clear wood property information from ASTM D2555 (9)
Standard C3, Piles-Preservative Treatment by Pressure were adjusted for grade, relation of pile tip strength to
Processes, establishes conditioning, pressure, temperature, clear wood strength, variability of pile strength to that
retention, and penetration limitations and requirements for of small clear specimens, load duration, and treatment
various preservative treatments by species and pile use conditioning effects.
(22). Because of the effect treatment processes can have In 1997, reference design values were added for con-
on strength properties, standardization of the processes struction poles based on D2899 per reference in ASTM
used are an important element in the specification and use D3200.
of timber piles. In 2003, the provisions of D2899 were revised to
Engineering design with timber piles in the early derive single pile design values rather than pile cluster
years was largely based on experience, observation of the design values derived in previous versions of D2899. As a
performance of piles under similar loading conditions, and result, beginning with the 2012 edition of the Specification
the results of static loading tests. Piles were considered to the single pile basis became the reference condition for
fall into two groups: those in which the pile tip bears on pile design values and adjustments to pile design values.
a solid layer and were designed as columns, and those in
which the pile receives most of its support from soil fric- C6.1.1 Scope
tion on the sides and were designed from driving records
or empirical formulas (184). Standard design procedures C6.1.1.2 The provisions of Chapter 6 of the Specifica-
were not available. tion relate solely to the properties of round timber poles and
piles. It is the responsibility of the designer to determine

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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 229

soil loads, such as frictional forces from subsiding soils Pile lengths range from 20 to 85 feet for southern pine and
and fills, the adequacy of the surrounding soil or water to to 120 feet for Douglas fir and other species. Pile taper is
provide sufficient lateral bracing, the method of pole or pile controlled by establishing a minimum tip circumference
placement that will preclude damage to the wood member, associated with a minimum circumference 3 feet from
the bearing capacity of the strata at the pile tip, and the the butt for each length class; or by establishing a mini-
effects of any other surrounding environmental factors on mum circumference 3 feet from the butt associated with
the supporting or loading of poles or piles. a minimum tip circumference for each length class. This
provides a known tip area for use in engineering design
C6.1.2 Specifications as well as a conservative estimate of the area at any point C
along the length of the pile.
C6.1.2.1 In addition to setting standard pile sizes, Standard sizes (12) for round timber construction poles
ASTM D25 (10) establishes minimum quality require- range from 5 to 12 inches in diameter measured at the tip.

COMMENTARY: ROUND TIMBER POLES AND PILES

ments, straightness criteria, and knot limitations. All pile Pole lengths range from 10 to 40 feet.
tips are required to have an average rate of growth of 6
or more rings per inch and percent summerwood of 33 C6.1.4 Preservative Treatment
percent or more in the outer 50 percent of the radius;
except less than 6 rings per inch growth rate is acceptable C6.1.4.1 Green timber piles are generally conditioned
if the summerwood percentage is 50 percent or more in prior to pressure treatment (22). For southern pine the
the outer 50 percent of the tip radius. Thus, 75 percent of conditioning usually involves steaming under pressure
the cross-sectional area of pile tips conforming to ASTM to obtain a temperature of 245°F and then applying a
D25 essentially meets lumber requirements for dense vacuum. The process results in water being forced out of
material (8). the outer part of the pile, but does not dry it to a seasoned
Knots in piles are limited by ASTM D25 to a diameter condition (181, 63). Conditioning of Douglas fir is usually
of not more than one-sixth of the circumference of the pile done by the Boulton or boiling-under-a-vacuum-process.
at the point where they occur. The sum of knot diameters This method of conditioning, which partially seasons the
in any one-foot length of pile is limited to one-third or less sapwood portion of the pile, involves heating the material
of the circumference. in the preservative oil under a vacuum at temperatures up
ASTM D3200 establishes standard sizes and mini- to 220°F (181, 63). The Boulton process also is used with
mum grades for construction poles based on ASTM D25 hardwood species.
for piles. Both the steaming and Boulton conditioning processes
C6.1.2.2 Preservative treatment requirements and affect pile strength properties (11, 176). The effects of
limitations differ depending upon where the piles are to be conditioning (steaming, Boultonizing, and drying) are not
used. Designation of the applicable treatment standard and included in pile design values given in Table 6A of the
use condition defines the treatment desired by the specifier. NDS Supplement and must be addressed with the reduc-
tion factors in 6.3.5.
C6.1.3 Standard Sizes C6.1.4.2 Decay does not occur in softwood species and
in most hardwoods that are completely saturated and an air
Standard sizes (10) for round timber piles range from supply is not available (63, 127). Permanently submerged
7 to 18 inches in diameter measured 3 feet from the butt. piles meet these conditions.

C6.2 Reference Design Values

C6.2.1 Reference Design Values grade, lower strength of pile tip, and lower variability of
piles compared to small clear specimens (160).
C6.2.1.1 Reference design values for round timber C6.2.1.2 Design values for round timber poles are
piles are specified in NDS Supplement Table 6A and are specified in NDS Supplement Table 6B and are based on
based on ASTM D2899 (11). All values are derived from ASTM D3200 which uses provisions from ASTM D2899
the properties of small clear specimens of the applicable (11) with similar adjustments used for round timber piles.
species as given in ASTM D2555 (9) adjusted as appropri-
ate for the specific property for variability, load duration,
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
230 NDS COMMENTARY: ROUND TIMBER POLES AND PILES

C6.2.2 Other Species or Grades sibility to assure that the methods of ASTM D2899 for
establishing design values are properly applied, including
Where piles of species other than those listed in NDS appropriate adjustments for conditioning process.
Supplement Table 6A are used, it is the designer’s respon-

C6.3 Adjustment of Reference Design Values

C6.3.1 General same equation used to make size adjustments with sawn
lumber Beams & Stringers and Posts & Timbers (see NDS
Adjustment factors for round timber poles and piles 4.3.6.3 and C4.3.6.2). When applied to round timbers,
are specified in Table 6.3.1 of the Specification. Equation 4.3-1 is entered with a d equal to the depth of a
square beam having the same cross-sectional area as that
C6.3.2 Load Duration Factor, CD of the round member. The equivalency of the load-carrying
(ASD Only) capacity of a circular member and a conventionally loaded
square member of the cross-sectional area has long been
See C2.3.2. As shown in NDS Table 6.3.1, the load recognized (98).
duration factor, CD, is not applicable to compression design
values perpendicular to grain, Fc⊥ for round timber poles C6.3.8 Column Stability Factor, CP
and piles. Pressure impregnation of water-borne preserva-
tives or fire retardant chemicals to retentions of 2.0 pcf or See C3.7.1. Column stability provisions from NDS
more may significantly reduce energy absorbing ability 3.7.1 can be used for round timber poles and piles by
as measured by work-to-maximum-load in bending. For substituting r 12 for the depth, d, in the equations,
this reason, the impact load duration adjustment is not to where r is the applicable radius of gyration of the column
be applied to members pressure-treated with preservative cross section.
oxides for salt water exposure or those pressure-treated
with fire retardant chemicals. C6.3.9 Critical Section Factor, Ccs

C6.3.4 Temperature Factor, Ct The critical section factor, Ccs, accounts for the effect
of tree height on compression design values parallel to
See C2.3.3. grain. The specific adjustment, based on D2899, provides
for an increase in the design value as the critical section
C6.3.5 Condition Treatment Factor, moves from the pile tip toward the pile butt and is limited
Cct to a maximum increase of 10%.

Reference design values for poles and piles are based C6.3.10 Bearing Area Factor, Cb
on air dried conditioning. Kiln-drying, steam conditioning,
or boultonizing prior to treatment will have the effect of See C3.10.4.
reducing the reference design value.
C6.3.11 Load Sharing Factor (Pile
C6.3.6 Beam Stability Factor, CL Group Factor), Cls

A round member can be considered to have a d/b ratio Reference design values in NDS Supplement Table
of 1 and therefore, in accordance with NDS 3.3.3.1, CL 6A are based on a single pile. Where piles are used in
equals 1.0. clusters such that the pile group deforms as a single ele-
ment,, the single pile reference compression design value
C6.3.7 Size Factor, CF parallel to grain, Fc, and the single pile reference bending
design value, Fb, are permitted to be multiplied by Cls in
Bending design values, Fb, for round timber poles and NDS Table 6.3.11.
piles that are larger than 13.5 inches in diameter at the
critical section in bending are adjusted for size using the
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 231

The load sharing factor (pile group factor) is applicable C6.3.13 Resistance Factor, f (LRFD
to Fb and Fc and is not applicable to soil-related properties Only)
such as pile tip bearing or skin friction.
See C2.3.6.
C6.3.12 Format Conversion Factor,
KF (LRFD Only) C6.3.14 Time Effect Factor, λ (LRFD
Only)
See C2.3.5.
See C2.3.7. C

COMMENTARY: ROUND TIMBER POLES AND PILES

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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
232 NDS COMMENTARY: PREFABRICATED WOOD I-JOISTS

C7 PREFABRICATED WOOD
I-JOISTS
C7.1 General
Prefabricated wood I-joists utilize the geometry of the quality assurance are necessary ingredients for the fabrica-
cross-section and high strength components to maximize tion of high-quality prefabricated wood I-joists.
the strength and stiffness of the wood fiber. Flanges are
manufactured from solid sawn lumber or structural com- Standard Sizes
posite lumber, while webs typically consist of plywood or Prefabricated wood I-joists are available in a range
oriented strand board. Wood I-joists are generally produced of sizes to handle a variety of applications. Common I-
as proprietary products. Acceptance reports and product lit- joist depths for residential flooring applications are 9.5",
erature should be consulted for current design information. 11.875", 14", and 16". These sizes do not match standard
sawn lumber depths to minimize the combined use of
C7.1.1 Scope sawn lumber with wood I-joists in the same floor system.
Mixing I-joists and sawn lumber in the same system is not
The general requirements given in Chapters 1, 2, and recommended because differences in dimensional change
3 of the Specification are applicable to prefabricated wood between sawn lumber and wood I-joists can affect load
I-joists except where indicated otherwise. Chapter 7 of the distribution as the products reach equilibrium moisture
Specification contains provisions which specifically apply content.
to prefabricated wood I-joists manufactured and evaluated
in accordance with ASTM D 5055 (15). The provisions of C7.1.3 Identification
NDS Chapter 7 contain only the basic requirements appli-
cable to engineering design of prefabricated wood I-joists. Prefabricated wood I-joists are typically identified
Specific detailed requirements, such as those for bearing, by product series and company name, plant location or
web stiffeners, web holes, and notches, are available in the number, qualified agency name or logo, code evaluation
prefabricated wood I-joist manufacturer’s literature and report numbers, and a means for establishing the date of
code evaluation reports. Code evaluation reports, where manufacture.
available for a specific product and application, contain
information to assist in the approval and use of the specific C7.1.4 Service Conditions
product in accordance with requirements of the applicable
building code. Prefabricated wood I-joists are typically used in dry
service conditions (where moisture content of sawn lumber
C7.1.2 Definition is less than 16%). I-joist manufacturers state dry service
conditions based on the moisture content of lumber since
Prefabricated wood I-joists are specialized products, the equilibrium moisture content (EMC) of I-joists is lower
manufactured with specially designed equipment. Ex- under the same environmental conditions and varies based
pertise in adhesives, wood products, manufacturing, and on the manufacturing process. For other conditions, the
I-joist manufacturer should be consulted.

C7.2 Reference Design Values

Prefabricated wood I-joists are proprietary products the manufacturer through the manufacturer’s literature or
and reference design values vary among manufacturers and code evaluation report.
product lines. Reference design values are obtained from

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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 233

C7.3 Adjustment of Reference Design Values

C7.3.1 General by direct attachment of sheathing to the I-joist. In addition,
wood I-joists should be provided with lateral support at
Applicable adjustment factors for prefabricated wood points of bearing to prevent cross-sectional rotation (twist-
I-joists are specified in Table 7.3.1 of the Specification. ing). Provisions applicable to wood I-joists are consistent
Volume effects are accounted for either directly in testing with provisions in NDS 3.3.3 as follows:
or indirectly in analysis as detailed in ASTM D 5055 (15) a) NDS 7.3.5.1 permits CL=1.0 when the com- C
and need not be considered in design. pression flange of an I-joist is supported
throughout its length to prevent lateral dis-
C7.3.2 Load Duration Factor, CD placement, consistent with NDS 3.3.3.3.

COMMENTARY: PREFABRICATED WOOD I-JOISTS

(ASD Only) b) NDS 7.3.5.2 provides a method for design-
ing the compression flange of an I-joist as an
See C2.3.2. Duration of load effects in NDS 2.3.2 ap- unbraced or partially braced column when the
ply to all prefabricated wood I-joist design values except compression flange is not braced throughout
for those relating to stiffness, EI, EImin, and K. its length, consistent with NDS 3.3.3.4.
Derivation of the beam stability equations in the NDS
C7.3.3 Wet Service Factor, CM are based on the assumption that the beam is braced against
cross-sectional rotation (twisting) and lateral displace-
Prefabricated wood I-joists are limited to use in dry ment at points of bearing (i.e., the tension edge and the
service conditions unless specifically allowed by the compression edge of the beam are held in line see Figure
manufacturer (see NDS 7.1.4). I-joists are assembled with C7.3.5). As an example, bracing against cross-sectional
exterior adhesives and can tolerate the environmental con- rotation (twisting) will prevent lateral-torsional buckling,
ditions of typical jobsites. Care should be taken, however, but bracing against lateral displacement will not neces-
to follow the manufacturer’s recommendations for proper sarily prevent rotation at the point of bearing (e.g., set of
jobsite storage to minimize dimensional changes associ- floor joists “turning over”).
ated with changes in moisture content.

C7.3.4 Temperature Factor, Ct

See C2.3.3. Prefabricated wood I-joist reference

design values are adjusted by the same temperature adjust-
ment factors as other wood products (see Table C7.3-1).

C7.3.5 Beam Stability Factor, CL

Bending design values provided in manufacturers’

code evaluation reports are based on the I-joist having the
compression flange supported throughout its entire length
to prevent lateral displacement. This condition is ensured

Table C7.3-1 Temperature Factor, Ct, for Prefabricated Wood I-Joists

In-Service Ct
Reference Design
Moisture
Values T≤100°F 100°F<T≤125°F 125°F<T≤150°F
Conditions1
EI, EImin Wet or Dry 1.0 0.9 0.9
Dry 1.0 0.8 0.7
Mr, Vr, Rr, and K
Wet 1.0 0.7 0.5
1. Wet and dry service conditions for wood I-joists are specified in NDS 7.1.4.
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234 NDS COMMENTARY: PREFABRICATED WOOD I-JOISTS

Figure C7.3.5 Example of Direct Attachment of Sheathing to Support

Compression Flange and Lateral Support at Points of Bearing

C7.3.6 Repetitive Member Factor, Cr or harsh drying cycles should be avoided. Manufacturers
should be consulted for any applications that require pre-
The repetitive member factor varies with composite servative treatment.
action across a range of I-joist depths and series, I-joist
stiffness variability, sheathing types, sheathing stiffnesses, C7.3.8 Format Conversion Factor,
and sheathing attachment. For several technical reasons, KF (LRFD Only)
the magnitude of the repetitive member factor is typically
much smaller than for sawn lumber. To provide a factor See C2.3.5.
that could be applied across all applications, this factor
was set at 1.0 in ASTM D 5055 (15) and D 6555 (19). C7.3.9 Resistance Factor, f (LRFD
Only)
C7.3.7 Pressure-Preservative
Treatment See C2.3.6.

Common treatments associated with I-joists include C7.3.10 Time Effect Factor, λ (LRFD
light solvent-based preservatives applied under low pres- Only)
sure offering protection against wood destroying fungi or
insects. Any treatment of I-joists that require high pressure See C2.3.7.

C7.4 Special Design Considerations

C7.4.1 Bearing The limit states at the bearing of an I-joist include the
I-joist reaction (integrity of the web/flange rout), flange
The end conditions of an I-joist require specific atten- compression, compression of the support, reaction hard-
tion by the designer when considering the differences of ware (hangers), and shear.
designing with an “I” shape versus rectangular sections.
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 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 235

The manufacturer’s literature or code evaluation re- C7.4.4 Notches

ports should be consulted for design assumptions at end
conditions. Reaction capacity, Rr, and shear capacity, Vr, The manufacturer’s literature or code evaluation
are typically published separately and should be checked reports should be consulted when notching of the flange
independently. Published reaction capacity is based on is being considered. However, as a general rule, flange
testing conducted at one or more bearing lengths. Extrapo- notching is not permitted.
lation beyond tested conditions is not appropriate. For end
bearing, the minimum bearing length is typically 1.75", C7.4.5 Deflection
but never less than 1.5". The reaction capacity may or may C
not include the compression of the flange or bearing plate. I-joist stiffness is presented as the product of the ma-
The published capacities of joist hangers only include the terial modulus of elasticity and the effective moment of
capacity of the hanger. A complete design would include

COMMENTARY: PREFABRICATED WOOD I-JOISTS

inertia (EI). I-Joist floor systems are typically designed
checking the I-joist capacity for the bearing length of the to L/480 deflection limits rather than the code minimum
particular joist hanger. of L/360. Consideration of creep deflection for unique
applications, such as those with heavy dead loads, may
C7.4.2 Load Application be done in accordance with NDS 3.5.2.

The manufacturer’s literature or code evaluation re- C7.4.6 Vertical Load Transfer
ports should be consulted for design assumptions where
loads are not applied to the top flange or where concen- See C7.4.2.
trated loads or other non-uniform loads are applied to the
I-joist. C7.4.7 Shear
C7.4.3 Web Holes See C7.4.1 and C7.4.2.

The manufacturer’s literature or code evaluation re-

ports should be consulted for the effect of web holes on
strength and stiffness.

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236 NDS COMMENTARY: STRUCTURAL COMPOSITE LUMBER

C8 STRUCTURAL COMPOSITE
LUMBER
C8.1 General
Structural composite lumber (SCL) is manufactured and application, contain information to assist in the ap-
from wood strands or full sheets of veneer. The process proval and use of the specific product in accordance with
typically includes alignment of stress-graded fiber, ap- requirements of the applicable building code.
plication of adhesive, and pressing the material together
under heat and pressure. By redistributing natural growth C8.1.2 Definitions
characteristics and monitoring manufacturing through
quality control procedures, the resulting material has con- Definitions for structural composite lumber, including
sistent quality, and maximizes the strength and stiffness laminated veneer lumber and parallel strand lumber, are
of the wood fiber. based on definitions in ASTM D 5456 (16).
Structural composite lumber is typically produced in
a long length continuous or fixed press in a billet form. It C8.1.3 Identification
is then resawn into required dimensions for use. Material
is available in a variety of depths typically from 4-3/8" to Structural composite lumber is typically identified
24" and thicknesses from 3/4" to 7". by product grade and company name, plant location or
number, quality assurance agency name or logo, code
C8.1.1 Scope evaluation report numbers, and a means for establishing
the date of manufacture.
The general requirements given in Chapters 1, 2, and
3 of the Specification are applicable to structural com- C8.1.4 Service Conditions
posite lumber except where indicated otherwise. Chapter
8 of the Specification contains provisions which are Structural composite lumber (SCL) is typically used
particular to structural composite lumber. The provisions in dry service conditions (where moisture content of sawn
of NDS Chapter 8 contain only the basic requirements lumber is less than 16%). SCL manufacturers state dry
applicable to engineering design of structural composite service conditions based on the moisture content of lumber
lumber manufactured in accordance with ASTM D 5456 since the equilibrium moisture content (EMC) of SCL is
(16). Specific detailing requirements, such as those for lower under the same environmental conditions and varies
notches, are available from structural composite lumber based on the manufacturing process. For other conditions,
manufacturers’ literature or code evaluation reports. Code the SCL manufacturer should be consulted.
evaluation reports, where available for a specific product

C8.2 Reference Design Values

Structural composite lumber is a proprietary product
and design values vary among manufacturers and product
lines. Reference design values should be obtained from
the manufacturer through the manufacturer’s literature or
code evaluation report.

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 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 237

C8.3 Adjustment of Reference Design Values

C8.3.1 General The SCL manufacturer may also choose to publish refer-
ence tension design values based on a reference length
Applicable adjustment factors for structural composite longer than tested, in which case CV is permitted to be
lumber are specified in Table 8.3.1 of the Specification. greater than 1 when the end-use member length is shorter

C8.3.2 Load Duration Factor, CD

than the reference length.
C
(ASD Only) C8.3.7 Repetitive Member Factor,
Cr

COMMENTARY: STRUCTURAL COMPOSITE LUMBER

See C2.3.2.
The repetitive member factor for SCL is based on as-
C8.3.3 Wet Service Factor, CM sumptions used to develop the repetitive member factor
for sawn lumber (see C4.3.9), except that lower strength
Structural composite lumber is limited to use in dry and stiffness variability limits the magnitude of the factor.
service conditions unless specifically allowed by the
manufacturer (see NDS 8.1.4). C8.3.8 Column Stability Factor, CP

C8.3.4 Temperature Factor, Ct See C3.7.1.

See C2.3.3. C8.3.9 Bearing Area Factor, Cb

C8.3.5 Beam Stability, CL See C3.10.4.

See C3.3.3. C8.3.10 Pressure-Preservative

Treatment
C8.3.6 Volume Factor, CV
Per NDS 8.1.4, structural composite lumber is limited
C8.3.6.1 Volume effects of SCL beams are two di- to use in dry service conditions unless specifically allowed
mensional in that increasing the width does not result in a by the manufacturer. Manufacturers should be consulted
strength reduction. Further, since SCL bending properties for any applications that require preservative treatment.
are established based on testing at span-to-depth ratios
between 17 and 21 (representative of most applications C8.3.11 Format Conversion Factor,
where bending strength controls), the adjustment is based KF (LRFD Only)
only on member depth. The volume factor is determined in
accordance with ASTM D5456 (16) and uses an exponent See C2.3.5.
unique to each manufacturer (based on variability of the
product) to adjust the reference bending design value from C8.3.12 Resistance Factor, f (LRFD
a reference depth to the end-use depth in application. CV is Only)
permitted to be greater than 1 when the end-use member
depth is shallower than the reference depth. See C2.3.6.
C8.3.6.2 Similar to the volume factor for bending in
SCL, ASTM D5456 requires development of a volume C8.3.13 Time Effect Factor, λ (LRFD
factor for tension which can be considered a length factor, Only)
adjusting from the length used in testing to the end-use
length in application. As with bending, the exponent for the See C2.3.7.
volume factor in tension is unique to each manufacturer.

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238 NDS COMMENTARY: STRUCTURAL COMPOSITE LUMBER

C8.4 Special Design Considerations

C8.4.1 Notches

The designer has the responsibility of determining

if structural composite lumber bending members should
be notched and how load-carrying capacity should be
calculated. Current good engineering practice is to avoid
all notching of such bending members on the tension side
except where end notching at the supports is necessary.
This end notching is limited to 1/10 of the bending mem-
ber depth, similar to structural glued laminated timber
(140). The methods of NDS 3.4.3, used to calculate shear
force at end notches in sawn lumber and structural glued
laminated timber members, are permitted for structural
composite lumber under the same design assumptions.
Where different assumptions are made, the manufacturer
should be consulted.

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 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 239

C9 WOOD STRUCTURAL
PANELS
C9.1 General
C
C9.1.1 Scope cal (i.e., mold, fungal decay, insect) resistance of the panel.
Structural-use panels manufactured in conformance with PS

COMMENTARY: WOOD STRUCTURAL PANELS

The general requirements given in Chapters 1, 2, and 1 or PS 2 must meet the bond classification requirements for
3 of the Specification are applicable to wood structural Exterior or Exposure 1.
panels except where indicated otherwise. Chapter 9 of the
Specification contains provisions that specifically apply Exterior is defined in PS 1 and PS 2 as a bond clas-
to wood structural panels manufactured in accordance sification for panels that are suitable for repeated
with USDOC PS 1 (150) or PS 2 (151). The provisions of wetting and redrying or long-term exposure to
NDS Chapter 9 contain only the basic requirements ap- weather or other conditions of similar severity.
plicable to engineering design of wood structural panels. Exterior plywood is manufactured with a mini-
Specific requirements, such as the wet service factor, the mum C-grade veneer.
Grade and Construction factor, and the panel size factor Exposure 1 is defined in PS 1 and PS 2 as a bond
are available from the wood structural panel manufacturer classification for panels that are suitable for uses not
or the qualified agency. permanently exposed to the weather. Panels classi-
fied as Exposure 1 are intended to resist the effects of
C9.1.2 Identification moisture on structural performance due to construction
delays or other conditions of similar severity.
C9.1.2.1 Panel grades for plywood manufactured in
conformance with USDOC PS 1 (150), Construction & C9.1.2.2 Span ratings indicate the maximum on cen-
Industrial Plywood, are designated by the grade of the face ter spacing of supports, in inches, over which the panels
and back veneers (e.g., C-D, C-C, A-C, etc.) or by intended should be placed for specific applications. The span rat-
end-use (e.g., Underlayment, Marine, Concrete Form, ing system is intended for panels that are applied with the
etc.). Corresponding grade names in PS 1 for Sheathing, strength axis across two or more spans. The strength axis
Structural I Sheathing, and Single Floor are C-D, Structural is typically the axis parallel to the orientation of oriented
I C-D, and Underlayment, respectively. strand board (OSB) face strands or plywood face veneer
Panel grades for products manufactured in confor- grain and is the long dimension of the panel unless indi-
mance with USDOC PS 2 Performance Standard for cated otherwise by the manufacturer.
Wood-Based Structural-Use Panels (151), are identified The span rating for Sheathing grade panels is provided as
by intended end-use and include: Sheathing, Structural I two numbers separated by a slash (e.g., 32/16 or 48/24). The
Sheathing, and Single Floor. first number is the maximum recommended on center support
Sheathing grade panels are intended for use as structural spacing in inches for roof applications. The second number is
covering material for roofs, subfloors, and walls. Structural I the maximum recommended on center support spacing when
sheathing panels meet increased requirements for cross-panel the panel is used for subflooring in residential and many light
strength and stiffness and are typically used in panelized roof commercial applications. For example, a panel with a span rating
systems, diaphragms, and shear walls. Single Floor grade of 32/16 may be used for roof sheathing over supports spaced
panels are used as a combination subfloor and underlayment up to 32 inches on center or as a subfloor over supports spaced
and may be used under several different types of finish floor- up to 16 inches on center.
ing as well as subflooring in a two-layer floor system with Recommendations for use of Sheathing grade panels
underlayment. also include wall applications. Panels with roof span rat-
Bond classification is related to the moisture resistance ings of 16 or 20 may be installed with their strength axis
of the glue bond under intended end-use conditions and does either parallel or perpendicular to the wall studs space at
not relate to the physical (i.e., erosion, ultraviolet) or biologi- 16 inches or less on center. Similarly, panels with roof
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
240 NDS COMMENTARY: WOOD STRUCTURAL PANELS

span ratings of 24 or maximum may be installed with their B: Solid surface-Small round knots. Patches and
strength axis either parallel or perpendicular to the wall round plugs are allowed.
studs spaced at 24 inches or less on center. C Plugged: Special improved C grade.
Sheathing grade panels may also be used in wall C: Small knots, knotholes, patches. Lowest grade
applications, according to manufacturers’ recommenda- allowed in Exterior plywood.
tions, both parallel and perpendicular to studs. Sheathing D: Larger knots, knotholes, some limited white
panels with span ratings of Wall-16 or Wall-24 are for pocket in sheathing grades.
use only as wall sheathing. The numerical index (16 or
24) corresponds to the maximum on center spacing of the C9.1.4 Service Conditions
studs. Wall sheathing panels are typically performance
tested with the strength axis parallel to the studs. For this C9.1.4.1. When the equilibrium moisture content of
reason, wall sheathing panels may be applied with either wood structural panels in service is less than 16 percent
the strength axis parallel to the supports or perpendicular (including either Exposure 1 or Exterior bond classifica-
to the supports. tion), the dry service design values apply. A dry service
The span rating for Single Floor grade panels appears as condition prevails in most covered structures. However,
a single number and represents the maximum recommended members used in interior locations subject to high humid-
on center (oc) support spacing in inches. Typical span ratings ity, such as may occur in certain industrial operations or
for Single Floor products are 20 oc and 24 oc, although 16 over unventilated swimming pools, may reach an equi-
oc, 32 oc, and 48 oc panels are also available. librium moisture content of 16 percent or more. In such
conditions, wet service factors (see C9.3.3) should be
C9.1.3 Definitions applied to reference design values. However, preservative
treated panels should be used where there is a potential for
C9.1.3.3 Oriented strand board (OSB) was first wood decay such as when panels maintain an in-service
commercially introduced in the early 1980s succeeding MC of 19% or more, either from sustained high humidity
“waferboard.” Waferboard is a mat-formed panel product levels or prolonged exposure to moisture.
that utilizes random distribution of rectangular wafers, Exterior exposures that are not protected from the
whereas OSB is a mat-formed panel product with oriented weather are generally considered wet conditions of use.
layers resulting in directional properties. Wet service adjustment factors, CM, are provided in Com-
C9.1.3.4 The term “ply” refers to the individual sheets of mentary Table C9.3.3 for uses where this limit will be
veneer used to construct plywood. A “layer” is defined as a exceeded for a sustained period of time or for repeated
single ply of veneer or two or more adjacent plies with grain periods. Uses in which the panel is in contact with the
oriented in the same direction. Veneer is classified into the ground should be considered wet use for those portions of
following six grades: the panel that will attain a moisture content of 16 percent
or more. Where wet service conditions apply, the need for
N: Highest grade level. No knots, restricted preservative treatment should be considered, as untreated
patches. panels used in these conditions are susceptible to degrada-
A: Higher grade level. No knots, allows more tion from fungal decay.
patches than N-grade but quantity of patches
is also restricted.

C9.2 Reference Design Values

C9.2.1 Panel Stiffness and Panel stiffness and strength design capacities for specific
Strength panels may be available from the panel manufacturer.
C9.2.1.2 Structural panels have a strength axis direc-
C9.2.1.1 Minimum design stress values for wood tion and a cross panel direction (see Figure C9.2.1). The
structural panels are available from the panel manufacturer direction of the strength axis is defined as the axis parallel
or the qualified agency for the panel grade and span rating. to the orientation of OSB face strands or plywood face
These unit design stress values, where provided, can be veneer grain and is the long dimension of the panel unless
combined with the design section properties (see C9.2.4) indicated otherwise by the manufacturer.
to calculate panel stiffness and strength design capacities.
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 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 241

Figure C9.2.1 Structural Panel with C9.2.2 Strength and Elastic

Strength Direction Across Supports Properties

Reference strength and stiffness design values are

Typica
l available from the panel manufacturer (see C9.2.1.1).
4-ft
8-ft
Typ
ica C9.2.3 Design Thickness
Str l
Dir ength
ect
ion Section properties associated with the nominal C
panel thickness should be used in design calculations
(see C9.2.4), unless otherwise indicated. The relationship

COMMENTARY: WOOD STRUCTURAL PANELS

between the nominal panel thickness and the span rating
is provided in Table C9.2.3.

Table C9.2.3 Relationship Between Span Rating and Nominal Thickness

Nominal Thickness (in.)
Span Rating 3/8 7/16 15/32 1/2 19/32 5/8 23/32 3/4 7/8 1 1-1/8
Sheathing
24/0 P A A A
24/16  P A A
32/16 P A A A
40/20 P A A A
48/24 P A A
Single Floor
16 oc P A
20 oc P A
24 oc P A
32 oc P A
48 oc P
P = Predominant nominal thickness for each span rating.
A = Alternative nominal thickness that may be available for each span rating. Check with suppliers regarding availability.

C9.2.4 Design Section Properties

The section properties associated with the nominal

panel thickness and span rating are provided in Table
C9.2.4. These values should be used with the panel stiff-
ness and strength design stress values. Alternatively,
these values can be combined with the panel stiffness and
strength design stress values to provide panel stiffness and
strength design capacities (see C9.2.1.1).

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242 NDS COMMENTARY: WOOD STRUCTURAL PANELS

Table C9.2.4 Panel Section Properties1

Moment of Section Statical Shear

Nominal Approximate Thickness Area Inertia Modulus Moment Constant
Thickness Weight2 t A I S Q Ib/Q
(in.) (psf) (in.) (in.2/ft.) (in.4/ft.) (in.3/ft.) (in.3/ft.) (in.2/ft.)
3/8 1.1 0.375 4.500 0.053 0.281 0.211 3.000
7/16 1.3 0.437 5.250 0.084 0.383 0.287 3.500
15/32 1.4 0.469 5.625 0.103 0.440 0.330 3.750
1/2 1.5 0.500 6.000 0.125 0.500 0.375 4.000
19/32 1.8 0.594 7.125 0.209 0.705 0.529 4.750
5/8 1.9 0.625 7.500 0.244 0.781 0.586 5.000
23/32 2.2 0.719 8.625 0.371 1.033 0.775 5.750
3/4 2.3 0.750 9.000 0.422 1.125 0.844 6.000
7/8 2.6 0.875 10.500 0.670 1.531 1.148 7.000
1 3.0 1.000 12.000 1.000 2.000 1.500 8.000
1-1/8 3.3 1.125 13.500 1.424 2.531 1.898 9.000
1. Properties based on rectangular cross section of 1-ft. width.
2. Approximate plywood weight for calculating actual dead loads. For OSB and composite panels, increase tabulated weights by 10%.

C9.3 Adjustment of Reference Design Values

C9.3.1 General Wood structural panels used in structural applications
such as roof and wall sheathing, subfloors, diaphragms,
Applicable adjustment factors for wood structural and built-up members must be manufactured with either
panels are specified in Table 9.3.1 of the Specification. an “Exposure 1” or “Exterior” bond classification (see
C9.1.2).
C9.3.2 Load Duration Factor, CD
(ASD Only) Temperature Factor
The temperature factor, Ct, shall be applied when
See C2.3.2. wood structural panels are exposed to in-service sustained
temperatures in excess of 100°F (see C2.3.3). In the range
C9.3.3 Wet Service Factor, CM, and of 100°F to 200°F, the temperature factor is applicable
Temperature Factor, Ct only when the moisture content of the wood structural
panels can be expected to remain at or above 12%. The
Wet Service Factor rationale behind the latter recommendation is that the
Design capacities for panels can be used without strength increases due to panel drying under the higher
adjustment for moisture effects where the panel moisture temperature is sufficient to offset the strength decreases
content in service is expected to be less than 16% (see due to the temperature itself. The temperature factor can
C9.1.4). Adjustment factors for conditions where the panel be estimated using the following equation:
moisture content in service is expected to be 16% or greater
should be obtained from the manufacturer, industry as- Ct = 1.0 – 0.005 (T–100) (C9.3-1)
sociations, or third-party inspection agencies. Wet service where:
adjustment factors traditionally used include:
T = Temperature (°F)
Table C9.3.3 Wet Service Factor, CM
C9.3.4 Panel Size Factor, Cs
Reference Design Capacity CM
Strength (FbS, FtA, FcA, Fs(Ib/Q), Fvtv) 0.75 Design capacities for bending strength and axial ten-
sion strength can be used without a panel size adjustment
Stiffness (EI, EA, Gvtv) 0.85 for panels that are 24 inches or greater in width (i.e.,
dimension perpendicular to the strength axis). For panels
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 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 243

less than 24 inches in width, the capacities should be re- C9.3.6 Resistance Factor, f (LRFD
duced by applying the appropriate panel size adjustment Only)
factor, Cs, as shown in NDS Table 9.3.4 or obtained from
the manufacturer, industry associations, or third-party See C2.3.6.
inspection agency.
C9.3.7 Time Effect Factor, λ (LRFD
C9.3.5 Format Conversion Factor, Only)
KF (LRFD Only)
See C2.3.7. C
See C2.3.5.

COMMENTARY: WOOD STRUCTURAL PANELS

C9.4 Design Considerations

C9.4.1 Flatwise Bending Figure C9.4.3 Structural Panel with

Axial Compression Load in Plane of
Special care should be taken to ensure that the section the Panel
properties associated with the proper strength axis are
used to calculate the bending capacity of the panel (see
Figure C9.4.1).

Figure C9.4.1 Example of Structural

Panel in Bending

C9.4.4 Planar (Rolling) Shear

Special care should be taken to ensure that the section

properties associated with the proper strength axis is used
C9.4.2 Tension in the Plane of the to calculate the planar shear (also called shear-in-the-plane
Panel or rolling shear) capacity of the panel (see Figure C9.4.4).

Special care should be taken to ensure that the section

properties associated with the proper strength axis are used
to calculate the tensile capacity of the panel.

C9.4.3 Compression in the Plane of

the Panel

Special care should be taken to ensure that the section

properties associated with the proper strength axis are
used to calculate the compression capacity of the panel
(see Figure C9.4.3).

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244 NDS COMMENTARY: WOOD STRUCTURAL PANELS

Figure C9.4.4 Shear-in-the-Plane for Figure C9.4.5 Through-the-Thickness

Wood Structural Panels Shear for Wood Structural Panels

Planar (Rolling) Shear

Shear Area

C9.4.5 Through-the-Thickness
Shear C9.4.6 Bearing

The section property for shear-through-the-thickness The design bearing stress on the panel face is inde-
is the same both along the panel axis and across the panel pendent of panel axis orientation.
axis (see Figure C9.4.5).

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 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 245

C10 CROSS-LAMINATED
TIMBER
C10.1 General C

C10.1.1 Application perpendicular to the glueline). Minimum and maximum

COMMENTARY: CROSS-LAMINATED TIMBER

thickness of 5/8 in. and 2 in., respectively, are based on
The general requirements given in Chapters 1, 2, and APA PRG 320.
3 of the Specification are applicable to cross-laminated 10.1.3.2 CLT panel thickness is measured perpen-
timber (CLT) except where indicated otherwise. Chapter dicular to the plane of the panel and is limited to 20 in.
10 of the Specification contains provisions that specifically in accordance with APA PRG-320. CLT panel length is
apply to CLT manufactured in accordance with APA PRG measured parallel to the major strength direction and
320 (197). The provisions of NDS Chapter 10 contain only CLT panel width is measured perpendicular to the major
the basic requirements applicable to engineering design strength direction.
of CLT. Specific requirements, such as CLT design values
and the wet service factor are available from the CLT C10.1.4 Specification
manufacturer's literature or code evaluation reports. Code
evaluation reports, where available for a specific product The specific manufacturer’s CLT product should be
and application, contain information to assist in the ap- specified, including standard grade, where used, or the CLT
proval and use of the specific product in accordance with configuration based on lamination grades, thicknesses, and
requirements of the applicable building code. layup (See C10.2). Standard grades of CLT consisting of
specific lamination grades, thicknesses, and layups are
C10.1.2 Definitions provided in Annex A of APA PRG-320.

The definition for cross-laminated timber is based on C10.1.5 Service Conditions

the definition in APA PRG 320 (197).
CLT design values are based on dry service conditions
C10.1.3 Standard Dimensions (moisture content in service less than 16%). For other
conditions, the manufacturer should be consulted.
10.1.3.1 Lamination thickness refers to the narrow face
of a lamination perpendicular to the lamination length (face

C10.2 Reference Design Values

Reference design values for specific grades and layups
of CLT are provided in APA PRG-320. CLT design capaci-
ties are a function of the manufacturer’s CLT layup and
properties associated with the lamination grades. The user
should contact the CLT manufacturer for design values and
section properties for specific CLT products.

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246 NDS COMMENTARY: CROSS-LAMINATED TIMBER

C10.3 Adjustment of Reference Design Values

C10.3.1 General cant shear deformation that can occur between the parallel
and perpendicular CLT laminations, the effective bending
Applicable adjustment factors for cross-laminated stiffness, (EI)eff, should be adjusted for shear stiffness
timber are specified in Table 10.3.1 of the Specification. per NDS 10.4.1 using a Shear Deformation Adjustment
Factor, Ks, of 11.8 associated with the loading case of a
C10.3.2 Load Duration Factor, CD constant moment.
(ASD Only)
C10.3.8 Bearing Area Factor, Cb
Load duration factors for CLT are the same as for other
wood products (see C2.3.2) with the exception of rolling See C3.10.4.
shear, Fs(Ib/Q)eff, which is not adjusted in CLT since the
value is limited by the tendency of the crossing lamina- C10.3.9 Pressure-Preservative
tions to “roll over” rather than exhibit a strength limit state Treatment
associated with shear stress in the laminations.
Per NDS 10.1.5, cross-laminated timber is limited to
C10.3.3 Wet Service Factor, CM use in dry service conditions unless specifically allowed
by the manufacturer. Manufacturers should be consulted
See C10.1.5 for applications that require preservative treatment.

C10.3.4 Temperature Factor, Ct C10.3.10 Format Conversion

Factor, KF (LRFD Only)
See C2.3.3.
See C2.3.5.
C10.3.5 Curvature Factor, Cc
C10.3.11 Resistance Factor, f
Design of curved CLT is beyond the scope of the NDS. (LRFD Only)
The CLT manufacturer should be contacted to determine
whether curved product is available and, if so, the proper See C2.3.6.
design.
C10.3.12 Time Effect Factor, l
C10.3.6 Beam Stability Factor, CL (LRFD Only)

Cross-laminated timber loaded in out-of-plane bend- See C2.3.7.

ing, such as vertical loads on floor slabs or lateral loads on
walls, are not susceptible to lateral-torsional buckling and
CL=1.0. Cross-laminated timber panels loaded by in-plane
bending are susceptible to lateral-torsional buckling and
should be adjusted by the beam stability factor. Design
capacities for CLT used as beams or headers over door and
window openings have not been standardized and are not
available in PRG 320. For beam applications, consult the
CLT manufacturer for design capacities.

C10.3.7 Column Stability Factor, CP

Cross-laminated timber panels loaded by in-plane

compression are susceptible to buckling and should be
adjusted by the column stability factor. Due to the signifi-
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 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 247

C10.4 Special Design Considerations

C10.4.1 Deflection
Where,
C10.4.1.1 When cross-laminated panels are loaded δ = beam deflection
in out-of-plane bending, the shear deformation can be a
significant portion of the total deformation. The provisions kb, ks = beam constants based on beam loading, C
of NDS 10.4.1 provide a method of calculating the “ap- support conditions, and measurement
location
parent” stiffness, (EI)app, from the properties provided in
PRG 320 and from the CLT manufacturer. W = total load on the beam

COMMENTARY: CROSS-LAMINATED TIMBER

Effective bending stiffness values (EIeff) and effec-
tive shear stiffness values (GAeff) are provided by the Setting the beam deformation equations equal to the
CLT manufacturer. Apparent bending stiffness can be bending deformation equation assuming an “apparent”
approximated as: stiffness, EIapp yields:
EI eff
(EI)app = (C10.4.1-1) kbWL3 kbWL3 6ksWL
K s EI eff = + (C10.4.1-5)
1+ EI app EI eff 5GAeff
GAeff L2
Solving for EIapp:
To estimate (EI)app-min the value for (EI)app is adjusted
EI eff EI eff
per provisions of NDS Appendix D and Appendix H and EI app = =
the coefficient of variation of 0.10 from PRG-320: 6k s EI eff K s EI eff (C10.4.1-6)
1+ 1+
5kbGAeff L 2
GAeff L 2

(EI)app-min = (EI)app (1-1.645(0.10))(1.03)/1.66 = 0.518(EI)app

From this derivation, it can be seen that Ks = 6ks/
Shear deformation adjustment factors, Ks, provided (5kb).
in NDS Table 10.4.1.1 and Table C10.4.1.1 are based
on relationships for the specified loading and end-fixity For the case of Column Buckling Moment, the deriva-
conditions from the Wood Handbook [183]. The value tion is more complex. For a column pinned at each end,
of Ks is derived when the beam deformation and shear the bending deformation is estimated to be δb = A sin(πx)
deformation equations are combined for each load case and the shear deformation is estimated to be δs = Aπ2
to provide an adjustment that provides an “apparent” EIeff sin(πx) and at midheight simplifies to δb = A and δs = Aπ2.
value. The beam deflection, δ, for rectangular members For a column fixed at each end, the bending deformation
is estimated as: is estimated to be δb=B and the shear deformation is esti-
mated to be δs=4Bπ2.
kbWL3 6k sWL
=δ + (C10.4.1-4)
EI eff 5GAeff

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248 NDS COMMENTARY: CROSS-LAMINATED TIMBER

Table C10.4.1.1 Shear Deformation Adjustment Factors

Loading End Fixity kb ks Ks

Pinned 5/384 1/8 11.5
Uniformly Distributed
Fixed 1/384 1/8 57.6
Pinned 1/48 1/4 14.4
Line Load at midspan
Fixed 1/192 1/4 57.6
Line Load at quarter points Pinned 11/768 1/8 10.5
Constant Moment - 1/12 0 0
Uniformly Distributed Cantilevered 1/8 1/2 4.8
Line Load at free-end Cantilevered 1/3 1 3.6
Pinned A Aπ2 11.8
Column Buckling
Fixed B 4Bπ2 47.4

Cross-laminated timber panels are designed as

one‐way slabs using a beam analogy. Terminology in
NDS Table 10.4.1.1 and Table C10.4.1.1 has been modi-
fied from typical beam terminology to address the panel
width. For example, a point load at midspan of a beam
is called a “line load at midspan” to indicate that the load
is assumed to be applied across the panel (perpendicular
to the span) at the midspan of the cross-laminated timber.
Additional loading and end-fixity conditions are available
in the literature.

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 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 249

C11 MECHANICAL
CONNECTIONS
C11.1 General C
C11.1.1 Scope occur with eccentricity, fasteners are to be placed, insofar

COMMENTARY: MECHANICAL CONNECTIONS

as possible, such that the wood between them is placed in
C11.1.1.2 See C3.1.3, C3.1.4, and C3.1.5. compression rather than in tension (see NDS Figure 11A).
C11.1.1.3 The adequacy of alternate methods or In 1948, provisions for shear design of bending
procedures for designing and verifying the reference members at connections were introduced in an attempt to
design values of connections that differ from those in the limit tension perpendicular to grain stresses at eccentric
Specification is the responsibility of the designer or the connections. In 1982, a provision was added prohibiting
authority accepting or approving such alternate methods eccentric connections that induce tension perpendicular
or procedures. This responsibility includes providing for to grain stresses unless it has been shown by analysis or
appropriate margins of safety; assuring the applicability testing that such joints can safely carry all applied loads.
of load duration, wet service and other adjustment factors The determination of the type and extent of the analysis
in the Specification; and confirming the applicability of and/or testing required to demonstrate the adequacy of
test results to field fabrication and service conditions (see eccentric connections that induce tension perpendicular
C1.1.1.3). to grain stresses in the wood members is the responsibil-
ity of the designer. Use of stitch bolts or plates to resist
C11.1.2 Stresses in Members at such stresses when they cannot be avoided is a common
Connections practice.
It is to be emphasized that tension design values
All connection designs should be checked for con- perpendicular to grain are not given in the Specification
formance of structural members to the net section area (see C3.8.2).
requirements of NDS 3.1.2 and the shear design provisions
of NDS 3.4.3 (see C3.1.2 and C3.4.3). All single shear C11.1.4 Mixed Fastener
or lapped joints also should be checked to determine the Connections
adequacy of the member to resist the additional stresses
induced by the eccentric transfer of load at the joint (see The individual fasteners in a connection should gener-
NDS 3.1.3). This often will involve bending and compres- ally be of the same size to assure comparable load-slip or
sion or bending and tension interaction where the bending stiffness characteristics. Such equivalency is required to
moment induced by the eccentric load at the joint results obtain appropriate distribution of load among fasteners
in bending about the weak axis of the member. in the connection and is a condition for use of the group
Where multiple fasteners are used, the capacity of the action factor, Cg, of NDS 11.3.6.
fastener group may be limited by wood failure at the net It is recognized that some designers have used different
section or by tear-out around the fasteners caused by local fastener types in the same connection where the addition of
stresses. One method for evaluating member strength for one or more fasteners of the type being used is precluded
local stresses around fastener groups is outlined in NDS by area restrictions or is considered uneconomical. Such
Appendix E. mixed-type connections, for example, the use of a single
1/2-inch bolt with three split-ring connectors or the use
C11.1.3 Eccentric Connections of a 16d nail with two 1/2-inch bolts, are not covered by
the design provisions of the Specification. Because of the
Fastener eccentricity that induces tension perpen- different load-slip behavior of different fastener types, the
dicular to grain stresses in the main wood member at the allowable load on such connections cannot be assumed to
connection should be avoided. Where multiple fasteners
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250 NDS COMMENTARY: MECHANICAL CONNECTIONS

be the sum of the allowable loads for each fastener type, vision is based on the original bolted joint tests used to
even when the different types are in different rows. establish design values in which the nuts were intentionally
Allowable loads for connections employing more than not tightened in order to simulate the additional shrinkage
one type or size of fastener shall be based on analyses that that can occur during service (146). It is to be noted that
account for different connection stiffnesses, on test results, these provisions only apply to the loosening of nuts that
or on field experience (see C1.1.1.3). It is the designer’s may occur from shrinkage and not the effects of moisture
responsibility to assure that load capacities assigned to on bearing strength or the effects of checks and cracks that
such connections contain adequate margins of safety and may occur from seasoning after fabrication. Reduction of
are achievable under field conditions. connection design values for these factors is required when
connections are assembled with wet or partially seasoned
C11.1.5 Connection Fabrication wood (see NDS 11.3.3).

Design values for connection joints have been applied

to connections having both tight and loose nuts. This pro-

C11.2 Reference Design Values

C11.2.1 Single Fastener Reference lateral design values for connections in
Connections previous editions of the Specification represented nominal
proportional limit values. For purposes of transition and
Reference lateral design values for dowel-type fasten- to build on the long record of satisfactory performance
ers (bolts, lag screws, wood screws, nails, and spikes) are obtained with these previous values, short-term design val-
based on a yield limit model which specifically accounts ues based on direct application of the yield limit equations
for the different ways these connections can behave under have been reduced to design levels published in previous
load. These behavior patterns or modes (see NDS Appen- editions for connections made with equivalent species
dix I) are uniform bearing in the wood under the fastener, and member sizes. This calibration was accomplished by
rotation of the fastener in the joint without dowel bending, establishing average ratios of previous Specification design
and development of one or more plastic hinges in the fas- values to yield limit model design values for each yield
tener (67, 122). Equations have been developed for each mode and direction of loading (parallel and perpendicular
mode relating the joint load to the maximum stresses in the to grain). This soft conversion procedure retained historical
wood members and in the fastener (67, 121). The capacity safety levels while resulting in some design values for each
of the connection under each yield mode is keyed to the fastener type being somewhat higher and some lower than
bearing strength of the wood under the fastener and the previous values depending upon the fastener diameter and
bending strength of the fastener, with the lowest capacity the thickness of main and side member.
calculated for the various modes being taken as the design
value for the connection. C11.2.2 Multiple Fastener
The yield limit model provides a consistent basis Connections
for establishing the relative effects of side and main
member thickness and bearing strength, and fastener The reference design value for a connection contain-
bending strength on the load-carrying capacity of connec- ing two or more fasteners is obtained by summing the
tions involving dowel-type fasteners. Because the yield reference design values for each individual fastener. It is
strength of a wood connection is not well defined on the to be understood that this provision requires application
load-deformation curve for a connection, the limiting of the group action factor of NDS 11.3.6 to the individual
wood stresses used in the yield model are based on the fastener reference design value wherever a row of two
load at which the load-deformation curve from a fastener or more split ring connectors, shear plate connectors, or
embedment test intersects a line represented by the initial dowel-type fasteners are involved.
tangent modulus offset 5 percent of the fastener diameter Summation of individual fastener reference design
(120). This nominal yield point is intermediate between values to obtain a total reference design value for a con-
the proportional limit and maximum load for the material nection containing two or more fasteners is limited to
and for the connection. designs involving the same type and the same size of fas-
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 251

tener (see C11.1.4). Fasteners of the same type, diameter, teners in wood connections subject to lateral loads. These
and length joining the same members and resisting load stresses are accounted for in this Specification under the
in the same shear plane may be assumed to exhibit the provisions for the particular fastener type involved. Where
same yield mode. the design value for a connection involving metal fasten-
ers is limited by the provisions of this Specification, the
C11.2.3 Design of Metal Parts adjustment factors of NDS 11.3 are to be applied. Where
the design value of the connection is limited by the strength
Metal parts, including fasteners, are to be designed of the metal fastener or part, the adjustment factors of NDS
in accordance with national standards of practice and 11.3 are not to be applied. C
specifications applicable to the material. Tension stresses
in fasteners as a result of withdrawal loads, shear in cross- C11.2.4 Design of Concrete or
sections of fasteners, bearing of fasteners on metal side Masonry Parts

COMMENTARY: MECHANICAL CONNECTIONS

plates, tension and shear of plates, and buckling of plates
and rods are included under this provision. Concrete or masonry parts are to be designed in accor-
Standard metal design practices are not to be used to dance with national standards of practice and specifications
account for bending stresses occurring in dowel-type fas- applicable to the material.

C11.3 Adjustment of Reference Design Values

C11.3.1 Applicability of The 0.80 factor for metal plate connectors installed in
Adjustment Factors partially seasoned or wet lumber is based on the results
of both truss and tension in-line joint tests (1,109,195).
Applicable adjustment factors for connections sub- The factor of 0.40 in NDS Table 11.3.3 for multiple
ject to lateral loads, withdrawal loads, and fastener head rows of dowel fasteners installed in partially seasoned
pull-through loads are specified in Table 11.3.1 of the wood used in dry conditions of service is based on limited
Specification. tests of connections fabricated with unseasoned members
joined at right angles to each other and tested after drying
C11.3.2 Load Duration Factor, CD (181).
(ASD Only)
C11.3.4 Temperature Factor, Ct
See C2.3.2. Reference design values for wood connec-
tions derived from the results of standard short-term tests The temperature adjustment factors for connections
(5-10 minute duration) and/or calculated using properties in NDS Table 11.3.4 are equivalent to those for bending,
derived from short-term tests include a 1.6 reduction to compression, and shear design values in NDS 2.3.3 (see
account for the potential effects of long-term loading. C2.3.3). Bearing under metal fasteners is closely corre-
When wood connections are used to resist short-term loads, lated with compression parallel to grain or compression
the reference design values can be increased by a factor perpendicular to grain properties.
of up to 1.6 based on the provisions of NDS 2.3.2. Load
duration factors greater than 1.6, including the impact C11.3.5 Fire Retardant Treatment
load duration factor of 2.0, are not to be applied to design
loads for connections. See C2.3.4.

C11.3.3 Wet Service Factor, CM C11.3.6 Group Action Factors, Cg

The wet service factors in NDS Table 11.3.3 for bolts Modification factors for two or more split ring con-
and lag screws, split ring and shear plate connectors, wood nectors, shear plate connectors, or dowel-type fasteners in
screws, and nails were recommended as part of early re- a row were added to the Specification in the 1973 edition.
search on wood connections (184, 181). Earlier tests of bolted and shear plate connector joints had
shown that the load capacity of connections containing
multiple fasteners in a row was not directly proportional to
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252 NDS COMMENTARY: MECHANICAL CONNECTIONS

the number of fasteners, with those located near the ends new representative load-slip moduli for different types of
of the row carrying a greater proportion of the applied connections (188).
load than those located in the interior of the row (35, 39, It is to be noted that the variable As in the group ac-
40, 66, 72). tion equation (NDS Equation 11.3-1) represents the sum
The tables of factors included in the 1973 edition to ac- of the cross-sectional area of the side members. Thus the
count for the non-uniform loads on a row of fasteners was equation accounts for single shear as well as double shear
based on a linear analysis wherein the direct stresses in the connections. For a connection with four or more members,
main and side members of the connection were assumed each shear plane is evaluated as a single shear connec-
to be uniformly distributed across their cross section, and tion (see NDS 12.3.8). Where such a connection contains
the relationship between fastener slip and fastener load two or more fasteners in a row, a group action factor is
was assumed to be linear (77). This analytical procedure calculated for each shear plane using an As based on the
showed that the transfer of load from side to main mem- thinnest member adjacent to the plane being considered.
bers and the proportion of the total load carried by each Perpendicular to Grain Loading. The number of fasten-
fastener were determined by the modulii of elasticity (E) ers in a row perpendicular to grain are generally limited in
and cross-sectional areas of the side and main members, order to avoid splitting that can occur as a result of dry-
the number of fasteners in a row, the spacing between ing (see C11.3.3). When a row of multiple fasteners are
fasteners, and the joint load/slip modulus. used perpendicular to grain, it is standard practice to use
Two tables of modification factors for joints containing the same group action factor as that for fasteners aligned
two or more fasteners in a row were developed using the parallel to grain. This practice is based on the assumption
linear analysis: one for connections with wood side plates that use of the member and connection stiffnesses perpen-
and one for connections with metal side plates. For pur- dicular to grain (E┴ and γ┴) in NDS Equation 11.3-1 would
poses of simplicity, factors were tabulated only in terms of result in similar group action factors.
the number of fasteners in the row and the cross-sectional
areas of the members being joined. Other variables were C11.3.7 Format Conversion Factor,
assumed to have the following values (156): KF (LRFD Only)

Wood to wood connections: See C2.3.5.

E of side and main members 1,800,000 psi
C11.3.8 Resistance Factor, f (LRFD
Load-slip fastener modulus 220,000 lbs/in. Only)
Spacing between fasteners 6.5 inches
Wood to metal connections: See C2.3.6.
E of main member 1,400,000 psi
C11.3.9 Time Effect Factor, λ (LRFD
Load-slip fastener modulus 330,000 lbs/in.
Only)
Spacing between fasteners 5.75 inches
See C2.3.7.
With the foregoing constant values, the analytical
procedure was used to calculate modification factors for 3
to 8 fasteners in a row and then results were extrapolated
up to 12 fasteners and down to 2 fasteners in a row (156).
The resulting tables of factors, ranging from 1.00 for two
fasteners in a row to as low as 0.34 and 0.15 for 12 fas-
teners in a row in joints made with wood and metal side
plates, respectively, were continued essentially unchanged
through the 1986 edition. The group action factor equation
given in NDS 11.3.6 consolidated the analytical procedure
used to establish the modification factors given in previous
editions (188). Concurrent with the development of the
compact single equation for accounting for group action,
more recent load-slip data for bolted joints and split ring
and shear plate connectors have been used to establish
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 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 253

C12 DOWEL-TYPE FASTENERS

C12.1 General
C12.1.1 Scope metal having specific strength properties. The designer is
responsible for specifying the metal strength of the lag
C
Chapter 12 groups the design for a range of fasteners screws that are to be used. Bending yield strength of the
known as “dowel-type” fasteners. These include fasteners lag screw (see NDS Appendix I) is a required input vari-

COMMENTARY: DOWEL-TYPE FASTENERS

such as bolts, lag screws, wood screws, nails, spikes, drift able to the yield equations of NDS 12.3.1. Additionally, the
bolts, and drift pins. actual tensile stress in the lag screw at the root diameter
must be checked when designing lag screw connections
C12.1.3 Bolts for withdrawal (see NDS 11.2.3).
C12.1.4.2 Lead hole requirements for three specific
C12.1.3.1 ANSI/ASME Standard B18.2.1 Square and gravity classes are based on early lag screw research in-
Hex Bolts and Screws (Inch Series), is the quality reference volving tests of Douglas fir, southern pine, white oak,
standard for bolts. Bolt design provisions and tabulated redwood, and northern white pine (100).
bolt design values apply only to bolts having diameters C12.1.4.3 Provision for allowing 3/8 inch and smaller
of 1 inch or less. This limit was in response to reported diameter lag screws loaded primarily in withdrawal to be
field problems with connections involving large diameter inserted without a lead hole in wood of medium to low
bolts in structural glued laminated timber members and the specific gravity was added to address the use of small lag
results of research (31, 135). The latter showed drying in screws. On the basis of field experience, early lag screw
service, workmanship variables, and perpendicular to grain research (100), and information on the withdrawal resis-
load components could interact to affect the capacity of tance of tapping screws inserted with different size lead
connections made with multiple large diameter, relatively holes (163), use of small lag screws without lead holes is
stiff bolts. Use of these procedures to establish reference deemed acceptable when the following conditions are met:
design values for large diameter bolted connections is the 1. The lag screws are being loaded primarily in
sole responsibility of the designer. withdrawal.
C12.1.3.2 Generally, smaller diameter bolts will use 2. The lag screws are inserted in wood with
the smaller oversize hole value and larger bolts the larger specific gravity (G) ≤ 0.5.
oversize value. The same target oversize is to be used 3. Placement of lag screws avoids excessive
for all holes in the same connection. Proper alignment, splitting.
especially in groups of fasteners, is required to properly A lag screw subjected to combined withdrawal and
distribute the load into each fastener. Forcible driving of lateral loading may be considered loaded primarily in
the fastener can damage the wood bearing surface and withdrawal when the axis of the screw is at an angle of 75
reduce the capacity of the connection. degrees or more to the grain of the wood member holding
C12.1.3.3 Use of standard cut washers or equivalent the threaded portion of the screw. The requirement that
metal parts under the head and nut prevent localized crush- unusual splitting be avoided when lead holes are not used
ing of the wood at bolt holes. is to be considered a performance requirement that (i) is
C12.1.3.4 Edge distance, end distance, and fastener related to the ability of the screw to hold the cleat or side
spacing requirements have been consolidated for dowel- member to the main or foundation member, and (ii) is ap-
type fasteners in NDS 12.5. plicable to both members being joined.
C12.1.4.5 A lubricant is sometimes used to facilitate
C12.1.4 Lag Screws lag screw insertion even when small diameter lag screws
are inserted without the use of lead holes.
C12.1.4.1 ANSI/ASME Standard B18.2.1 Square and C12.1.4.6 Minimum length of lag screw penetration
Hex Bolts and Screws (Inch Series), is the quality reference requirements, not including the length of the tapered tip,
standard for lag screws. It provides standard hex lag screw are provided to ensure that fasteners can achieve the design
dimensions (see NDS Appendix L) but does not specify value calculated using the yield equations in NDS 12.3.1.
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
254 NDS COMMENTARY: DOWEL-TYPE FASTENERS

C12.1.4.7 Edge distances, end distances, and fastener

Table C12.1.5.7 Recommended
spacing requirements have been consolidated for dowel-
Minimum Spacing for Wood Screws
type fasteners in NDS 12.5.
Wood Side Members
C12.1.5 Wood Screws
Not
Prebored Prebored
C12.1.5.1 ANSI/ASME Standard B18.6.1 is the Edge distance 2.5D 2.5D
quality reference standard for wood screws. It provides End distance
standard wood screw dimensions (see NDS Appendix L) - tension load parallel to grain 15D 10D
but does not specify metal having specific strength proper- - compression load parallel to grain 10D 5D
ties. The designer is responsible for specifying the metal Spacing between fasteners in a row
strength of the wood screws that are to be used. Bending - parallel to grain 15D 10D
- perpendicular to grain 10D 5D
yield strength of the wood screw (see NDS Appendix I) is
Spacing between rows of fasteners
a required input variable to the lateral design value yield - in-line 5D 3D
limit equations of NDS 12.3.1. Additionally, the actual - staggered 2.5D 2.5D
tensile stress in the wood screw at the root diameter must Steel Side Members
be checked when designing wood screw connections for Not
withdrawal (see C11.2.3 of Specification). Prebored Prebored
C12.1.5.2 Lead hole requirements for wood screws are Edge distance 2.5D 2.5D
based on early research involving flat head wood screws End distance
up to 24 gage and 5 inches in length in seven species, - tension load parallel to grain 10D 5D
including southern pine, cypress, and oak (43). - compression load parallel to grain 5D 3D
The provision allowing the insertion of wood screws Spacing between fasteners in a row
- parallel to grain 10D 5D
without a lead hole in species with G ≤ 0.5 when the screw 5D 2.5D
- perpendicular to grain
is subject to withdrawal loads parallels the provision for Spacing between rows of fasteners
3/8 inch and smaller diameter lag screws (see C12.1.4.3). - in line 3D 2.5D
C12.1.5.3 Wood screws resisting lateral loads are - staggered 2.5D 2.5D
required to have shank and threaded portion lead holes
based on early lateral load tests of wood screws (70, 181, C12.1.6 Nails and Spikes
184). Lead holes are required for all wood screws subject
to lateral loads regardless of wood specific gravity. C12.1.6.1 ASTM F 1667 Standard Specification
C12.1.5.4 Wood screws tests (43, 70, 181) are based for Driven Fasteners: Nails, Spikes, and Staples (202)
on inserting the screw by turning rather than driving with provides standard dimensions for common, box, and
a hammer. sinker steel wire nails, spikes, Roof Sheathing Ring Shank
C12.1.5.5 A lubricant is sometimes used to facilitate (RSRS) nails, and Post Frame Ring Shank (PF) nails (See
screw insertion and avoid screw damage. Tests have shown NDS Appendix L). The Supplementary Requirements
that the lubricant has no significant effect on reference of ASTM F1667 regarding Nail Bending Yield Strength
design values (43, 70, 184). are required to be used for engineered construction. The
C12.1.5.6 Minimum length of wood screw penetration method in which Fyb is determined for nails is incorporated
requirements, including the length of the tapered tip, are in ASTM F1575. Fyb requirements are referenced in the
provided to ensure that fasteners can achieve the refer- Supplementary Requirements of ASTM F1667 or section
ence design value calculated using the yield equations in 12.1.6 of the NDS. For any deformed shank nails (e.g.
NDS 12.3.1. RSRS, PF), moment capacity is evaluated at the transition
C12.1.5.7 Edge distances, end distances, and fastener zone (between the smooth shank and deformations) and
spacing requirements have been consolidated across all diameter, D, of the smooth shank is used in the calculation
diameters for dowel-type fasteners in NDS 12.5. For diam- of Fyb. The resulting use of Fyb and D produces the appro-
eters less than ¼", specific requirements are not provided; priate yield moment of the nail when D is used in yield
however, Table C12.1.5.7 may be used to establish wood theory calculations. Additionally, the actual tensile stress
screw placement recommendations. Designers should note in the driven fastener must be checked when designing
that wood species, moisture content, and grain orientation driven fastener connections for withdrawal (see C11.2.3
will impact spacing effects between fasteners in a row. of the Specification).

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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 255

C12.1.6.3 Toe-nailing procedures consisting of slant C12.1.7.3 Edge distances, end distances, and fastener
driving of nails at a 30° angle from the face of the attached spacing requirements have been consolidated across all
member with an end distance (distance between end of diameters for dowel-type fasteners in NDS Table 12.5.1A
side member and initial point of entry) of one-third the through 12.5.1F.
nail length are based on lateral and withdrawal tests of
nailed joints in frame wall construction (181, 118). The Table C12.1.6.6 Recommended
toenail factors of NDS 12.5.4.1 and NDS 12.5.4.2 presume Minimum Spacing for Nails
use of these driving procedures and the absence of exces-
sive splitting. If such splitting does occur, predrilling or
Wood Side Members
Not
C
a smaller nail should be used. The vertically-projected
Prebored Prebored
length is used as the side member bearing length in yield
Edge distance 2.5D 2.5D
limit equations when calculating lateral capacity of a toe-

COMMENTARY: DOWEL-TYPE FASTENERS

End distance
nailed connection. - tension load parallel to grain 15D 10D
C12.1.6.4 Minimum length of penetration require- - compression load parallel to grain 10D 5D
ments, including the length of the tapered tip, are provided Spacing between fasteners in a row
to ensure that driven fasteners can achieve the design value - parallel to grain 15D 10D
calculated using the yield equations in NDS 12.3.1. The - perpendicular to grain 10D 5D
exception for clinching in double-shear connections is ap- Spacing between rows of fasteners
- in-line 5D 3D
plicable to 0.148" (12d common, 20d box, or 16d sinker
- staggered 2.5D 2.5D
nails) or smaller diameter nails.
C12.1.6.5 Edge distances, end distances, and fastener Steel Side Members
Not
spacing requirements have been consolidated across all
Prebored Prebored
diameters for dowel-type fasteners in NDS Table 12.5.1A Edge distance 2.5D 2.5D
through 12.5.1F. For diameters less than ¼", specific re- End distance
quirements are not provided; however, Table C12.1.6.6 - tension load parallel to grain 10D 5D
may be used to establish nail placement recommendations. - compression load parallel to grain 5D 3D
Designers should note that wood species, moisture content, Spacing between fasteners in a row
and grain orientation will impact spacing effects between - parallel to grain 10D 5D
fasteners in a row. - perpendicular to grain 5D 2.5D
Spacing between rows of fasteners
- in line 3D 2.5D
C12.1.7 Drift Bolts and Drift Pins - staggered 2.5D 2.5D

C12.1.7.1 Drift bolts and drift pins are unthreaded rods C12.1.8 Other Dowel-Type
used to join large structural members where a smooth sur- Fasteners
face without protruding metal parts is desired. The designer
is responsible for specifying the metal strength of the drift While specific installation instructions are not pro-
bolt or pin that is to be used. Bending yield strength of the vided for all types of dowel-type fasteners, the provisions
drift bolt or pin (see NDS Appendix I) is a required input for withdrawal in NDS 12.2 and the generic yield equa-
variable to the reference lateral design value yield limit tions in NDS 12.3.1 for lateral design apply. The designer
equations of NDS 12.3.1. is responsible for determining the proper installation re-
C12.1.7.2 Additional penetration into the members is quirements and for specifying the metal strength of these
required to resist withdrawal of the drift bolt or pin. fasteners.

C12.2 Reference Withdrawal Design Values

C12.2.1 Lag Screws in NDS Table 12.2A. This equation was derived from the
following equation based on research (181, 100):
C12.2.1.1 NDS Equation 12.2-1 was used to establish
the lag screw reference withdrawal design values given W = KW G3/2 D3/4 (C12.2.1-1)

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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
256 NDS COMMENTARY: DOWEL-TYPE FASTENERS

where: to lateral load, it has been recommended that insertion

W = reference withdrawal design value per inch of lag screws in end grain surfaces be avoided (181, 96).
of thread penetration into main member, lbs C12.2.1.4 (see C11.2.3).
C12.2.1.5 The required use of the end grain factor of
KW = 1800
0.75 for lag screws installed into the narrow edge of CLT
G = specific gravity of main member based on panels conservatively assumes the lag screw will be subject
oven dry weight and volume, where 0.31 ≤ G to strength reductions associated with installation in end
≤ 0.73 grain. This assumption was judged practical to address
D = lag screw diameter (equivalent to varying grain orientations in the edge of cross-laminated
unthreaded shank diameter for full body timber panels (e.g. both end grain and side grain are pres-
diameter lag screws), in., where 0.25" ≤ D ≤ ent in the edge of CLT panels), and the ability to maintain
1.25" minimum edge distances for larger diameter lag screws
The value of KW represents approximately one-fourth installed in the narrow face of a lamination. For cases
(one-fifth increased by 20 percent) of the average constant where the narrow face of the laminations is large, such as
at oven dry weight and volume obtained from ultimate 2 in., and the lag screw diameter is small such as ¼" and
load tests of joints made with five different species and where installation is in side grain only with adequate edge
seven sizes of lag screw (100), increased by 20 percent; or distance, application of the 0.75 factor may not be war-
ranted where strength reducing conditions associated with
 7500  placement in end grain or with inadequate edge distances
K W = 1.2   (C12.2.1-2) for side grain are not present.
 5 
The twenty percent increase was introduced as part C12.2.2 Wood Screws
of the World War II emergency increase in wood design
values, and then subsequently codified as 10 percent for the C12.2.2.1 NDS Equation 12.2-2 was used to establish
change from permanent to normal loading and 10 percent the wood screw reference withdrawal design values given
for experience (see C2.3.2). in NDS Table 12.2B. This equation was based on testing
When the reference withdrawal capacity of a lag screw of cut thread wood screws in seven wood species (43):
is determined by multiplying the reference unit design
value by the length of penetration of the threaded portion W = KW G2 D (C12.2.2-1)
into the side grain of the main member, the length of the where:
tapered tip of the screw is not to be included. This tapered W = reference withdrawal design value per inch
portion at the tip of the lag screw was not considered as part of thread penetration in the main member,
of the effective penetration depth in the original joint tests lbs
(100) and in the development of equation C12.2.1-1. In ad-
dition, the thickness of any washer used between the lag KW = 2850
screw head and the cleat or side member should be taken G = specific gravity of main member based on
into account when determining the length of penetration oven dry weight and volume, where 0.31 ≤ G
of the threaded portion in the main member. Standard ≤ 0.73
lag screw dimensions, including minimum thread length
D = wood screw thread diameter, in., where
and length of tapered tip, are given in Appendix L of the
0.138" ≤ D ≤ 0.372"
Specification.
C12.2.1.2 The unit reference withdrawal design value The value of KW represents one-fifth (one-sixth in-
in lbs/in. is multiplied by the depth of thread penetration creased by 20 percent) of the average constant at oven
into a wood member to calculate the fastener reference dry weight and volume obtained from ultimate load tests
withdrawal in pounds. of joints (43) made with seven different species and cut-
C12.2.1.3 Reference withdrawal design values for lag thread wood screw; or
screws are reduced 25 percent when the screw is inserted in
the end grain (radial-tangential plane) of the main member
14250 (C12.2.2-2)
KW =
rather than the side grain (radial-longitudinal or tangential- 6
longitudinal plane) based on lag screw joint tests (100). The twenty percent increase was introduced as part
Because of the greater possibility of splitting when subject of the World War II emergency increase in wood design
values, and then subsequently codified as 10 percent for the
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 257

change from permanent to normal loading and 10 percent W = KW G5/2 D (C12.2.3-1)

for experience (see C2.3.2).
where:
Wood screw reference withdrawal design values are
based on tests of cut thread wood screws. The shank or W = nail or spike withdrawal design value per inch
of penetra­tion in main member, lbs
body diameter of a cut thread screw is the same as the
outside diameter of the thread. The shank or body diameter KW = 1380
of the rolled thread screw is the same as the root diameter.
G = specific gravity of main member based on
For the same nominal diameter of screw, both screw thread
types have the same threads per inch, the same outside
oven dry weight and volume, where 0.31 ≤ G
≤ 0.73
C
thread diameter, and the same thread depth. If the tensile
strength of the screw is adequate and the lead hole provi- D = shank diameter of the nail or spike, in.,
sions based on root diameter are used, the withdrawal where 0.092" ≤ D ≤ 0.375"

COMMENTARY: DOWEL-TYPE FASTENERS

resistance of rolled thread screws is considered equivalent The value of KW represents one-fifth (one-sixth in-
to that of cut thread screws (182, 163). creased by 20 percent) of the average constant at oven
The ANSI/ASME B18.6.1 standard states that the dry weight and volume obtained from ultimate load tests
thread length is approximately two-thirds of the nominal (184), increased by 20 percent; or
screw length.
C12.2.2.2 The unit reference withdrawal design value  6900  (C12.2.3-2)
KW = 1.2 
in lbs/in. is multiplied by the depth of thread penetration  6 
into a wood member to calculate the fastener reference The twenty percent increase was introduced as part
withdrawal in pounds. of the World War II emergency increase in wood design
C12.2.2.3 Early tests of wood screws in withdrawal values, and then subsequently codified as 10 percent for the
from end grain surfaces of oak, southern pine, maple, and change from permanent to normal loading and 10 percent
cypress gave somewhat erratic results relative to those for for experience (see C2.3.2).
withdrawal from side grain (43). These irregular results (b) NDS Equation 12.2-4 is used to establish smooth
were attributed to the tendency of the screw to split the shank stainless steel nail and spike reference withdrawal
wood in the end grain configuration. Average ratios of design values given in NDS Table 12.2D. Testing of A304
end grain withdrawal resistance to side grain withdrawal and A316 stainless steel nails has shown withdrawal
resistance ranged from 52 to 108 percent (43). Because of capacity of smooth-shank stainless steel nails to be less
this variability, structural loading of wood screws in with- than that of bright or galvanized carbon steel nails (203).
drawal from end grain has been prohibited. Wood screws This strength reduction is attributed to the reduced friction
installed in end grain are suitable for lateral resistance; between nail and wood fiber. Withdrawal design values
however, to clarify that screws are permitted to be installed from Eq. 12.2-4 are one-fifth of the average ultimate
in end-grain but should not be assigned withdrawal design values. Eq. 12.2-4 is slightly different than and produces
values, the end-grain adjustment factor, Ceg, is set to zero smaller values than the equation proposed in the research
for withdrawal loading. to improve fit to data.
C12.2.2.4 Similar to the provisions of 12.2.2.3, wood Clinching. Withdrawal resistance of smooth-shank
screws installed in end-grain of cross-laminated timber nails can be significantly increased by clinching (29).
laminations should not be assigned withdrawal design (c) The unit reference withdrawal design value in
values (i.e. Ceg=0.0). ). There is no reduction in withdrawal lbs/in. for nails and spikes is multiplied by the depth of
resistance for wood screws installed in the side grain of penetration into a wood member, including the tip, to cal-
laminations at cross-laminated timber panel edges. culate the fastener reference withdrawal in pounds. The
C12.2.2.5 See C11.2.3. equations were developed assuming the tip was part of the
penetration length.
C12.2.3 Nails and Spikes C12.2.3.2 Deformed shank nails.
(a) In the 2012 edition of the Specification, provisions
C12.2.3.1 Smooth shank nails or spikes were added for Post-Frame Ring Shank nails and in the
(a) NDS Equation 12.2-3 is used to establish the 2018 edition of the Specification, provisions were added
smooth shank (bright or galvanized) nail and spike refer- for Roof Sheathing Ring Shank nails in accordance with
ence withdrawal design values given in NDS Table 12.2C. ASTM F1667. The withdrawal design value equation (NDS
This equation is based on research (94, 95):

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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
258 NDS COMMENTARY: DOWEL-TYPE FASTENERS

Equation 12.2-5) is based on research conducted at the For- C12.2.4 Drift Bolts and Drift Pins
est Products Laboratory.
(b) The constant of 1800 in NDS Equation 12.2-5 C12.2.4.1 While specific provisions for determining
incorporates a 20% reduction to account for effects of gal- withdrawal design values for round drift bolts or pins are
vanized coatings from testing in Southern pine rather than not specifically included in the Specification, the following
the average reduction of 15% from testing in all species equation has been used where friction and workmanship
(basswood, SPF, Douglas fir, Southern pine, and white oak) can be maintained (184, 181):
tested in the study (196). Therefore, when using uncoated
W = 1200 G2 D (C12.2.4-1)
carbon steel Post-Frame Ring Shank or Roof Sheathing
Ring Shank nails, a 1.25 increase factor is permitted (e.g. where:
0.80x1.25=1.0). Effects of other coatings have not been W = drift bolt or drift pin reference withdrawal
quantified. design value per inch of penetration, lbs
(c) The unit reference withdrawal design value in lbs/ G = specific gravity based on oven dry weight
in. for Roof Sheathing Ring Shank nails and Post-Frame and volume
Ring Shank nails is multiplied by the depth of ring shank D = drift bolt or drift pin diameter, in.
penetration into the side grain of a wood member, includ-
Equation C12.2.4-1 assumes the fastener is driven into
ing the tip, to calculate the fastener reference withdrawal in
a prebored hole having a diameter 1/8 inch less than the
pounds. The equations were developed assuming that the
fastener diameter (184). The reference withdrawal design
tip was part of the penetration length.
values calculated with Equation C12.2.4-1 are approxi-
(d) Reference withdrawal design values for smooth
mately one-fifth average ultimate test values (184, 181).
shank nails are permitted to be used for other deformed
shank nails of the same shank diameter, D, recognizing that
C12.2.5 Fastener Head Pull-Through
tests of deformed shank nails indicate that shank deforma-
tions do not reduce the withdrawal value below the values C12.2.5.1 Fastener head pull-through data used to set
for smooth shank nails. The permissible use of the smooth industry recommendations for wood structural panels,
shank nail withdrawal value replaces criteria in the 2015 combined with historical results of pull-through data from
NDS and prior editions that recognized slightly larger tests of various fastener head shapes and washer diameters
withdrawal strengths for “threaded nails” with unspecified pulled through lumber and wood structural panels, were
geometry of deformations. analyzed to develop fastener head pull-through provisions
C12.2.3.3 Reduction of withdrawal design values up (204). NDS Equation 12.2-6a is based on the fastener head
to 50 percent have been reported for nails driven in end diameter model and was used to establish the reference
grain surfaces (radial-tangential plane) as compared to pull-through design values, WH, given in NDS Table 12.2F.
side grain (radial-longitudinal or tangential-longitudinal NDS Equation 12.2-6b was added to limit the head pull-
planes) surfaces (184, 118). When coupled with the effects through capacity for net side member thicknesses greater
of seasoning in-service after fabrication, such reductions than 2.5 times the fastener head diameter based on analysis
are considered too great for reliable design. On this basis, of available data which indicated that the increased head
structural loading of nails in withdrawal from end grain has pull-through capacity reached a limit where no further
been prohibited. Nails installed in end grain are suitable for increase for side member thickness was appropriate.
lateral resistance; however, to clarify that nails are permit- For fasteners where the head is driven flush with the
ted to be installed in end-grain but should not be assigned side member surface, the net side member thickness, tns, is
withdrawal design values, the end-grain adjustment factor, the thickness of the side member (see Figure C12.2.5A).
Ceg, is set to zero for withdrawal loading. For fasteners that are installed in counter-bored holes, the
C12.2.3.4 Similar to the provisions of 12.2.3.5, nails net side member thickness is measured from the bottom
installed in end-grain of cross-laminated timber lamina- of the hole (see Figure C12.2.5B).
tions should not be assigned withdrawal design values (i.e. Head pull-through equations in NDS Section 12.2.5
Ceg=0.0). There is no reduction in withdrawal resistance (see Equation C12.2.5-1) are for round-head fasteners and
for nails installed in the side grain of laminations at cross- washers. For fasteners with other than round heads, such
laminated timber panel edges. as clipped or oval head nails and hex head bolts and lag
screws, analysis of underlying data is considered to support
the use of a more general fastener head perimeter model
(see Equation C12.2.5-2).

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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 259

Fastener head diameter equation for establishing fastener

Figure C12.2.5 Net Side Member
head pull-through reference design values:
Thickness, tns
WH = 690 π DH G2 tns for tns2.5DH (C12.2.5-1)
Fastener head perimeter equation for establishing fastener
head pull-through reference design values:

WH = 690 PH G2 tns for tns0.8PH (C12.2.5-2)

where:
C
π DH = perimeter for fasteners with round heads, in.

COMMENTARY: DOWEL-TYPE FASTENERS

DH = fastener head diameter, in.

G = specific gravity of side member

tns = net side member thickness, in.

PH = fastener head perimeter, PH, in.

C12.3 Reference Lateral Design Values

Reference lateral design values for dowel-type fasten- proportional limit test values (100) divided by 1.875. The
ers (bolts, lag screws, wood screws, nails and spikes) are 1.875 factor is based on an original reduction factor of
based on a yield limit model which specifically accounts 2.25, increased 20 percent for normal loading and experi-
for the different ways these connections can behave under ence. The twenty percent increase was introduced as part
load. These behavior patterns or modes (see NDS Appen- of the World War II emergency increase in wood design
dix I) are uniform bearing in the wood under the fastener, values, and then subsequently codified as 10 percent for the
rotation of the fastener in the joint without bending, and change from permanent to normal loading and 10 percent
development of one or more plastic hinges in the fastener for experience (see C2.3.2).
(67, 122). Equations have been developed for each mode Wood Screws: Reference lateral design values for
relating the joint load to the maximum stresses in the wood wood screw connections are indexed to average short-term
members and in the fastener (67, 121). The capacity of the proportional limit test values (184, 70) divided by 1.33. The
connection under each yield mode is keyed to the bearing 1.33 factor is based on an original reduction factor of 1.6,
strength of the wood under the fastener and the bending increased 20 percent for normal loading and experience.
strength of the fastener, with the lowest capacity calculated The twenty percent increase was introduced as part of the
for the various modes being taken as the reference design World War II emergency increase in wood design values,
value for the connection. and then subsequently codified as 10 percent for the change
Although the yield limit model represents significantly from permanent to normal loading and 10 percent for
different methodology than that used previously to estab- experience (see C2.3.2). Lateral design values for wood
lish fastener design values, the relative effects of various screw connections at reference conditions (seasoned dry,
joint variables shown by both procedures are generally normal load duration) are about one-fifth of maximum
similar (85, 86, 89, 121). Short-term design values obtained tested capacities (184).
from application of the yield limit equations have been Nails & Spikes: Reference lateral design values for
reduced to the design value levels published in previous nailed connections are indexed to average short-term pro-
editions of the Specification for connections made with portional limit test values (184, 50) divided by 1.33. The
the same species and member sizes. 1.33 factor is based on an original reduction factor of 1.6,
Bolts: Reference lateral design values for bolted increased 20 percent for normal loading and experience. The
connections are indexed to proportional limit estimates twenty percent increase was introduced as part of the World
from bolted connection tests (44, 57, 146, 162) at reference War II emergency increase in wood design values, and then
conditions (seasoned dry, normal load duration). subsequently codified as 10 percent for the change from
Lag Screws: Reference lateral design values for permanent to normal loading and 10 percent for experience
lag screw connections are indexed to average short-term (see C2.3.2). Lateral design values for nailed connections
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
260 NDS COMMENTARY: DOWEL-TYPE FASTENERS

at reference conditions (seasoned dry, normal load dura- nal yield point is intermediate between the proportional
tion) are about one-fifth of maximum tested capacities for limit and maximum loads for the material.
softwoods and one-ninth of maximum tested capacities for The effect of specific gravity on dowel bearing strength
hardwoods (184, 50). was established from 3/4-inch dowel embedment tests on
Douglas fir, southern pine, spruce-pine-fir, sitka spruce,
C12.3.1 Yield Limit Equations red oak, yellow poplar, and aspen. Diameter effects were
evaluated from tests of 1/4, 1/2, 3/4, 1, and 1-1/2 inch dow-
The yield limit equations for single shear connec- els in southern pine using bolt holes 1/16-inch larger than
tions (NDS Equations 12.3-1 to 12.3-6) and for double the dowel diameter. Diameter was found to be a significant
shear connections (NDS Equations 12.3-7 to 12.3-10) variable only in perpendicular to grain loading. Bearing
were developed from European research (121, 78) and specimens were 1/2-inch or thicker such that width and
have been confirmed by tests of connections made with number of growth rings did not influence results (158).
domestic species (21, 20, 88, 120, 121, 122). The limiting The specific gravity values given in NDS Table
yield modes covered by these equations are bearing in the 12.3.3A for each specie or species group are those used
main or side members (Mode I), fastener rotation without to establish dowel bearing strength values, Fe, tabulated in
bending (Mode II), development of a plastic hinge in the NDS Table 12.3.3. These specific gravity values represent
fastener in main or side member (Mode III) and develop- average values from in-grade lumber test programs or are
ment of plastic hinges in the fastener in both main and side based on information from ASTM D 2555.
members (Mode IV) (see NDS Appendix I). The equations provided in footnote 2 of NDS Table
The reduction term, Rd, in NDS Equations 12.3-1 12.3.3 were used to calculate tabulated values in NDS
through 12.3-10, reduces the values calculated using Table 12.3.3. These equations were derived from test data
the yield limit equations to approximate estimates of using methods described in ASTM D 5764 (158, 18).
the nominal proportional limit design values in previous C12.3.3.2 Dowel bearing strengths for wood structural
editions of the Specification (157). For fasteners loaded panels using a dowel diameter of less than or equal to ¼
perpendicular to grain with diameters equal to or greater inch are provided in NDS Table 12.3.3B and are based on
than 0.25 inches, the reduction term is increased 25% (Kθ research conducted by APA-The Engineered Wood Asso-
= 1.25) to match previous design values for connections ciation (25). Dowel bearing values for larger diameters in
loaded perpendicular to grain. wood structural panels are available in APA 825E.
For detailed technical information on lateral design C12.3.3.3 Dowel bearing strengths for structural
equations, see AWC’s Technical Report 12: General Dowel composite lumber are determined for each product using
Equations for Calculating Lateral Connection Values (137) equivalency methods described in ASTM D5456 (16).
available at www.awc.org. C12.3.3.4 For fasteners with D≥1/4" installed in
end-grain, the dowel bearing strength is equal to the per-
C12.3.2 Common Connection pendicular to grain value, Fe┴.
Conditions C12.3.3.5 For fasteners in the wide face of CLT, dowel
bearing strength is based on the dowel bearing strength of
Reference lateral design values, Z, for connections the layer at the shear plane. The orientation of the layer at
with bolts, lag screws, wood screws, nails and spikes are the shear plane may either be parallel or perpendicular to
calculated for common connection conditions and assumed the major strength axis of the panel and should be part of
fastener bending yield strengths using the yield limit equa- the specification of the cross-laminated timber panel (see
tions in NDS 12.3.1. Assumptions used in the yield limit Commentary C10.1.4). For connections where the load-
equations to develop the tables are provided in the table ing direction is parallel to grain for the layer at the shear
headings and footnotes. plane, the dowel bearing strength is the parallel to grain
dowel bearing strength, Fe║. For connections where the
C12.3.3 Dowel Bearing Strength loading direction is perpendicular to grain for the layer at
the shear plane, the dowel bearing strength is the perpen-
C12.3.3.1 The limiting wood stresses used in the dicular to grain dowel bearing strength, Fe┴. The influence
yield limit equations are based on the load at which the of different dowel bearing strengths of crossing layers on
load-deformation curve from a fastener embedment test cross-laminated connection design values is accounted for
intersects a line represented by the initial tangent modulus by adjustment of the bearing length in the crossing layers
offset 5 percent of the fastener diameter (120). This nomi- (See NDS 12.3.5.2).

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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 261

C12.3.3.6 For fasteners with D≥1/4" that are installed design values based on parallel and perpendicular to grain
into the edge of cross-laminated timber, the dowel bearing design values should be used with these “effective” bear-
strength is assumed to be the same as for fasteners installed ing lengths. Methods of installation should avoid placing
into end-grain (See NDS 12.3.3.4) which conservatively fasteners in gaps between adjacent boards in a lamination,
addresses varying grain orientations and the ability to especially where they might occur in the lamination at the
maintain minimum edge distances within the narrow face shear plane.
of a cross-laminated timber lamination. For fasteners with C12.3.5.3 An analysis provided in Technical Report
D<1/4", the same dowel bearing strength, Fe, applies for 12 (137) shows that the NDS requirement closely ap-
either parallel or perpendicular to grain loading. proximates results from the more detailed evaluation of the C
influence of a tapered tip on bearing resistance. For wood
C12.3.4 Dowel Bearing Strength at screws, nails and spikes, the length of the tapered tip is
an Angle to Grain not generally standardized, but for purposes of accounting

COMMENTARY: DOWEL-TYPE FASTENERS

for the tip length in the bearing length calculation, E, is
NDS Equation 12.3-11 (and Equation J-2 in NDS Ap- permitted to be taken as 2 diameters (2D). For lag screws,
pendix J) is used to calculate the dowel bearing strength E is permitted to be taken from NDS Appendix L, Table L2.
for a main or side member loaded at an angle to grain. This
equation is a form of the bearing angle to grain equation C12.3.6 Dowel Bending Yield
(NDS Equation J-1). The equation is entered with the Strength
parallel and perpendicular dowel bearing strengths for the
member and the reference bolt design value is determined The dowel bending yield strength, Fyb, of fasteners
from the yield limit equations using Feθ as the dowel bear- such as nails (79), wood screws, lag screws, and bolts are
ing strength for the main or side member. given in NDS Appendix I. For most steel fasteners, Fyb
The reference design value obtained from the yield equal to 45,000 psi is a conservative value and is equiva-
limit equations using dowel bearing strength at an angle lent to the bolt strength reported in the original bolt test
to grain is similar to that obtained from using parallel to research (146).
grain and perpendicular to grain Z values in NDS Equation
J-3 to obtain a Zθ design value for the connection (157). C12.3.7 Dowel Diameter
Determining a Zθ design value using this latter approach
can be used as an alternative to calculating Feθ for use in Reference lateral design values for both smooth shank
each yield limit equation and allows the use of tabulated and deformed shank nails are based on the shank diameter,
Z values from the Specification. D. In prior editions of the Specification, lateral design
values for deformed shank nails used the root diameter, Dr,
C12.3.5 Dowel Bearing Length and a Fyb value associated with hardened medium carbon
steel nails.
C12.3.5.2 For fasteners with D≥1/4", crossing layers A change in ASTM F 1575 (205) clarified that nail
in cross-laminated timbers will have different dowel bear- bending yield strength, Fyb, is based on the shank diameter,
ing strengths than the layer at the shear plane due to the D, not on the root diameter, Dr. This change in ASTM 1575
difference in grain orientation. The influence of varying facilitated simplification of nail moment resistance in the
dowel bearing strengths in crossing layers on connection NDS yield equations for nails specified in ASTM F1667
design values is addressed by use of an “effective” bear- since D is provided for all nail types.
ing length. For connections where the loading direction is The reduced moment resistance in the threaded portion
parallel to grain for the layer at the shear plane, the dowel of dowel-type fasteners, other than nails, can be accounted
bearing length should be reduced by multiplying the bear- for by use of root diameter, Dr, in calculation of reference
ing length in each crossing layer (perpendicular to grain) lateral design values. Use of diameter, D, is permitted when
by the ratio of Fe┴/Fe║. For connections where the loading the threaded portion of the fastener is sufficiently far away
direction is perpendicular to grain for the layer at the shear from the connection shear plane(s). For more information,
plane, the dowel bearing length can conservatively remain see NDS Appendix I.5.
unadjusted or it can be increased in the crossing layers Reference lateral design values for reduced body diam-
(parallel to grain) by the ratio of Fe║/Fe┴. Actual penetration eter lag screw and rolled thread wood screw connections
lengths should be used for checking minimum penetra- are based on root diameter, Dr, to account for the reduced
tion requirements. For connections loaded at an angle to diameter of these fasteners. These values, while conserva-
grain, the procedures in NDS Appendix J for developing tive, can also be used for full-body diameter lag screws and
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
262 NDS COMMENTARY: DOWEL-TYPE FASTENERS

cut thread wood screws. For bolted connections, reference C12.3.10 Load at an Angle to
lateral design values are based on diameter, D. Fastener Axis
One alternate method of accounting for the moment
and bearing resistance of the threaded portion of the fas- Two member connections in which the load acts at
tener and moment acting along the length of the fastener is an angle to the axis of the fastener are checked using
provided in AWC’s Technical Report 12–General Dowel the component of the load acting at 90° to the axis and
Equations for Calculating Lateral Connection Values member thicknesses equal to the length of the fastener in
(137). A general set of equations permits use of different each member measured at the centerline of the fastener
fastener diameters for bearing resistance and moment (see NDS Figure 12E). Reference design values for con-
resistance in each member. nections in which the load acts at an angle to the fastener
axis are based on the yield limit equations of NDS 12.3.1.
C12.3.8 Asymmetric Three Member The lowest value of Z obtained, using tm and ts equal to
Connections, Double Shear the length of the fastener in each member, divided by the
cosine of the angle of intersection of the two members is
Conservatively, the Specification requires the use of the maximum reference design value for the connection.
minimum side member bearing length and minimum dowel The adequacy of the bearing area under washers and
diameter in the calculation of design values for asymmetric plates to resist the component of force acting parallel to the
three member connections. Inherent in this calculation fastener axis can be checked using adjusted compression
is the assumption that the load to each side member is design values perpendicular to grain, Fc⊥'.
equivalent. Where other load distributions occur, more
complex analysis may be needed. C12.3.11 Drift Bolts and Drift Pins
C12.3.9 Multiple Shear Reference lateral design values for drift bolts or pins
Connections (181) are 75 percent of the reference design value for
common bolts of the same diameter to compensate for
The Specification requires evaluation of each indi- the absence of head, nut, and washer. End distance, edge
vidual shear plane using the yield limit equations of NDS distance, and spacing requirements, and group action ad-
12.3.1 and then assigning the lowest value to the other justments that are applicable to bolts, are also applicable
shear planes. Interior members should be checked for the to drift bolts and drift pins.
combined loading from the adjacent shear planes to ensure
that sufficient bearing capacity exists (such as would exist
in a double shear connection limited by Mode Im).

C12.4 Combined Lateral and Withdrawal Loads

C12.4.1 Lag Screws and Wood normal to the wood member. For this condition, α, would
Screws be defined as the angle perpendicular to the fastener axis.

Results of lag screw tests indicated that loading at an C12.4.2 Nails and Spikes
angle to the fastener axis to induce lateral and withdrawal
components did not reduce the maximum connection ca- It is assumed that current adjustments for toe-nailed
pacity. However, when joint resistance was evaluated at the connections address the effects of combined lateral and
design load level, an interaction of the load components withdrawal loading and do not require further modification.
was observed with larger diameter screws at load angles Research on the effects of combined lateral and with-
less than 45° (87). Analysis at design load level was per- drawal loading on nailed connections (37) involved tests
formed due to the differences in design level to maximum of Engelmann spruce, Douglas fir, and red oak single shear
capacity ratios for lateral and withdrawal. NDS Equation connections made with 8d common nails. Nail penetration
12.4-1 can also be used to determine the reference design depths of 6, 10, and 14 diameters into the main member and
value of lag screws or wood screws embedded at an angle load angles of 0 degrees, 90 degrees, and six intermediate
to grain in the wood member and loaded in a direction directions were investigated. Two tests were conducted
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 263

at each load angle. The interaction equation found to best K = factor based on least squares analysis of
describe maximum connection load results for each species test data for each species-penetration
and penetration depth was of the form: group

(1 + K sin 2α)( W ' pZ ') The average value of K for the six species and penetra-
P= (C12.4.2-1) tion groups evaluated was 0.535, and ranged from 0.151
( W ' p) cos α + ( Z ') sin α to 1.406. Average K values by species were 0.432, 0.864,
where: and 0.309 for Douglas fir, Engelmann spruce, and red oak,
respectively. When K is conservatively assumed to equal
P = maximum load at angle to grain
0, Equation C12.4.2-1 reduces to NDS Equation 12.4-2 C
W' = maximum load at 90° (withdrawal or, in another format the following:
load perpendicular to grain per inch of
penetration in the main member) RW R (C12.4.2-2)

COMMENTARY: DOWEL-TYPE FASTENERS

+ Z ≤1
p = depth of penetration (W'p) Z'
Z' = maximum load at 0° (lateral load) where:
α = angle between wood surface and direction RW = connection withdrawal force
of applied load RZ = connection lateral force

C12.5 Adjustment of Reference Design Values

C12.5.1 Geometry Factor, CΔ (146). End distances for angle to grain tension loadings
may be linearly interpolated from those for perpendicular
C12.5.1.1 For dowel-type fasteners with diameters less to grain and tension parallel to grain design values.
than ¼", no reduction for geometry is specified. The provisions for use of reduced end distances for
C12.5.1.2 For dowel-type fasteners with diameters connections when proportionate reductions (0.5 ≤ CD ≤
equal to or greater than ¼", the geometry factor provides 1.0) are made in design values are supported by early
a proportionate reduction of reference lateral design val- research (184, 181, 146) which showed a linear relation-
ues for less than full end distance or less than full spacing ship between end distance and joint proportional limit
distance. The lowest geometry factor for any fastener strength. A subsequent study showed that a minimum
applies to all other fasteners in that same connection, not end distance of only 5D was sufficient to develop the full
just to the end fastener or a pair of fasteners in a row. It proportional limit load of Douglas fir joints made with
should be noted that further reductions may be necessary metal side plates and loaded in tension parallel to grain
when checking stresses in members at connections (see (119). Other research further substantiates the adequacy
NDS 11.1.2). of the end distance requirements for connections loaded
The requirement that fastener design values for mul- in both compression and tension parallel to grain (102,
tiple shear plane connections or asymmetric three member 110). End distances less than 50 percent of those required
connections be based on the application of the lowest for CD =1.0 are not allowed.
geometry factor for any shear plane to all fasteners in the Shear Area: Requirements in NDS 12.5.1(b) are for
joint assumes that the total joint capacity is proportional members loaded at an angle to the fastener axis. End dis-
to the number of shear planes. tance requirements are expressed in terms of equivalent
End Distance: Requirements in NDS 12.5.1.2 (a) shear areas. Shear area for such a joint is defined as the
and NDS Table 12.5.1A for parallel to grain loading are triangular area in the thickness plane of the member which
based on early recommendations (146). For tension loads is enclosed between the tip of the member and the center-
(fasteners bearing toward the member end), the minimum line of the fastener (NDS Figure 12E). This shear area for
end distances of 7D for softwoods and 5D for hardwoods the angled member is compared to the shear area of a joint
for CD = 1.0 were established by test. For compression in which both members are loaded perpendicular to the
loads (fasteners bearing away from the member end), the fastener axis (members parallel to each other) and which
minimum end distance of 4D for CD = 1.0 was based on meet end distance requirements. The equivalent shear area
the minimum spacing of fasteners in a row for CD = 1.0

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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
264 NDS COMMENTARY: DOWEL-TYPE FASTENERS

for the parallel member joint is the product of the required Avoidance of heavy or medium suspended loads below
end distance and the length of the fastener in the member. the neutral axis of a beam was added as a result of several
As with end distance requirements for parallel member reported field problems involving glued laminated timber
connections, reduced shear areas less than 50 percent of beams subject to a line of concentrated loads applied
those required for CD = 1.0 are not allowed. It is recom- through bolted hangers or ledger strips attached in the ten-
mended as good practice that the distance between the sion zone or at the bottom edge of the beam. Concentrated
fastener axis and the inside juncture of the angled side loads less than 100 pounds and spaced more than 24 inches
member and the main member (see NDS Figure 12E) be apart may be considered a light load condition.
at least 1.5D. For perpendicular to grain connections, the member is
Spacing Requirements for Fasteners in a Row: For required to be checked for shear in accordance with 3.4.3.3
fasteners in a row, the spacing requirements contained in of the Specification using a reduced depth, de, equivalent
NDS 12.5.1(c) and NDS Table 12.5.1B are assumed to be to the beam depth (d) less the distance from the unloaded
sufficient to cover the effects of non-uniform distribution edge of the beam to the center of the nearest fastener.
of shear stresses through the thickness of the member Spacing Requirements Between Rows: For perpen-
(concentrated at the edges) that occur as the fastener bends dicular to grain loading, NDS Table 12.5.1D provisions
(146). Reduced spacings less than 75 percent of those are based on early research (146). These requirements
required for CD = 1.0 are not allowed. relate the tendency of the fasteners to bend and cause
If the direction of loading is perpendicular to grain, non-uniform bearing stresses and the resistance of the
the minimum spacing for CD = 1.0 is based on the attached wood between rows to resist splitting. It is for this reason
member. If the attached member is steel, then steel spac- that staggering of fasteners loaded perpendicular to grain
ing controls from the appropriate steel standards (125). If is desirable (see NDS 12.6.1). In computing the 𝓁/D ratio
the attached member is a wood member loaded parallel to for determining the appropriate minimum spacing between
grain, then parallel to grain spacing controls. If the attached rows for perpendicular to grain loading, the ratio for side
member is wood loaded perpendicular to grain, then 4D members is based on the sum of the bearing length in each
should be adequate. Evaluating the wood members for side member where three or more wood member joints
shear per NDS 3.4.3.3 would also be advisable. are involved.
C12.5.1.3 For dowel-type fasteners with diameters For parallel to grain loading, NDS Table 12.5.1D
equal to or greater than ¼", the connections need to be de- permits rows of fasteners to be spaced 1.5D; however,
signed to comply with several related limitations, including additional spacing may be required when installing bolts
edge distance and spacing between the rows of fasteners and lag screws to accommodate larger head and washer
and the maximum perpendicular to grain distance between dimensions and clearance requirements for wrench sock-
outermost fasteners. ets. Note that the steel industry recommends a minimum
Edge Distance: Requirements in NDS Table 12.5.1C center-to-center spacing between holes of 2.67D, with a
for parallel to grain loading of 1.5D or the greater of 1.5D preferred distance of 3D (125).
or 1/2 the spacing between rows for 𝓁/D greater than 6, The limitation on row spacing applies to metal as well
and for loaded edge–perpendicular to grain loading of 4D as wood side plates, to members loaded perpendicular as
are based on early research (146). The unloaded edge–per- well as parallel to grain, and to three or more member
pendicular to grain minimum of 1.5D is a good practice connections occurring at truss panel points.
recommendation. Maximum Perpendicular to Grain Distance Be-
NDS 12.5.1 does not provide specific guidance on edge tween Outermost Fasteners: For parallel or perpendicular
distance requirements for loads applied at angles other than to grain loading, limiting the maximum distance between
0° and 90°, nor does it provide specific geometry factors outer rows of fasteners on the same splice plate to 5" avoids
for reduced edge distances. splitting that could occur in members at connections as a
The ratio of the fastener length in side member to result of restraint of shrinkage associated with drying in
fastener diameter, 𝓁/D, in NDS Table 12.5.1A is based service. Table 12.5.1F was added in the 2012 edition of the
on the total thickness of both wood side members when Specification in recognition that structural glued laminated
connections of three or more wood members are involved. timber is manufactured at lower moisture contents which
For connections involving metal main or side members, reduces the amount of shrinkage during drying in service.
only the 𝓁/D ratio for the wood members are considered The 10" spacing was based on judgment following review
for determination of edge distance requirements in this of several analyses that accounted for effects of moisture
section. Metal parts must still be designed per NDS 11.2.3. content change, shrinkage rate, hole oversize and hole
alignment on potential restraint of shrinkage between
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 265

connected members. The proposed 10" was based on an avoided, use of an end grain to side grain withdrawal
analysis and the following assumptions: 1) a maximum design value ratio of 75 percent has been suggested (184,
moisture content at time of fabrication of 16% and an in- 183).
service moisture content of 6%; 2) a reduced shrinkage Reduction of withdrawal design values up to 50 percent
rate applicable to structural glued laminated timbers versus have been reported for nails driven in end grain surfaces
sawn lumber to account for a mixture of tangential and (radial-tangential plane) as compared to side grain (radial-
radial shrinkage in the varying layers of glulam; and 3) longitudinal or tangential-longitudinal planes) surfaces (184,
recognition of the combined effect of bolt hole oversizing 118). When coupled with the effects of seasoning in service
and alignment resulting in 1/32" movement. after fabrication, such reductions are considered too great C
Special detailing can be utilized in cases where dis- for reliable design. It is considered to be on this basis that
tances between outer rows of bolts exceed the limits in loading of nails and spikes in withdrawal from end grain
Table 12.5.1F, such as use of multiple splice plates or a has been prohibited.

COMMENTARY: DOWEL-TYPE FASTENERS

single splice plate with slotted holes to allow shrinkage. C12.5.2.2 The use of a 0.67 adjustment factor on refer-
Such an example of multiple splice plates is shown in ence lateral design values for lag screws, wood screws, nails,
Figure C12.5.1.3. or spikes driven in the end grain is based on early research
on joints made with softwood species (181, 184).
Figure C12.5.1.3 Connection C12.5.2.3 For fasteners with D≥1/4", the use of a 0.67
Illustrating Use of Multiple Splice adjustment factor for fasteners installed in the edge of a
Plates cross-laminated timber panel is based on the assumption
that fasteners will be installed into end grain of the cross-
laminated timber lamination (see Commentary C12.3.3.6)
regardless of whether installation is actually into end grain.
Testing of large fasteners installed into end-grain or between
laminations with end-grain and side-grain indicated that
C12.5.1.4 For fasteners installed in the edge of the 0.67 adjustment factor was sufficiently conservative,
cross-laminated timber panels, special end distance, edge even when gaps were present (198). For smaller diameter
distance and fastener spacing conditions are provided in fasteners with D<1/4", the end grain factor in 12.5.2.2 ap-
NDS Table 12.5.1G, while all other requirements fol- plies where installation is into end grain (see Commentary
low the general provisions of NDS 12.5.1. For fasteners C12.5.2.2) of a cross-laminated timber lamination.
installed in the wide face of cross-laminated panels, end
distances, edge distances, and fastener spacing require- C12.5.3 Diaphragm Factor, Cdi
ments should follow the requirements for other wood
products in NDS 12.5.1. Placement of fasteners in gaps Diaphragms are large, flat structural units acting like a
should be avoided. deep relatively thin beam or girder. Horizontal wood dia-
phragms consist of floor or roof decks acting as webs, and
C12.5.2 End Grain Factor, Ceg lumber, structural glued laminated timber, SCL, or I-joist
members acting as the flanges. Such assemblies distribute
C12.5.2.1 Reducing reference withdrawal design val- horizontal forces acting on the flanges to vertical resisting
ues for lag screws 25 percent when the screw is inserted in elements (103). Shear walls consisting of wall sheathing
the end grain (radial-tangential plane) of the main member materials attached to top and bottom plates and vertical
rather than the side grain (radial-longitudinal or tangential- framing members also are diaphragms. Such shear walls
longitudinal plane) is based on lag screw joint tests (100). or vertical diaphragms act to transfer loads from horizontal
Early tests of wood screws in withdrawal from end diaphragms down to the supporting foundation. The dia-
grain surfaces of oak, southern pine, maple, and cypress phragm factor, Cdi, applies to both horizontal and vertical
gave somewhat erratic results relative to those for with- diaphragms (144, 145).
drawal from side grain (43). These irregular results were
attributed to the tendency of the screw to split the wood C12.5.4 Toe-Nail Factor, Ctn
in the end grain configuration. Average ratios of end grain
withdrawal resistance to side grain withdrawal resistance C12.5.4.1 The 0.67 adjustment of reference with-
ranged from 52 to 108 percent (43). Because of this vari- drawal design values for toenailing is based on the results
ability, structural loading of wood screws in withdrawal of joint tests comparing slant driving and straight driving
from end grain has been prohibited. Where splitting is (184) and of typical toenailed and end nailed joints used in
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
266 NDS COMMENTARY: DOWEL-TYPE FASTENERS

frame wall construction (118) where the attached member C12.5.4.2 The toe-nail factor of 0.83 is an adjustment
is pulled directly away from the main member. It is ap- based on the intermediate condition between the full lateral
plicable to joints fabricated at all levels of seasoning. This design value for side-grain connections and the full lateral
includes multiple nail joints fabricated of unseasoned wood design value for end-grain conditions where Ceg = 0.67.
and then loaded after seasoning (184, 183, 118). Toenail- Where toe-nailed connections are resisting lateral loads,
ing with cross slant driving can produce stronger joints the bearing length, 𝓁m, of the nail in the member holding
than end or face nailing. For example, a stud to plate joint the point may be taken as the vertically projected length of
made of four 8d toenails was reported to be stronger than nail in the member (see Figure C12.5.4-1) calculated as:
the same joint made with two 16d end nails (181, 118).
Where toenailed connections are resisting withdrawal, the 𝓁m = Lcos30°–L/3 (C12.5.4-1)
depth of penetration, pt, of the nail in the member holding where:
the point may be taken as the actual length of nail in the
L = length of nail, in.
member as shown in Figure C12.5.4-1.
For purposes of establishing the single shear reference
Figure C12.5.4-1 Effective lateral design value applicable to a toe-nailed connection,
Penetration and Side Member the side member bearing length, Ls, of the nail (see Figure
Thickness for Toe-Nails Subject to C12.5.4-1) shall be taken as:
Lateral Loads
𝓁s = L/3 (C12.5.4-2)
Equation C12.5.4-2 only applies to nails driven at
30° an angle of approximately 30° to the face of the member
being attached and one-third the nail length from the end
of that member.

L
l s = L /3

pt
lm

C12.6 Multiple Fasteners

C12.6.1 Symmetrically Staggered to achieve intersection of member gravity axes with the
Fasteners center of resistance of the fastener group, the designer
has the responsibility to fully evaluate and account for
See C12.5.1.3 Spacing Requirements Between Rows. the effects of the resultant eccentric loading on both the
load-carrying capacity of the members and the capacity
C12.6.2 Fasteners Loaded at an of the connection (see C11.1.3).
Angle to Grain
C12.6.3 Local Stresses in
General provisions for the placement and spacing of Connections
fasteners to cover all directions of loading and any number
of members in a connection are beyond the scope of the See C11.1.2.
Specification. For this reason, the gravity axis of all mem-
bers must pass through the center of fastener resistance
to maintain uniform stress in main members and uniform
distribution of load to all fasteners. If it is not possible
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 267

C13 SPLIT RING AND SHEAR

PLATE CONNECTORS
C13.1 General
C
C13.1.1 Scope screw tying the joint together is considered loaded in single
shear. Where more than one connector unit is on the same

COMMENTARY: SPLIT RING AND SHEAR PLATE CONNECTORS

Split ring and shear plate connectors act like dowels bolt, as in the case of a three member joint where the main
or keys in distributing loads from one member to another member has connectors on the same bolt on both faces,
in a joint (184). The large diameters of the rings or plates, an adjusted single shear design value for each shear plane
relative to the diameters of bolts, and the relatively shal- is provided in the design value tables (see NDS Tables
low depth of the connectors in the members provide for 13.2A and 13.2B).
increased bearing areas without penalizing reductions in
net section areas. As a result, these connectors can develop C13.1.3 Quality of Split Ring and
significantly higher design values than those obtainable Shear Plate Connectors
from bolts alone.
Split ring connectors are installed in precut grooves C13.1.3.1 The split ring is wedge shaped (beveled
made with a special power-driven drill and cutting tool. toward the edges) to facilitate installation and assure a
They are used in wood-to-wood joints where high lateral tight fit when fully seated. The diameter of the inside
joint loads are involved; such as in bowstring trusses, groove for the split ring is 2 percent larger than the inside
arches, and bridges. The bolt or lag screw passing through diameter of the ring, thus requiring the ring to be sprung
the center of the ring holds the faces of the joint members slightly when inserted. This provides for any subsequent
in contact. shrinkage of the members and for simultaneous bearing of
Similar to split rings, shear plates are installed in precut the inner surface of the connector against the inner core of
grooves but are flush to the surface when fully seated. Two wood created by the grooving operation and bearing of the
shear plates are the equivalent of one split ring, with the outer surface of the connector on the opposite side against
load being transferred from one plate to the other in the the outside wall of the groove (117, 142). The position of
joint through shear in the bolt or lag screw. Shear plates the tongue-slot joint in the ring relative to the direction of
are primarily used in wood-to-steel connections; such as loading is not significant (117).
steel gusset plate joints or column-foundation connec- The two small perforations in the central portion of
tions where the metal replaces one of the plates, and in pressed steel shear plates serve to facilitate temporary
demountable wood-to-wood connections, such as stadium attachment of the connector to the joint member when
bleachers (142). off-site fabrication is employed and in the erection and
The design provisions for split ring and shear plate dismantling of temporary structures in the field. The per-
connectors in the Specification are based on early research forations do not affect plate load-carrying performance.
(104, 117). C13.1.3.2 Design values in NDS Tables 13.2A and
13.2B correspond to the dimensions for split rings and
C13.1.2 Terminology shear plates, respectively, in Appendix K of the Speci-
fication. In addition to connector diameter, the depth of
A connector unit is described in terms of the metal the connector in the member and its thickness affect joint
parts required for a single shear plane. For a split ring load-carrying capacity. Only those split rings that have
connection, one ring is used in matching grooves in the equivalent or larger inside diameter, metal depth, and metal
members adjacent to one plane. For shear plate con- thickness than those given in NDS Appendix K qualify for
nections, two matching shear plates, one in appropriate the connector design values provided in NDS Table 13.2A.
grooves in each member, are used in wood-to-wood joints. Similarly, only those shear plates that have equivalent or
In a wood-to-metal joint, the steel strap or plate replaces larger plate diameter, plate depth, and plate thickness than
one of the shear plates. In all three cases, the bolt or lag
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
268 NDS COMMENTARY: SPLIT RING AND SHEAR PLATE CONNECTORS

those given in NDS Appendix K qualify for the connector C13.1.4.3 Washers may be used in shear plate con-
design values provided in NDS Table 13.2B. nections involving steel straps and plates when use of a
The projected areas given in NDS Appendix K for longer bolt or lag screw is necessary to avoid bearing of the
split rings are calculated as the sum of the inside groove threaded portion of the bolt or screw on the strap or plate.
diameter and twice the groove width times the groove C13.1.4.4 Reference design values for split ring
depth. The projected areas for shear plates given in NDS and shear plate connectors apply to joints in which the
Appendix K are based on the groove diameter times the members are in contact, are fabricated of wood having
groove depth for the nominal shear plate dimensions a moisture content of 15 percent or lower to a depth of
shown. Tabulated projected areas for split ring and shear at least 3/4 inch from the surface, and will remain dry in
plate connectors given in NDS Appendix K are to be used service. Effects of normal variations in moisture content
in checking localized wood stresses in accordance with that occur in dry conditions of service are accounted for
NDS 11.1.2 and 13.3.4.3. in the reference values.
C13.1.3.3 Bolts used with split rings or shear plates are When connectors are installed in unseasoned or par-
required to meet the quality provisions of NDS 12.1.2 for tially seasoned wood intended for use in dry conditions
full body diameter bolts to prevent use of undersized fas- of service, reference design values are to be adjusted in
teners that do not provide full bearing with the connectors. accordance with the factors in NDS 11.3.3. Such joints
C13.1.3.4 Lag screws used with split rings or shear will need to be tightened as the members season in service
plates are required to meet the quality provisions of NDS by periodically turning down the nuts on the bolts until
12.1.3 for full body diameter lag screws to prevent use of service equilibrium moisture content is reached.
undersized fasteners that do not provide full bearing with It is good practice to exclude visible face knots within
the connectors. a distance of one-half the connector diameter along the
grain from the edge of the connector unit (181, 117). Where
C13.1.4 Fabrication and Assembly visible knots are included within a one-half connector
diameter distance of the critical section, the net section
C13.1.4.1 Cutterheads should be designed specifically based on the projected area of the connector unit and bolt
for the dimensions provided by the particular connector or screw should be further reduced for the cross-sectional
manufacturer. area of such included knots (see NDS 3.1.2.3).

C13.2 Reference Design Values

C13.2.1 Reference Design Values C13.2.1.1 Reference design values for split ring
connections in NDS Table 13.2A and for shear plate con-
Early connector tests of joints made with Douglas fir, nections in NDS Table 13.2B are given in terms of the
southern pine, white oak, and other representative spe- number of faces a member has with a connector on the
cies showed that joint load-carrying capacity was directly same bolt and on the thickness of that member. The lowest
related to the specific gravity of the wood members (184, reference design value for the two members being joined
181, 104, 117). is the reference design value for the shear plane.
Reference design values in NDS Tables 13.2A and C13.2.1.2 The 2900 pound limit for the 2-5/8 inch
13.2B represent maximum joint test loads reduced by a shear plate is the maximum reference bearing load for
factor of 3.6 that includes adjustments for variability and a pressed steel plate without a reinforcing hub about the
load duration (184, 181, 117). These reference design bolt hole. The 4400 and 6000 pound limit for the 4 inch
values, applicable to normal loading conditions, are con- plates used with 3/4 and 7/8 inch bolts, respectively, are
sidered to be less than 70 percent of proportional limit the maximum reference shear design values for A307
test loads (181, 117). Reference design values apply only bolts of these diameters. The 4 inch plates have integral
to those joint designs which meet the minimum thickness re-enforcing hubs about the central bolt hole. The limit-
requirements in NDS Tables 13.2A or 13.2B and the end ing values specified in footnote 2 of NDS Table 13.2B are
distance, edge distance, and spacing requirements cor- based on metal strength; therefore, these metal parts should
responding to CD=1.0 in NDS Table 13.3. Net thickness be designed per NDS 11.2.3. The strength of metal parts
requirements refer to the actual thickness of the member should not be adjusted by factors given in NDS 11.3.1
before grooving. (e.g., ASD Load Duration Factor, CD).
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 269

C13.2.2 Thickness of Wood nector research (117). In this same study, tests of split ring
Members connectors showed the relationship between maximum
design value and grain angle could be described by a linear
C13.2.2.1 The minimum member thicknesses required relationship without appreciable error. For consistency
for use of the split ring and shear plate connector values in with the provisions for other fastener types, the standard
NDS Tables 13.2A and 13.2B have been established from angle to grain equation is conservatively used in the Speci-
the results of joint tests (117). fication to adjust both split ring and shear plate connector
C13.2.2.2 The provision for use of linear interpolation reference design values for grain angle.
between minimum thicknesses and those required from C
maximum design values is based on the original connec- C13.2.6 Split Ring and Shear Plate
tor research (117). Connectors in End Grain

COMMENTARY: SPLIT RING AND SHEAR PLATE CONNECTORS

C13.2.3 Penetration Depth Factor, Design of connectors in end grain surfaces are fre-
Cd quently encountered in practice, such as those at the peak
of A-frames or similar arches. Reference design values for
Adjustments for reduced lag screw penetration depths split ring and shear plate connectors in end grain surfaces
are permitted to be interpolated between the values for Cd are keyed to use of a reference design value for connec-
= 1.0 and Cd = 0.75 using the corresponding penetrations, tors in square-cut end surfaces equal to sixty percent of
respectively, for each species group. the reference design value for connectors in side grain
surfaces loaded perpendicular to grain.
C13.2.4 Metal Side Plate Factor, The use of 0.60 Q' as the reference design value for a
Cst square-cut end surface was originally based on experience
with connector design with glued laminated timber (140).
Increases for metal side plates used with 4 inch shear Available data from a comprehensive study of the capacity
plate connectors are based on original connector research of shear plates in sloping grain end surfaces in Douglas fir
involving claw plates (117). The increased values for 4 (80) generally confirm the use of the 0.60 ratio. This ratio is
inch shear plates loaded parallel to grain are still limited slightly more conservative than the 0.67 value assumed for
by footnote 2 of NDS Table 13.2B. square-cut end surface design values in Canada (32, 75).
For split ring and shear plate connectors used in slop-
C13.2.5 Load at Angle to Grain ing end grain surfaces, the thickness of the member is
taken as the distance between the edge of the connector
Use of the standard bearing angle to grain equation and the nearest point on the outside edge of the member
(NDS Equation 13.2-1 and NDS Appendix J) to determine located on a line parallel to the bolt or lag screw axis.
reference design values for split ring and shear plate con- Where the end grain surface is square cut, the thickness
nectors located in a shear plane that is loaded at an angle of the member may be taken as the length of the dowel
to grain between 0° and 90° are based on claw plate con- in the member.

C13.3 Placement of Split Ring and Shear Plate

Connectors
C13.3.1 Terminology C13.3.2 Geometry Factor, CD,
for Split Ring and Shear Plate
Edge and end distances and spacings for split ring and Connectors in Side Grain
shear plate connectors are referenced to the center not the
edge of the connectors. The geometry factor adjusts reference design values
for split ring and shear plate connectors installed in side
grain with end distances, edge distances, and/or spacings
less than those required for CD = 1.0. The smallest geometry
factor for any split ring or shear plate connector in a joint

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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
270 NDS COMMENTARY: SPLIT RING AND SHEAR PLATE CONNECTORS

is to be applied to all connectors in that joint regardless The original connector research indicated that the
of their alignment relative to one another. load-carrying capacity of a joint made with two or more
C13.3.2.1 Values for geometry factors presented in connectors aligned parallel-to-grain but loaded perpendic-
Table 13.3 were determined from original connector re- ular-to-grain, was less than the sum of the maximum design
search on split rings and claw plates (117). Most values values for the same connectors acting singly (181, 117).
have remained unchanged for decades, but geometry factor Staggering or offsetting connectors along the grain of the
values for edge distances were modified in the 2012 edition transverse loaded member was found to give somewhat
of the Specification as discussed below. higher design values (181). When such offsetting is used,
the line connecting the centers of two or more connectors
Geometry Factors for Edge Distance located in the same contact face–the connector axis, j–may
Prior to the 2012 edition of the Specification, the mini- not be oriented parallel or perpendicular to the grain of
mum edge distance was 1.75 inches for 2-1/2" split rings the member or to the direction of load, q. Prior editions
and 2-5/8" shear plates and 2.75 inches for 4" split rings and of the NDS referenced methods presented in the TECO
4" shear plates. This was based on the assumption that the design manual (142) and the AITC Timber Construction
smaller connectors would be used in lumber with a nominal Manual (140) for determining spacing between connectors
width of 4 inches (3.5 in.) or larger, and the larger connec- with connector axes at angles other than parallel-to-grain
tors would be used with in lumber with a nominal width of or perpendicular-to-grain. NDS Equation 13.3-1 and Table
6 inches (5.5 in.) or larger. However, these connectors are 13.3.2.2 were taken from the AITC Timber Construction
commonly used in structural glued laminated timbers with Manual (140) and provide identical results to the graphical
widths as narrow as 3 inches and 5 inches for the smaller method presented in the TECO design manual (142). Equa-
and larger connectors, respectively. tion 13.3-1 and Table 13.3.2.2 define elliptical transition
The original research (117) included tests on material functions between parallel-to-grain spacing requirements
with widths as small as the outside diameter of the con- and perpendicular-to-grain requirements for various angles
nector. This data was reviewed to determine appropriate of load.
geometry factors for connectors with edge distances as small
as 1.5 inches for the smaller connectors and 2.5 inches for C13.3.3 Geometry Factor, CD,
the larger connectors. These are considered to be practical for Split Ring and Shear Plate
minimums for good practice. Connectors in End Grain
Significant differences were observed in the behavior
of claw plates and split rings with decreasing loaded edge NDS 13.3.3 clarifies that a single geometry factor, CD,
distances, so separate geometry factor values are tabulated is determined and applied to both the parallel and perpen-
for split rings and shear plates (which are similar to claw dicular components of the resistance. Beginning with the
plates) for minimum loaded edge distance. Interpolation 2012 edition of the Specification the same elliptical tran-
is permitted for unloaded edge distances between the sition equation for spacing of connectors in side grain is
minimum value and the values corresponding to a geometry applied to connectors in sloped end grain surfaces. These
factor of 1.0. new provisions remove a large discontinuity from previous
Geometry Factors for Spacing requirements and provide a better transition between the
Spacing requirements in NDS Table 13.3 are based on parallel-to-grain provisions and the perpendicular-to-grain
original connector research (17, 142) with the following provisions. Prior to the 2012 edition of the Specification,
exceptions: the perpendicular-to-grain spacing, end distance, and
The factor for the perpendicular loading and spacing edge distance requirements were applied for all sloped
case was reduced to 0.50 as part of an effort to simplify cuts between 45 and 90 degrees and the parallel-to-grain
adjustment of connector design values for end distances provisions for sloped cuts less than 45 degrees. These
and longitudinal spacing (181). provisions resulted in large differences in spacing and end/
C13.3.2.2 (Connectors Loaded at an Angle to Grain) edge distance requirements between members with sloped
NDS 13.3.2.2 was introduced in the 2012 edition of the cuts of 45 and 46 degrees.
Specification and clarifies requirements for split ring C13.3.3.1 Procedures for establishing geometry fac-
and shear plate connectors loaded at an angle to grain. tors. CD, for connectors in end grain surfaces follow the
Separate geometry factors for end and edge distance are same logic as that employed to establish reference design
calculated for the parallel and perpendicular components values for such configurations in NDS 13.2.6.
of the resistance.

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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 271

C13.3.3.2 Shear capacity of members supported by Table 13.3 Geometry Factors, CD,
connectors in end grain surfaces should be checked using for Split Ring and Shear Plate
provisions of NDS 3.4.3.3. Where the slope of the surface Connectors
cut, a, is other than 90°, the component of the vertical force
on the connector shear plane that is normal to the outside Geometry factors, CD, in Table 13.3 were revised in
or uncut edge of the member should be taken as the shear the 2012 edition of the Specification to account for reduced
force, V. The effective depth of the member, de, should be edge distance associated with structural glued laminated
taken as the component of the distance from the loaded timbers with faces as narrow as 3" and 5" rather than 3.5"
edge of the member to the unloaded edge of the connector and 5.5" assumed previously (e.g., edge distances of 1.5" C
that is normal to the outside or uncut edge of the member. and 2.5" rather than 1.75" and 2.75"). Tabular values for
loaded edge distance were removed for the Parallel to
C13.3.4 Multiple Split Ring or

COMMENTARY: SPLIT RING AND SHEAR PLATE CONNECTORS

Grain Loading case as technically there is no loaded edge
Shear Plate Connectors in parallel to grain loading. Values had been provided
previously in order to accommodate linear interpolation,
C13.3.4.1 The group action factor, Cg, applies only to however new provisions described in NDS 13.3.2.2 elimi-
a row of two or more connectors which are in the same nate the need for these values.
shear plane, are aligned in the direction of load, and are Based on a re-evaluation of the Scholten data (117)
on separate bolts or lag screws (see C11.3.6). The factor for narrower widths, the minimum unloaded edge distance
need not be applied to connections involving two or more for 2-1/2" split rings and 2-5/8" shear plates was reduced
connector units on two or more contact faces concentric from 1-3/4" to 1-1/2" with the corresponding geometry
to the same bolt axis. factor, CD, being reduced from 1.0 to 0.88. Similarly, the
C13.3.4.2 When two sizes of split ring grooves are minimum unloaded edge distance for 4" split rings and
cut concentrically on the same wood surface and rings are 4"shear plates was reduced from 2-3/4" to 2-1/2", with
installed in both grooves, the total load on the joint is lim- the corresponding geometry factor, CD, being reduced
ited to the reference design value for the larger ring only. from 1.0 to 0.93.
C13.3.4.3 Localized wood stresses should be checked Also, as a consequence of using narrower widths,
in accordance with NDS 11.1.2. Table 13.3 was revised in the 2012 edition of the Specifi-
cation to tabulate separate geometry factors, CD, for split
rings and shear plates with regard to loaded edge distance
for perpendicular to grain loading.

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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
272 NDS COMMENTARY: TIMBER RIVETS

C14 TIMBER RIVETS

C14.1 General
C14.1.1 Scope minimizes any splitting that may occur (41). Further, rivets
are not driven flush with the plate but only to the point
The Specification presently limits use of timber riv- where the tapered heads wedge tightly into the predrilled
ets to attachment of steel side plates to structural glued holes in the plate. It is assumed that approximately 1/8"
laminated timber. of the rivet head will protrude from the face of the plate
Timber rivets, also known as glulam rivets, were after driving (see NDS Appendix M).
originally developed in Canada more than 35 years ago To minimize splitting in rivet groups involving more
to connect pre-drilled steel plates to structural glued than two rows and more than two rivets per row, rivets are
laminated timber (41). Typical applications include tension driven around the perimeter first and then in successive
splices, beam hangers, and moment splices. The rivets have inner rectangles toward the center.
flattened-oval shanks with tapered heads that, when driven, C14.1.3.2 The limit on maximum penetration of rivets
wedge tightly into holes in the steel plate (see Appendix of 70% of wood member thickness is intended to prevent
M in the Specification). The resulting head fixity adds to through splitting of the piece.
the strength and stiffness of the connection. The number C14.1.3.3 Connections in which rivets driven through
of rivet rows in each plate and the number of rivets per plates on both sides of a member penetrate beyond the
row can both range from 2 to 20 (see NDS Figure 14A and midpoint of the member are not generally used. Where
NDS Tables 14.2.1A through 14.2.1F and Tables 14.2.2A such overlap of rivets does occur, the length of overlap is
and 14.2.2B. limited to 20% of the member thickness (see NDS 14.1.2.2)
and the rivets on both sides are required to be spaced (see
C14.1.2 Quality of Rivets and Steel NDS 14.3.1) as though they were all driven from one side.
Side Plates The capacity of the connection is then determined as if all
rivets were driven from one side and with spacings paral-
Provisions of the Specification are applicable only to lel (sp) and perpendicular (sq) to grain (see Figure 14A in
timber rivets that are hot-dipped galvanized. Rivets are the Specification) determined as the distances between
made with fixed shank cross-section and head dimensions adjacent rivets (one from each side but assumed on one
(NDS Appendix M) and vary only by length. side) at their points. Under these provisions, NDS Equa-
Steel plates used in timber rivet connections must be tions 14.2-1 and 14.2-2 and NDS Tables 14.2.1A through
a minimum of 1/8" thick and, when used in wet service 14.2.1F and 14.2.2A and 14.2.2B are entered with twice
conditions, must be hot-dipped galvanized. Strength reduc- the number of rows and twice the number of rivets per
tions apply for steel plates less than 1/4" thick (see NDS row as those actually driven from one of the sides. Also,
Table 14.2.3). Due to rivet and plate hole dimensions and NDS Tables 14.2.1A through 14.2.1F are entered with the
tolerances, fabrication of joints with plates greater than member dimension of a connection with only one plate,
1/4" is not practical and is generally avoided. Also, the which as footnoted in these tables, is twice the thickness
reduced penetration of the rivet into the wood associated of the wood member.
with greater plate thickness can limit connection capacity The procedure for determining the capacity of plates
by reducing the area of wood available to resist the ten- on two sides with rivets overlapping is based on the deri-
sion and shear loads being applied around the rivet group. vation of the design methodology and supporting data for
single plate connections.
C14.1.3 Fabrication and Assembly

C14.1.3.1 Rivets, whose shank dimensions are nomi-

nally 1/4" by 1/8", must be driven with the wider dimension
oriented parallel to the grain of the wood member. This
orientation provides maximum connection capacity for
both parallel and perpendicular to the grain loading and
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 273

C14.2 Reference Design Values

C14.2.1 Parallel to Grain Loading service conditions involving high temperature and high
humidity (48).
Design equations for timber rivets are based on Ca- Because of the complexity of the equations used to
nadian research (24, 47, 45, 48, 69). The ultimate load check wood capacity in timber rivet connections loaded
capacity of such connections are limited by rivet bending
and localized crushing of wood at the rivets or by the ten-
parallel to grain, only tabular values for a range of rivet
penetrations, spacings and rivet group sizes are given in
C
sion or shear strength of the wood at the perimeter of the the Specification (NDS Tables 14.2.1A through 14.2.1F).
rivet group (45). As load is applied to the connection, end In the 2018 edition of the Specification, the number of

COMMENTARY: TIMBER RIVETS

rivets carry a larger portion of the load than rivets in the rivet rows per side in Tables 14.2.1A through to 14.2.1F
center. As yielding occurs, the load is redistributed to the was revised to reflect the 12" limit on maximum distance
less-loaded fasteners, until at maximum connection load, perpendicular to grain between outermost rows of rivets
all the individual rivets are considered to have reached per section 14.3.1. The loads in these tables are the lesser
their ultimate bearing capacity (45). This mode of failure of the reference wood tension capacity or the reference
will occur as long as the tension and shear strengths of wood shear capacity as determined from the equations
the wood around the group of rivets is sufficient to resist developed in the original research and verified by tests of
the total applied load. However, if shear failure of the full-size connections representing a range of rivet group
wood on the side and bottom of the rivet group occurs, sizes and spacings in Douglas fir structural glued laminated
followed by tension failure at the interior end of the group timbers (45).
perimeter, the block of wood into which the rivets have The maximum normal (tension) stress is checked
been driven can be pulled out of the member before the assuming an area equal to the rivet penetration times
maximum rivet bending load has been reached (45). Thus the width of the rivet group. The induced stress on this
timber rivet design loads are based on the lower of the area is calculated as a function of coefficients which are
maximum rivet bending load and the maximum load based derived from equations involving the variables of rivets
on wood strength. per row, number of rows, spacing between rivets, spacing
In the 2012 edition of the Specification, the constant between rows, and the ratio of member thickness to rivet
in NDS Equation 14.2-1 for rivet connection design val- penetration (45). The lower the ratio, the larger the load
ues parallel to grain was changed from 280 to 188. This component resisted by the normal stress and the lower
adjustment results in NDS timber rivet design values that the load component resisted by shear stress. It is this ef-
are more consistent with other NDS connection designs for fect that is being accounted for by entering NDS Tables
both ASD and LRFD. The constant of 188 in NDS Equa- 14.2.1A through 14.2.1F with a wood member dimension
tion 14.2-1 is based on tests of single rivets in Douglas fir for a single plate connection which is twice the member
at penetrations of 1, 2, and 3 inches (47). The rivet connec- thickness of a connection with plates on both sides.
tion design values (Pr and Qr) obtained from the equation In the original research involving evaluation of rivet
using a constant of 188 represents the average ultimate test connections made with Douglas fir members, an average
values reduced by a factor of 5.0 to better account for the ultimate tension stress parallel to grain of 5600 psi was
proportional limit basis of NDS dowel connector values found in connections whose ultimate load was either a
under lateral loads. This adjustment enables consistent result of rivet bending or wood shear failure (45). For
application of the load duration factor to rivet capacity determination of reference connection capacity limited by
which is influenced by both fastener bending and wood normal stress, this tension ultimate was reduced to 1600
bearing stresses. The factor of 5.0 increases the original psi to account for variability (1.6) and load duration and
adjustment of 3.36 (45) on ultimate test values. factor of safety (approximately 2.1).
NDS Equation 14.2-1 also includes an additional ad- The maximum shear stress in the rivet connection is
justment of 0.88 to account for specifying use of rivets of checked assuming an area equal to twice the rivet pen-
lower hardness and associated lower ultimate tensile and etration times the length of the rivet group. The load on
yield strength than rivets used in the original research (48, this area is calculated as a function of coefficients which
41). The change in rivet specification was made to avoid are based on different equations but involving the same
the possibility of hydrogen embrittlement occurring in variables as those used to determine normal stress plus
end distance. These equations account for shear resistance
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
274 NDS COMMENTARY: TIMBER RIVETS

on the bottom of the rivet group acting on the plane at NDS Equation 14.2-2 is the same as that for the par-
the rivet tips as well as the lateral shear on the sides by allel to grain loading case (NDS Equation 14.2-1) except
proportioning the total shear loads carried by the bottom for the value of the constant, 108 compared to 188. The
and side surfaces (45). ratio of the two values (0.57) represents the ratio of the
Rather than use shear stress values based on the ASTM average ultimate lateral load-carrying capacities of single
D 143 block shear specimen, the reference shear stress used rivet joints in Douglas fir structural glued laminated test
in the shear checking equation for rivet connections was specimens loaded perpendicular to grain and parallel to
developed using a Weibull weakest link model in which grain (47, 69). In the 2012 edition of the Specification,
strength is inversely related to volume. Based on experi- the constant in NDS Equation 14.2-2 for rivet connection
mental data, it was determined that the shear strength of design values perpendicular to grain was changed to 108
a unit volume of Douglas fir under uniform shear at 0.5 (see C14.2.1).
survival probability was 2526 psi (45). Employing this The wood capacity of rivet connections loaded perpen-
value in the equation developed in the original research dicular to the grain is a function of penetration, number and
for maximum lateral shear stress and reducing the equa- configuration of rivets, rivet spacings, and unloaded edge
tion constants by a factor of 3.36 (1.6 variability and 2.1 distance (45). Checking equations assume the connection
load duration and factor of safety) gives a reference shear load acts on an area equal to the width of the rivet group
stress for evaluating shear loads in rivet connections of times the rivet penetration. However, the distribution of
745 psi. As verification of the shear checking equation, a stress is not uniform over this area, but is a maximum at
mean ratio of estimated to observed ultimate loads of 1.03 the surface of the member and decreases sharply along
was obtained for eight rivet connection configurations in the penetration depth and on either side of the center of
Douglas fir that exhibited wood shear failure. Test con- the rivet group (24). This non-uniform distribution is ac-
nections involved configurations containing 25, 50, 100, counted for in the basic design equations.
and 150 rivets and rivet spacings of 0.5", 1", and 1.5" (45). Based on tests that showed tension perpendicular to
It is to be noted that calculated Pr values and Pw values grain strength decreases with increase in cross-section area
tabulated in NDS Tables 14.2.1A through 14.2.1F apply and/or length, a Weibull brittle fracture model was used
to connections made with 1/4" side plates and to one plate to establish a reference wood stress for checking wood
with associated rivets. For connections with thinner side capacity in rivet connections loaded perpendicular to
plates, the adjustments in NDS Table 14.2.3 apply. Where grain. Using results from tests of blocks cut from Douglas
connections involve plates on two sides of the wood mem- fir structural glued laminated timber beams and ranging
ber, the limiting Pr or applicable tabular Pw value is doubled from 16 to 3600 in.3 in volume, a tension perpendicular
to determine the reference capacity of the connection. to grain strength for unit volume under uniform stress at a
Because of the species test results and property val- 95% survival probability of 267 psi was established (24).
ues used to develop the rivet bending and wood capacity Reducing this value by a factor of 2.1 for load duration and
equations, use of reference design values based on the factor of safety gives a reference tension perpendicular to
provisions of NDS 14.2.2 should be limited to Douglas Fir- grain stress of 127 psi. This unit value is adjusted in the
Larch and Southern Pine structural glued laminated timber. checking equations for volume through introduction of a
variable based on the distance between the unloaded edge
C14.2.2 Perpendicular to Grain of the member and the first line of rivets in the connection.
Loading In lieu of presenting the complex equations required
to determine wood capacity for perpendicular to grain
As with parallel to grain loading, design loads for tim- loading, a simplified equation (NDS Equation 14.2-3) is
ber rivet connections in which the loads act perpendicular given in the Specification enabling such capacity to be
to the grain of the wood member are based on the lower of calculated for any rivet penetration and plate thickness
the maximum rivet bending load and the maximum load using loads and factors from NDS Tables 14.2.2A and
based on wood strength. However, strength in tension 14.2.2B that account for the effects of a range of rivet
perpendicular to grain is the controlling wood property configurations, spacings, and unloaded edge distances.
rather than tension parallel and shear strength properties. The unit load values given in NDS Table 14.2.2A include
The mode of wood failure in the perpendicular load case an adjustment factor to account for stress distribution
is a separation along the grain just above the first line of effects in connections with two side plates; thus the load
rivets nearest the unloaded edge, as contrasted to the pull values in this table are conservative for a single plate
out of the block of wood containing the rivet group that application. In the 2018 edition of the Specification, the
occurs in the parallel load case (45). number of rivets per row in Table 14.2.2A was revised to
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 275

reflect the 12" limit on maximum distance perpendicular reference design values based on rivet capacity (Pr and
to grain between outermost rows of rivets per section Qr) are adjusted by the side plate factors of 0.90 and 0.80
14.3.1. It is to be noted that Equations 14.2-2 and 14.2-3 given in NDS Table 14.2.3.
in the Specification provide reference design values for
connections with one side plate. Reference design values C14.2.4 Load at Angle to Grain
obtained from either equation are doubled for connections
having two side plates. The equation for calculating reference design values
Because of the species test results and property val- for timber rivet connections loaded at angles to grain other
ues used to develop the rivet bending and wood capacity than 0° and 90° is the same form as the bearing angle to C
equations, use of reference design values based on the grain equation (see NDS Appendix J).
provisions of NDS 14.2.2 should be limited to Douglas Fir-
Larch and Southern pine structural glued laminated timber. C14.2.5 Timber Rivets in End Grain

COMMENTARY: TIMBER RIVETS

C14.2.3 Metal Side Plate Factor, The 50 percent reduction for timber rivets used in end
Cst grain is based on Canadian design practice (41). It can be
compared with the end grain adjustment factor of 0.67 for
Supporting experimental data for timber rivet design nails and spikes (see C12.5.2).
equations involved tests of connections made with 1/4"
thick steel side plates (45, 69). Use of thinner plates re- C14.2.6 Design of Metal Parts
duces the amount of fixity of the rivet head which in turn
reduces rivet bending capacity. Timber rivet connections can carry relatively high
Reference design values determined in accordance loads. It is the responsibility of the designer to assure the
with NDS 14.2.1 and 14.2.2 assume 1/4" side plates are metal side plates on such connections are of adequate
used. For connections made with 3/16" and 1/8" plates, strength to carry the total load being transferred.

C14.3 Placement of Timber Rivets

C14.3.1 Spacing Between Rivets (45). For parallel to grain loading and with other variables
constant, wider rivet spacings are associated with the rivet
In the 2012 edition of the Specification, a limit on bending failure mode while closer spacings induce wood
the maximum distance perpendicular to grain between shear failures. Similarly, with other factors constant, longer
outermost rows of rivets of 12 inches was added to paral- end distances allow rivet bending to control while shorter
lel requirements in the new Table 12.5.1F which specifies end distances cause wood shear capacity to control.
the maximum spacing between outer rows of dowel-type Minimum spacings and minimum end and edge dis-
fasteners in structural glued laminated timber connections. tance requirements given in NDS 14.3 and NDS Table
14.3.2 minimize the occurrence of premature wood failure
C14.3.2 End and Edge Distance in favor of more ductile rivet yielding based on Canadian
design standards (41).
Effects of rivet spacing and edge and end distances
have been evaluated using the basic rivet design equations

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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
276 NDS COMMENTARY: SPECIAL LOADING CONDITIONS

C15 SPECIAL LOADING

CONDITIONS
C15.1 Lateral Distribution of a Concentrated Load
C15.1.1 Lateral Distribution of a alternated on the top and bottom edges (42). Flooring is
Concentrated Load for Moment typically attached to stringers by toe-nailed connections.
The lateral distribution factors apply to bridges
The lateral distribution of concentrated loads is par- designed for one traffic lane and to interior beams and
ticularly important to obtain efficient design of bending stringers only. The computed factor gives the fraction of
members in structures such as bridges and warehouse or the wheel load (both front and rear of tractor or trailer
industrial buildings where heavy wheel loads are involved. axles on one side) positioned to give maximum bending
Easily applied methods for determining the maximum moment at mid-span of the beam or stringer closest to the
moment and maximum shear in bending members subject wheel load (129, 42).
to concentrated wheel loads are given in NDS 15.1 of the The live load bending moment for outside beams or
Specification. These methods, which are based on the stringers is calculated using a load equal to the reaction of
thickness of the flooring or decking involved (two to six the wheel load assuming the flooring or decking between
inches thick) and the spacing of the beams or stringers, the outside and adjacent stringer is acting as a simply-
have long been used in timber bridge design (129). The supported beam (129).
procedures have been verified through test and shown to Lateral distribution factors determined in accordance
be generally conservative, particularly when the portion with NDS Table 15.1.1 can be used for any type of fixed or
of the load distributed to adjacent members is 40 percent moving concentrated load. The lateral distribution factors
or less (42). determined from the table have been verified by field tests
The lateral distribution factors for moment in NDS on five timber bridges ranging from 15 to 46 feet in span
Table 15.1.1 are keyed to the stiffness of the flooring or and by laboratory tests on three full-size bridge deck and
decking through use of nominal thickness and spacing of stringer assemblies 16 to 28 feet in span (42). These tests
beams. These factors are based on recommendations of indicate the factors are somewhat conservative, particu-
the American Association of State Highway and Trans- larly at ratios greater than 0.60.
portation Officials (129). For cases where the lateral load For bridges of two or more traffic lanes, the American
distribution factor exceeds 1.0 (i.e., S/denominator > 1.0) Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
the load is assumed to be fully on the beam. Where the (129) provides other lateral distribution factors.
concentrated load is applied to the deck between the beams, Generally all designs involving multiple parallel bend-
the load is distributed to the adjacent beams assuming the ing members that are loaded through transverse elements
deck acts as a simply-supported beam. For cases where the such as flooring, decking, or sheathing are capable of some
factor is less than or equal to 1.0 and the concentrated load lateral distribution of a concentrated load on one member
is applied to the deck between the beams, provisions of to adjacent members on either side. The repetitive member
NDS 15.1.1 can be conservatively used or a more rigorous factor (see NDS 4.3.9, 7.3.6, and 8.3.7) partially accounts
method of analysis should be considered. for such load redistribution.
The two-inch plank floor refers to one made of pieces
of lumber laid edge-to-edge with the wide faces bearing C15.1.2 Lateral Distribution of a
on the supporting beams or stringers. The four-inch and Concentrated Load for Shear
six-inch laminated floors refer to those made of pieces of
lumber laid face-to-face with the narrow edges bearing The lateral distribution factors for shear relate the
on the supporting beams or stringers, with each piece lateral distribution of concentrated load at the center of the
being nailed to the preceding piece (129). Nails typically beam or stringer span as determined under NDS 15.1.1, or
penetrate into two adjacent pieces, are staggered and are by other means, to the distribution of load at the quarter
points of the span. The quarter points are considered to
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 277

be near the points of maximum shear in the stringers for Pm = percentage of load at mid-span of center
timber bridge design. beam
The tabulated values of the percentage of a concentrat- = S/denominator from NDS Table 15.1.1 or
ed load on the center beam at the quarter point of the span other basis
and the percentage of the same load on the center beam at
Values of P1/4 from NDS Table 15.1.2 are used to
mid-span is closely described by the following relation:
determine the actual shear stress from the wheel or other
P1/4 = -1.807 + 1.405 log(Pm) (C15.1‑1) concentrated load being considered. Field and laboratory
where:
tests of full-size timber bridges verify the appropriateness
of the NDS Table 15.1.2 values and indicate they are con-
C
P1/4 = percentage of load at 1/4 point of center servative at S/denominator ratios above 0.50 (42).
beam

COMMENTARY: SPECIAL LOADING CONDITIONS

C15.2 Spaced Columns
C15.2.1 General The increase in the critical buckling stress associated
with the ℓ1/d1 slenderness ratio obtained through the use of
Spaced columns refer to two or more individual mem- spaced column design may make capacity in the direction
bers oriented with their longitudinal axis parallel, separated parallel to the wide face of the members (buckling associ-
at the ends and in the middle portion of their length by ated with the ℓ2/d2 ratio) the limiting case. The adjusted
blocking and joined at the ends by split ring or shear plate compression design value parallel to grain in this direction
connectors capable of developing required shear resistance is not affected by spacing the individual members and,
(181). The end fixity developed by the connectors and end therefore, must be checked in accordance with NDS 3.7.
blocks increases the buckling resistance of the individual
members in the direction perpendicular to the wide faces C15.2.2 Spacer and End Block
when loaded in compression parallel to grain (parallel to Provisions
the d1 dimension in Figure 15A of the Specification).
C15.2.1.1 In the design of spaced columns, the ad- C15.2.2.1 Where more than one spacer block is used,
justed compression stress for an individual member is the distance ℓ3 (see NDS Figure 15A) is the distance from
determined in accordance with the provisions of NDS the center of one spacer block to the centroid of the con-
15.2 and other applicable provisions of the Specification. nectors in the nearest end block.
The actual compression stress parallel to grain, fc, on the C15.2.2.2 Spacer blocks located within the middle
members of the spaced column is not to exceed the ad- one-tenth of the column length are not required to be joined
justed compression design value parallel to grain, Fc', for to the compression members by split ring or shear plate
these members based on all provisions of NDS 3.6 and 3.7 connectors. Such blocks should be fastened to assure the
except as modified or extended by the provisions of NDS compression members maintain their spacing under load
15.2. The net section requirements of NDS 3.6.3 are to be (181). A web member joined by connectors to two truss
applied to the members of spaced columns. chords making up a spaced truss chord (spaced column)
C15.2.1.2 The advantage of a spaced column is the in- may be considered a spacer block.
crease in the critical buckling design value for compression Where it is not feasible to use a single middle spacer
members obtained by the partial end fixity of the individual block, two or more spacer blocks joined to compression
members. This increase in capacity, 2-1/2 or 3 times the members by split ring or shear plate connectors may
value for a solid column with the same slenderness ratio, be required to meet the ℓ3/d1 ratio limit of 40 (see NDS
applies only to buckling in the direction perpendicular to 15.2.3.2). Connectors used in such spacer blocks must meet
the wide face of the members (buckling limited by the ℓ1/d1 the same requirements as those applicable to end blocks
ratio). If there was no slip in the end connections and full and the distance between two adjacent spacer blocks is
fixity of the ends were provided by the end block fasten- not to exceed one-half the distance between the centroids
ings, the buckling stress would be 4 times that of a solid of connectors in the end blocks. Connectors are required
column because of the 50 percent reduction in effective for spacer blocks not located in the middle of the column
column length (141). length to provide the shear resistance necessary to assure
the two members act as a unit under load.
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
278 NDS COMMENTARY: SPECIAL LOADING CONDITIONS

C15.2.2.3 Spaced columns are used as compression greater than one as specified in NDS Appendix G. It is to
chords in bowstring and other large span trusses (141). be noted that ℓ1 is the distance between points of lateral
In this case, the web members of the truss serve as the support restraining movement perpendicular to the wide
end blocks. The distance between panel points, which are faces of the individual members, and ℓ2 is the distance
laterally supported, is taken as the length of such columns. between points of lateral support restraining movement
Spaced-column web members may be designed using the parallel to the wide faces of the individual members. ℓ1
procedures of NDS 15.2 if the joints at both ends of the and ℓ2 are not necessarily equal.
web member are laterally supported. C15.2.3.2 The slenderness ratio (ℓ1/d1) limit of 80 for
C15.2.2.4 The thickness of end and spacer blocks is the individual members is a conservative good practice rec-
required to be equal to or larger than the thickness of the ommendation recognizing that the individual members are
compression members and meet the minimum require- continuous at the bracing locations. The limit of 50 on the
ments for split ring or shear plate connections in NDS slenderness ratio ℓ2/d2 is the limit applied to solid columns
Chapter 13 (181). The length of end blocks and spacer (see NDS 3.7.1.4). The limit of 40 on the ℓ3/d1 ratio also is
blocks located at other than mid-length of the column a conservative good practice recommendation to assure the
should be sufficient to meet the end distance requirements length between end and spacer blocks in a spaced column
for split ring or shear plate connectors given in NDS Chap- is not a controlling factor in the column design.
ter 13. In this regard, the load on the connectors in the end C15.2.3.3 The column stability factor for an individual
blocks shall be considered applied in either direction paral- member in a spaced column is calculated using the slender-
lel to the longitudinal axes of the compression members. ness ratio ℓ1/d1 and the same equation as that applicable
C15.2.2.5 Connectors used in spaced columns are to solid columns (see NDS 3.7.1.5) except that the critical
designed to restrain differential displacement between the buckling design value for compression, FcE, is modified by
individual compression members. Since the forces causing the spaced column fixity coefficient, Kx.
differential movement decrease as the ℓ/d of the individual The actual compression stress parallel to grain, fc,
members decrease, connector design value requirements calculated by dividing the total load on the spaced column
vary with slenderness ratio (181). by the sum of the cross-sectional areas of the individual
The equations for end spacer block constants in NDS members, is checked against the product (Fc') of the col-
15.2.2.5 are based on KS of zero when ℓ1/d1 ≤ 11 and a KS umn stability factor (CP), the reference compression design
equal to one-fourth of the clear wood compression design value parallel to grain (Fc), and all other applicable adjust-
value parallel to grain for the species group when ℓ1/d1 is ment factors (see NDS 2.3). If connectors are required
≥ 60 (181). The equations give KS values for intermediate to join spacer (interior) blocks to individual members,
slenderness ratios based on linear interpolation between and such blocks are in a part of the column that is most
these limits. subject to potential buckling, fc is to be calculated using
The limiting KS values of 468, 399, 330, and 261 for the reduced or net section area remaining at the connec-
species groups A, B, C, and D (defined in Table 13A of tor location (see NDS 3.1.2) when comparing with the CP
the Specification), respectively, represent one-fourth the adjusted compression design value parallel to grain, Fc'.
normal load, unseasoned clear wood compression design In spaced-column designs, the actual compression
value parallel to grain applicable to representative species stress parallel to grain, fc, based on the net section area
in each group in 1955 (181). The representative species of the individual members at the end blocks is checked
were dense Douglas fir and dense southern pine for Group against the product of the reference compression design
A, Douglas fir and southern pine for Group B, western value parallel to grain and all applicable adjustment fac-
hemlock for Group C, and white fir-balsam fir for Group D. tors except the column stability factor (see NDS 3.6.3).
The connector or connectors on each face of each end C15.2.3.4 Use of the lesser adjusted compression
spacer block should be able to carry a load equal to the design value parallel to grain, Fc', for a spaced column
cross-sectional area of one of the individual compression having members of different species or grades for all
members (without reduction for cuts made to receive con- members is conservative. Where the design involves the
nectors) times the end spacer block constant, KS. use of compression members of different thicknesses, the
Fc' value for the thinnest member is to be applied to all
C15.2.3 Column Stability Factor, CP other members.
C15.2.3.5 The actual compression stress parallel to
C15.2.3.1 Effective column length for spaced columns grain, fc, in spaced columns also is to be checked in all
is determined in accordance with NDS Figure 15A and cases against the adjusted compression design value paral-
adjusted by any applicable buckling length coefficient, Ke, lel to grain, Fc', based on the slenderness ratio ℓ2/d2 and a
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 279

CP factor calculated in accordance with the provisions of stress parallel to grain, Fc', based on the slenderness ratio
NDS 3.7 without use of the spaced column fixity coeffi- ℓ2/d2 may control.
cient, Kx. Use of connectors to join individual compression C15.2.3.6 See C3.7.1.6.
members through end blocks is assumed to only increase C15.2.3.7 Design provisions for spaced beams joined
the load-carrying capacity of spaced columns in a direction by end blocks and connectors are not included in the
perpendicular to the wide face of the members. When the Specification. The beam-column equations of NDS 3.9,
ratio of the width to thickness of the individual compres- therefore, apply only to those spaced columns that are
sion members is less than the square root of the spaced subject to loads on the narrow edges of the members that
column fixity coefficient, Kx, the adjusted compression cause bending in a plane parallel to their wide face. C

C15.3 Built-Up Columns

COMMENTARY: SPECIAL LOADING CONDITIONS

As with spaced columns, built-up columns obtain C15.3.2 Column Stability Factor, CP
their efficiency by increasing the buckling resistance of
the individual laminations. The smaller the amount of slip Provisions in NDS 15.3.2 are the same as those ap-
occurring between laminations under compressive load, plicable to solid columns in NDS 3.7.1 except for the
the greater the relative capacity of that column compared addition of the column stability coefficients, Kf, in NDS
to a solid column of the same slenderness ratio made with Equation 15.3‑1.
the same quality of material. Based on tests of columns of When nailed in accordance with the provisions of
various lengths (114, 116), the capacity of two equivalent NDS 15.3.3, the capacity of built-up columns has been
column types can be expressed as a percentage of the shown to be more than 60 percent of that of an equivalent
strength of a solid column made with material of the same solid column at all ℓ/d ratios (82). Efficiencies are higher
grade and species. For mechanically-connected built-up for columns in the shorter (ℓ/d < 15) and longer (ℓ/d >
columns, efficiencies ranged from a value of 82 percent 30) slenderness ratio ranges than those for columns in the
at an ℓ/d ratio of 6, decreasing to a low of 65 percent at an intermediate range.
ℓ/d of 18, and then increasing to 82 percent at an ℓ/d of 26. The efficiency of bolted built-up columns conforming
The NDS design provisions for built-up columns made to the connection requirements of NDS 15.3.4 is more than
with various types of mechanical fasteners are based on 75 percent for all ℓ/d ratios (82). As with nailed columns,
more recent modeling and testing (82, 83). This model can efficiencies of short and long bolted built-up columns
be used to determine the strength of any built-up column are higher than those for intermediate ones. The greater
on the basis of the slip between members of the column efficiency of bolted compared to nailed columns is reflec-
in both the elastic and inelastic ranges. The theoretical tive of the higher load-slip moduli obtainable with bolted
formulas were verified through extensive testing including connections.
400 column tests and evaluation of the load-slip properties In accordance with NDS 3.7.1.3, NDS Equation 15.3-1
of 250 different types of connections. The formulas are is entered with a value of FcE based on the larger of ℓe1/d1
entered with fastener load-slip values based on beam-on- or ℓe2/d2, where d2 is the dimension of the built-up member
elastic-foundation principles (71). across the weak axis of the individual laminations (sum of
the thicknesses of individual laminations). Research (82)
C15.3.1 General has shown that buckling about the weak axis of the indi-
vidual laminations is a function of the amount of slip and
The provisions of NDS 15.3 apply only to multi-ply load transfer that occurs at fasteners between laminations.
columns in which the laminations are of the same width When the controlling slenderness ratio is the strong axis of
and are continuous along the length. The limitations on the individual laminations, ℓe1/d1, then Kf = 1.0. It is also
number of laminations are based on the range of columns necessary to compare CP based on ℓe1/d1 and Kf = 1.0 with
that were tested (83) that met the connection requirements CP based on ℓe2/d2 and Kf = 0.6 or 0.75 to determine the
of NDS 15.3.3 and 15.3.4. The minimum lamination thick- adjusted compression design value parallel to grain, Fc'.
ness requirement assures use of lumber for which reference Due to the conservatism of using a single factor for all
design values are available in the Specification. ℓe2/d2 ratios, Fc' values for individual laminations designed
as solid columns can be greater than Fc' values for built-up
columns for relatively small ℓe2/d2 ratios. In these cases,
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
280 NDS COMMENTARY: SPECIAL LOADING CONDITIONS

the column capacity should not be limited to the built-up nails are required to be staggered along either side of the
column capacities. center line of the row. Adjacent offset nails in such a con-
figuration should be driven from opposite faces.
C15.3.3 Nailed Built-up Columns Where three rows of nails are required by spacing and
edge distance requirements, nails in adjacent rows are to
C15.3.3.1 Nailing requirements (a), (b), and (g) and the be staggered and adjacent nails beginning with the first
maximum spacing requirements of (d) and (e) are based on in each row driven from opposite sides as if nails were
the conditions for which the column stability coefficient, aligned across the face of the laminations.
Kf, of 60 percent was established (82). The maximum spac-
ing between nails in a row of 6 times the thickness of the C15.3.4 Bolted Built-up Columns
thinnest lamination minimizes the potential for buckling
of the individual laminations between connection points. C15.3.4.1 Maximum spacing limits for bolts and
End, edge, and minimum spacing requirements are good rows, and number of row requirements in (d), (e), and (g),
practice recommendations for preventing splitting of mem- respectively, are based on conditions for which the bolted
bers (32) and for assuring fasteners are well distributed built-up column efficiency factor, Kf, was established (82).
across and along the face of the laminations. Maximum end distance limits in (c) are good practice rec-
The requirement for adjacent nails to be driven from ommendations (32) to assure end bolts are placed close to
opposite sides of the column applies to adjacent nails the ends of the column where interlaminar shear forces are
aligned both along the grain of the laminations and across largest. Minimum end distance, spacing between adjacent
their width. bolts in a row, spacing between rows, and edge distance
The requirement that all nails penetrate at least ¾ of in (c), (d), (e), and (f) correspond to provisions governing
the thickness of the last lamination was further clarified bolted joints in NDS 12.5.
in the 2012 edition of the Specification by making clear As with nailed columns, a bolt row refers to those bolts
that all nails need to penetrate all laminations including aligned parallel to the grain of the laminations and in the
the last outermost lamination. direction of the column length. The maximum spacing of
In the nailing requirements of NDS 15.3.3.1, a nail bolts in a row of six times the lamination thickness mini-
row refers to those nails aligned parallel to the grain of mizes the potential for buckling of individual laminations
the laminations and in the direction of the column length. between connection points.
Where only one longitudinal row of nails is required, such

C15.4 Wood Columns with Side Loads and Eccentricity

C15.4.1 General Equations or
2
f 
Equations for wood columns are based on theoretical  c  +
analyses (186). The equation in NDS 15.4.1 for combined  F′ 
 c 
bending and eccentric axial compression loads is an expan- f b1 + f c (6e1 / d1 ) [1.234 − 0.234Cm1 ]
sion of the interaction equation given in NDS 3.9.2 to the ≤ 1.0 (C15.4-2)
Cm1Fb1 ′
general case of any combination of side loads, end loads,
and eccentric end loads (189). where:
For the case of a bending load on the narrow face and
Cm1 = moment magnification factor = 1–fc / FcE1
an eccentric axial load producing a moment in the same
direction as the bending load, the general interaction equa-
A limit on (fc/FcE2) + ([fb1+ 6fce1/d1]/FbE)2 is given in
tion in NDS 15.4-1 reduces to:
Equation 15.4-2 to clarify a limitation on flatwise bending
in the stress interaction equation (see C3.9.2).
2
f 
 c  + For the case of a bending load on the wide face and
 F′ 
 c  an eccentric axial load producing a moment in the same
f b1 + f c (6e1 / d1 ) [1 + 0.234 (f c / FcE1 )] (C15.4-1) direction as the bending load, the general interaction equa-
≤ 1.0
Fb1 ′[1 − (f c / FcE1 )] tion in NDS 15.4-1 reduces to:

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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 281

 fc 
2 C15.4.2 Columns with Side
  + Brackets
 Fc ′ 
f b2 + f c (6e 2 / d 2 ) [1 + 0.234(f c / Fce2 ) ] The procedure for calculating the portion of an axial
≤ 1.0(C15.4-3) load applied through a bracket that is assumed to act as
Fb2 ′[1 − ( f c / FcE 2 )]
a side load at mid-height of the column is based on early
or, recommendations (184). The application of a side load, Ps,
2 acting at mid-span of a simply-supported beam is assumed
 fc 
  + to produce a maximum moment (Psℓ/4) equal to three- C
 Fc ′  fourths of the moment produced by the eccentric load on
f b2 + f c (6e 2 / d 2 ) [1 + 0.234Cm2 ] the bracket, P(a), times the ratio of the bracket height (ℓp)
≤ 1.0 (C15.4-4)

COMMENTARY: SPECIAL LOADING CONDITIONS

to the column length (ℓ).
Cm2 Fb2 ′ When the bracket is at the top of the column, results
obtained by entering NDS Equation 15.4‑1 (or NDS Equa-
where: tion 3.9‑3) with a concentric axial load and the calculated
Cm2 = moment magnification factor = 1 - fc / FcE2
side load, Ps, will give a 25 percent lower combined stress
index than that obtained from the eccentric axial end load
formula, NDS Equation 15.4-2. This difference is a result
An alternative formulation of Equation C15.4-4 in of the latter being based on the assumption of eccentric
terms of induced axial load and induced bending moment loads on both ends of the column (constant moment
follows: along the length of the column) whereas the procedure in
P NDS 15.4.2 assumes the moment due to the bracket load
2 M 2 + P∆ 2 [1 + 0.234 ]
P PcE 2 decreases linearly from the point of application to zero at
  + ≤ 1.0 (C15.4-5) the column base.
 P′  P
M 2 ′(1 − )
PcE 2
where:
P = induced axial compression load, lbs

P' = adjusted axial compression resistance (i.e.

Fc'A), lbs

M2 = induced bending moment in the weak axis,

in.-lbs

M2' = adjusted weak axis moment resistance (i.e.

Fb2'S2), in.-lbs

∆2 = eccentricity of axial load, measured

perpendicular to the plane of the weak axis,
in.

PcE2 = critical column buckling resistance in the

weak axis, lbs (see C3.7.1.5)
For cases where loading is concentric (i.e. ∆2 = 0 in.),
equation C15.4-5 reduces to the following:
2
P M2
  + ≤ 1.0 (C15.4-6)
 P′  M ′(1 − P )
2
PcE 2
where
π 2 E ′I 2
P < PcE 2 =min (C15.4-7)
 2e2

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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
282 NDS COMMENTARY: FIRE DESIGN OF WOOD MEMBERS

C16 FIRE DESIGN OF WOOD

MEMBERS
C16.1 General
The design provisions in the Specification are intended sistance-rated assemblies for walls and floors are provided
for use in allowable stress design (ASD) of structural wood in AWC’s DCA No. 3–Fire Rated Wood Floor and Wall
members exposed to fire. These provisions do not address Assemblies, available at www.awc.org. In addition, DCA 3
procedures for evaluating members for continued service includes details for the intersection of fire-resistance-rated
following fire damage. walls and floors.
The topic of fire safety is broad and is addressed ex-
tensively in building codes. Other important topics such Analytically Rated
as flame spread, fire prevention, control of fire growth, As an alternative to determining the fire-resistance-
fire suppression, fire extinguishment, and compartmen- rating of members and assemblies by testing for every
talization of fire are not addressed in the NDS. Other situation, building code provisions provide for acceptance
publications of interest from AWC include: of fire-resistance-ratings based upon engineering principles
• DCA No. 1-Flame Spread Performance of Wood and material properties developed from standardized
Products testing. This applies to the rating of previously untested
• DCA No. 2-Design of Fire-Resistive Exposed Wood members or assemblies, or in cases where it is desired to
Members substitute one material or component for another. Although
• DCA No. 3-Fire Rated Wood Floor and Wall Assemblies calculation procedures may be conservative, they have the
• DCA No. 4-Component Additive Method (CAM) advantage of quickly determining a fire-resistance-rating
for Calculating and Demonstrating Assembly Fire for an assembly or member and allowing interpolation or
Resistance some extrapolation of expected performance. Additional
details regarding the analytical approach are provided in
Fire-Resistance-Rated Assemblies AWC’s DCA No. 4 - Component Additive Method (CAM)
Some buildings and occupancies require the use of for Calculating and Demonstrating Assembly Fire Re-
fire-resistance-rated assemblies or members to prevent sistance, and Technical Report 10: Calculating the Fire
collapse or fire spread from one compartment of a building Resistance of Exposed and Protected Wood Members
to another or from one building to another. (136), available at www.awc.org.
Members and assemblies are rated for their ability
either to support design loads during fire exposure or to Exposed Timber Members
prevent the spread of fire. Such ratings are arrived at either Using calculations, exposed timber members of sawn
by calculation or experiment for both members and as- lumber, glued-laminated softwood timber, laminated
semblies. The standard fire exposure is defined in ASTM veneer lumber, parallel strand lumber, laminated strand
E119. A 1‑hour fire‑resistance rating for wall, floor, and lumber, and cross-laminated timber can be designed for
floor‑ceiling assemblies using light-frame wood members desired fire-resistance ratings. Additional details regarding
can be accomplished through the use of fire-resistive the analytical approach are provided in NDS Chapter 16
membranes such as gypsum wallboard. However, mate- and AWC’s Technical Report 10 available at www.awc.org.
rial requirements and construction details are critical for
assembly performance and are carefully specified. For
some wood assemblies, 2‑hour ratings have been achieved.
Fire-resistance ratings are available in building codes
and reference documents for several generic assemblies.
Fire-resistance ratings for assemblies using proprietary
materials are typically supplied by either wood products
manufacturers or gypsum manufacturers. Selected fire-re-
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 283

C16.2 Design Procedures for Exposed Wood Members

The mechanics-based design procedures in the Speci- To develop a two-dimensional, nonlinear char rate
fication for exposed wood members are based on research model, the one-dimensional non-linear char rate model
described in AWC’s Technical Report 10: Calculating the was modified to enable values for the slope factor, m, to
Fire Resistance of Exposed and Protected Wood Members be estimated using nominal char rate constants (in./hr.),
(136). The design procedure calculates the capacity of βn. The nominal char rate constant, βn, is estimated using
exposed wood members using basic wood engineering measured char depth at approximately one hour. The non- C
mechanics. Section properties are computed assuming an linear char rate constant, βt, is estimated from the nominal
effective char depth, aeff, at a given time, t. Reductions of char rate constant, βn. The relationship between βt, and βn
strength and stiffness of wood in the heated zone adjacent is as follows:

COMMENTARY: FIRE DESIGN OF WOOD MEMBERS

to the char layer are accounted for by assuming the effec-
tive char depth, aeff, is equal to 1.2 times the char depth, achar βt = βn (1 hr.)/(1 hr.)0.813 in./hr.0.813 (16.2-1)
(See C16.2.1.4). Average member strength properties are Substituting and solving for the char depth, achar, in
approximated from accepted procedures used to calculate terms of exposure time, t:
design properties. Finally, wood members are designed
using accepted engineering procedures found in NDS for achar = βtt0.813 (C16.2-2)
allowable stress design. The design procedures presented
C16.2.1.2 For sawn lumber, structural glued-laminated
in Chapter 16 are not intended to evaluate wood members
softwood timber, laminated veneer lumber, parallel strand
for continued use after a fire event.
lumber, and laminated strand lumber, the char depth can
be directly estimated using NDS Equations 16.2-1 and
C16.2.1 Char Rate
16.2-2 assuming a nominal char rate constant, βn, of 1.5
inches/hr. The char depth, achar, for each exposed surface
C16.2.1.1 Extensive one-dimensional char rate data
can be calculated as:
is available for wood slabs. Two-dimensional char data is
also available for timbers, but most of this data is limited achar = 1.5t0.813 (C16.2-3)
to larger cross-sections. Evaluation of linear char rate
models using one-dimensional char rate data suggests that
charring of wood is nonlinear, and estimates using linear C16.2.1.3 For cross-laminated timber manufactured
models tend to underestimate char depth for short time with certain adhesives, fall-off of laminations has been
periods (< 60 minutes) and overestimate char depth for noted in some full-scale tests. The fall-off appears to oc-
longer time periods (> 60 minutes). To account for char cur as the char front approaches the glueline. To model
rate nonlinearity, a nonlinear, one-dimensional char rate this effect, the time required for the char front to reach the
model based on the results of 40 one-dimensional char- glueline of each lamination, starting from the time the char
ring tests of wood slabs of various species was developed front reaches the prior lamination, can be calculated as:
(154). This non-linear model addressed accelerated char- 1.23
ring which occurs early in the fire exposure by applying h 
t gi ,i =  lam ,i  (C16.2-4)
a power factor to the char depth, achar, to adjust for char  βt 
rate nonlinearity:
where:
t = m(achar)1.23 (C16.2-1) tgi,i = time for char front to reach glued interface
where: for each lamination (hr.)

t = exposure time (hr.) hlam = lamination thickness (in.)

m = char slope (hr./in.1.23)

The number of laminations that could potentially fall
achar = char depth (in.) off is estimated by subtracting each tgi from the total time
However, application of this model is limited since the until the last partial lamination is determined. The value
char slope (hr./in.1.23), m, is species-specific and limited of nlam is the maximum value in which the following equa-
data exists for different wood species fit to the model. In tion is true:
addition, the model is limited to one-dimensional slabs.
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
 284 NDS COMMENTARY: FIRE DESIGN OF WOOD MEMBERS

nlam C16.2.2 Member Strength

t − ∑t gi ,i ≥ 0 (C16.2-5)
i =1 To approximate an average member strength using
where: a reference design value, the reference design value is
nlam = number of laminations charred (rounded multiplied by an adjustment factor, K, to adjust from a
down to an integer value) 5% exclusion value allowable design value to an average
The values of tgi,i and nlam determined in the above are ultimate value. Fb* is multiplied by the adjustment factor,
used to calculate the char depth, achar: K, prior to calculation of the beam stability factor, CL
(Equation 3.3-6). Similarly, Fc* is multiplied by the adjust-
0.813
 nlam 
nlam ment factor, K, prior to calculation of the column stability
achar ∑hlam ,i + βt  t − ∑t gi ,i 
= (C16.2-6) factor, CP (Equation 3.7-1).
=i 1 =  i1  The adjustment factor, K, has two components, the
inverse of the applicable design value adjustment factor,
For cross-laminated timber manufactured with lami- 1/k, and the inverse of the variability adjustment factor,
nations of equal thickness, calculation of the char depth, c. To develop general design procedures for sawn lumber,
achar, can be simplified as follows: structural glued laminated softwood timber, laminated
veneer lumber, parallel strand lumber, laminated strand
( nlam )( hlam ) + βt ( t − ( nlam ) ( t gi ) )
0.813
=achar (C16.2-7) lumber, and cross-laminated timber, the following design
value adjustment factors and estimates of COV were used
where: to conservatively develop an allowable design stress to
1.23 average ultimate strength adjustment factor, K, shown in
h 
t gi =  lam  Table C16.2-2.
 βt 
and C16.2.3 Design of Members
t
nlam = The induced load cannot exceed the average member
t gi capacity of a wood member exposed to fire for a given
C16.2.1.4 For sawn lumber, structural glued-laminated time, t. The average member capacity is estimated using
softwood timber, laminated veneer lumber, parallel strand cross-sectional properties reduced for fire exposure and
lumber, and laminated strand lumber, section properties average ultimate strength properties derived from refer-
can be calculated using standard equations for area, section ence design values.
modulus, and moment of inertia using reduced cross-
sectional dimensions. The dimensions are reduced by the C16.2.4 Special Provisions for
effective char depth, aeff, calculated per NDS Equation Structural Glued Laminated
16.2-4 for each surface exposed to fire. Cross-sectional Softwood Timber Beams
properties for a member exposed on all four sides are
shown in Table C16.2-1. Other exposures can be calculated The outer laminations of glued laminated timber
using this method. bending members in Table 5A of the NDS Supplement
Effective char depths, aeff, for cross-laminated timber are typically higher strength laminations. When the beam
with equal lamination depths have been calculated in NDS is exposed to fire, these laminations are the first to be
Table 16.2.1B. charred. In order to maintain the ultimate capacity of the
C16.2.1.5 For cross-laminated timbers, reduced cross- beam when these laminations are completely charred, core
section dimensions are calculated using the effective char laminations must be replaced with the higher strength lami-
depth, aeff, calculated per 16.2.1.3 and 16.2.1.4; however, nations in the beam layup. For unbalanced beams, only the
due to the cross laminations and proprietary nature of core laminations adjacent to the tension side lamination
cross-laminated timber layups, the effect of charring on need to be replaced as shown in Figure C16.2.4A(b) and
capacity should be checked with the manufacturer. Alter- C16.2.4A(c), respectively. For balanced beams, the core
natively, the capacity of the charred cross-laminated timber laminations adjacent to the tension laminations on both
can be conservatively estimated by limiting the post-fire sides need to be replaced as shown in Figure C16.2.4B(b)
capacity to that of a panel with the same number of full- and C16.2.4B(c), respectively.
depth strong axis laminations remaining after a given fire
resistance time.
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 285

radiant flame and the ability of hot volatile gases to pass

Figure C16.2.4A Typical Unbalanced
through the joints. When the joint is completely open,
Beam Layup
such as can occur with butt-jointed timber decking, hot
gases will carry into the joint and the sides of the decking
members will char. This charring can be conservatively
approximated assuming the sides of a member along the
joint char to a depth of aeff. When the joint is open but
covered by sheathing, as with butt-jointed timber decking
covered with wood structural panels, passage of hot gases C
is limited, and tests have shown that charring can be ap-
proximated assuming a partial exposure char rate along the
joint , such that it chars to a depth of aeff/3. For joints which

COMMENTARY: FIRE DESIGN OF WOOD MEMBERS

are not open, as with tongue-and-groove timber decking,
tests have shown that charring of the sides of members is
negligible and can be ignored.

C16.3 Wood Connections

In the 2018 edition of the Specification, this section was

revised to clarify that all components of the connection,
including wood members, connectors, and fasteners,
must be protected from fire exposure. Portions of the
Figure C16.2.4B Typical Balanced wood members included in the connection design must
Beam Layup be fully protected against charring during the required fire
resistance period to ensure that the design strength of the
connection is maintained. Protection must be provided by
wood, fire-rated gypsum board, other approved materials,
or a combination thereof. Where wood is used as a pro-
tective cover, use of achar will ensure that the connection
elements are shielded from radiative heating and the tem-
perature behind the char front will be less than 550 degrees
F (300 degrees C). If the strength of the wood member in
the connection is being evaluated (NDS 16.2.2), then use of
aeff will ensure no strength loss in the elevated temperature
zone behind the char front. Connections located at ends of
members must be detailed to ensure that char contraction
is addressed to prevent premature loss of protection.
The loss of thickness at any location within the char
layer can be estimated by multiplying the char depth, achar,
at that location by a Char Contraction Factor, CCF (See
Ref. 136), equal to 0.3 as shown in Figure C16.3. For a
wood member with a char depth of approximately 1 inch
in the face of the member, the loss of char thickness would
be approximately 0.3 inches.
C16.2.5 Provisions for Timber
Decks

Sides of individual timber decking members are

shielded from full fire exposure by adjacent members
collectively acting as a joint. Partial exposure occurs as
members shrink and joints between members open. The
degree of exposure is a function of the view angle of the
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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
286 NDS COMMENTARY: FIRE DESIGN OF WOOD MEMBERS

Table C16.2-1 Cross-Sectional Properties for Four-Sided Exposure

Cross-sectional Property Four-Sided Example

Area of the cross section, in. 2
A(t) = (Dmin - 2aeff)(Dmax - 2aeff)
Section Modulus about major-axis, in. 3
S(t) = (Dmin - 2aeff)(Dmax - 2aeff)2/6
Section Modulus about minor-axis, in.3 S(t) = (Dmin - 2aeff)2(Dmax - 2aeff)/6
Moment of Inertia about major-axis, in.4 I(t) = (Dmin - 2aeff)(Dmax - 2aeff)3/12
Moment of Inertia about minor-axis, in.4 I(t) = (Dmin - 2aeff)3(Dmax - 2aeff)/12

Figure C16.3 Char contraction

Table C16.2-2 Allowable Design Stress to Average Ultimate Strength

Adjustment Factors

F 1/k c Assumed COV K

Bending Strength Fb 2.1 1 1 – 1.645 COVb 0.16 2 2.85
Tensile Strength Ft 2.1 1
1 – 1.645 COVt 0.16 2
2.85
Compression Strength Fc 1.9 1
1 – 1.645 COVc 0.16 2
2.58
Buckling Strength E05 1.66 3
1 – 1.645 COVE 0.11 4
2.03
1. Taken from Table 10 of ASTM D245 Standard Practice for Establishing Structural Grades and Related Allowable Properties for Visually Graded Lumber,
Table 1 of ASTM D3737 Standard Practice for Establishing Allowable Properties for Structural Glued Laminated Timber (Glulam), and Table 1 of ASTM
D5456 Standard Specification for Evaluation of Structural Composite Lumber Products.
2. Taken from Table 5-6 of 2010 Wood Handbook for bending clear wood values.
3. Taken from Appendices D and H of 2018 National Design Specification for Wood Construction.
4. Taken from Appendix F of 2018 National Design Specification for Wood Construction.

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AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
 NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION 287

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