Leading Classroom Discussions Petree pter, you should be able to: Consider the advantages and disadvantages of the discussion method Explain the experiential learning process. List the characteristics ofthe discussion method. ‘Write a sequence of questions usin Use question strategies that promote student involvement Use response strategies that promote student involvement. Consider strategies for motivating student preparation for participation in discussions, Explain how student communication apprehension might affect willingness to ‘engage in discussion, [Evaluate your discussion skills. Ds: Cooper shares the following about leading classroom discussions: have a love-hate relationship with the discussion method of teaching. Its noisy, ‘messy, and sometimes unnerving, I's always hard work, but exciting. lean'talways predict exactly where the discussion will lead, nor am [always sure how to keep the discussion on track. Yet I want my students to participate actively in the teaching- learning process—ask more questions of me, themselves, and one another—and think critically and creatively. am left with my frustrations about the method and. my love ofits outcomes. Most teachers I talk with share my feelings. Like me, many of them also love the challenge andthe excitement of the discussion method.134 UnitIt + Instructional Strovegis In this chapter ggest ways tolplan the GiSeussion andlexamine chan “dees fe devon method poy Poecg. eupiaas on qieeton age DM ase cpener seer Verve esate se rls a coreg ctor preparation for participation in discussion as well as ways to evaluate your dis- cussion skills. Before we begin our discussion on leading classroom discussions, we refer to suggestions for choosing this strategy as well as the advantages and disadvantages. Choosing the Discussion Method As is the case with any teaching method, there are times when the discussion method will be appropriate and other times when it will not be. Some of the frst considerations in determining the discussion method's appropriateness are those parts of the classroom discussed earlier—you, the teacher; your students; and the educational environment. In addition to these considerations, the discussion ‘method is appropriate when the teacher is striving to do the following * Use the resources of members of the group. * Give stucients opportunities to work out ways to apply the principles being discussed. * Get prompt feedback on how well the teaching objectives are being reached. * Help students Zearn to think in terms of the subject matter by giving them practice in thinking. + Help students learn to evaluate the logic of, and evidenc others’ positions, * Increase students’ awareness of class readings and lectures, and help them formulate questions that require them to seek information from the readings, and lectures * Gain students’ acceptance of information or theories counter to their previ ous beliefs or, their own and The discussion method, like all teaching methods, has advantages and disadvan- tages, listed next. When considering using the discussion method, it’s important to think about these advantages and disadvantages and their relationship to your particular teaching objectives. The advantages of the discussion method include + (GUOURERGSTRRETBERERRAAPORE more ideas, resources, and feedback are generated. themselves clearly and accurately. © Ithelps students gain skill * Discussions expose students to a variety of ideas, beliefs, and information different from their own, PL135 Chapter 6 + Leuting Classroom Discussions ‘+ There are motivational effects—students enjoy the activity and feedback dis- sion provides, ‘The disadvantages of the discussion method are * It takes considerabl mn! * Successful dliscussion requires that teachers and studen possess GiSeuSSION skills. This strategy views the students as active agents in the learning process. With the discussion strategy, teachers must be willing to relinguish control and realize that students can share in the teaching responsibilities. Their experiences, examples, and knowledge may offer insights into the material to the teacher and other students. For example, in the course ofthe discussion, a student may offer a personal example of a certain concept that the teacher could not. This example, in tum, may help another student to intemalize the information that might otherwise have been misunderstood. Planning the Discussion There are many reasons to engage in class di ‘You may want to discuss a ‘lass reading, debrief an activity, decide on a classtoom or community policy, or solve social problems. What is important with this strategy is that students have something to discuss. That is, they have some shared content knowledge (class reading, experiential activity, current policies, or social issue) to serve as the im- petus for discussion, Once you can determine that students share this knowledge, higher levels of leaming can take place via the discussion. We will discuss ways to motivate students to come to class prepared to participate in the discussion later in this chapter. ‘A discussion, like a lecture, should have an iniroduction, a body, and a “conclusion. The Introduction The introduction of the discussion Should ereale allenliOD in the students. Itshould motivate them to want to discuss the topic or idea. In addition, it should clarify the purpose of the discussion. In other words, it should preview the main points to be covered. Also, it should create a need to know in students by explaining the importance and relevance of the topic to them. The Body Planning the body of the discussion is somewhat different from planning the body of a lecture, The emphasis for the teacher should not be “What am going to say?” but rather “What questions can T ask that will enable my students to meet theUnit I + Instructional Strategies GHEAWB Thus, the pattern will be developed by your (and your students) use of questions and responses rather than by Your explanations, examples, and so for. In other words, you and your students share in the development ofthe body of the dis The Conclusion “The main purpose of the conclusion is to tie the entire discussion together. Often students leave a discussion session saying things such as, @That Was inleresting, put I'm not exactly sure what I was supposed to get out of it” As a teacher, you peed fo summarize the major ideas developed in the discussion. You might also preview how the knowledge learned’ will relate to topiestobediscussed in upcom- ing lessons. Characteristics of the Discussion Method The discussion method is characterized byl) experiential learning,(@) an empha- sis on students, (@)a focus on critical thinking, (@) the use of questions, and|(B) re- ‘sponses fo questions. Let's examine each of these. Experiential Learning One of the major characteristics of the discussion method of teaching is that it is ‘based on experiential learning, The underlying assumption of experiential learn ng jz that we learn bestwhenweareactively. involved inthe learning process—when wwe lidiscover” knowledge through active patticipation: Many scholars have dis- ‘Lussed theories of active learning through involvement (Cogala, 1981; Chickering & Gamsen, 1987; Astin, 1984). Basically, they all agree that that{ime plas|ERe EY aiialslearhing. Their view of learning depicts students as active participants, who must spend time preparing for class by relating the course material to themselves, and then ultimately sharing their knowledge and experience with others. In using the discussion method, a student's concrete, personal experiences are followec by observation, reflection, and analysis of thesesexperiences. Cegala, (1931) further suggests that students Who are highly “involved” in the classroom also display higher levels of communication competence and should be rewarded for their par- ticipatory efforts. Emphasis on Students ‘The second characteristic of the discussion method, and one that flows directly from the experiential learning characteristic, is the emphasis on students. Students are the focus of this method. It is their experiences that serve as the basis for the Giscussion, Although you—the teacher—Sanlust have specific goalliniimtine! and fa general framework for reaching the goal, student input determines the specific direction the discussion takes.Chapter 6 + Landing Classroom Discussions 137 Focus on Critical Thinking Much has been written recently about the importance of teaching critical-thinking skills. One can hardly pick up an education-related journal or magazine without ‘coming across an article on the topic. A growing consensus reflected in these writ ings is that, although “the basics” are extremely necessary, stuclents must also be ‘competent thinkers lsee, for example, Marzano et al., 1988). Too often, testing ‘and accountability drive the educational system so that the main message com- municated to students is that they should provide “the right answer.” Paul (1986) contend that the right answer should not be the end product of education, but rather that an inquiring mind should show [A passionate drive for clarity, accuracy, and fairmindedness, a fervor for getting to the bottom of things, to the deepest root issues, for listening sympathetically to opposite points of view, a compelling drive to seek out evidence, an intense aversion to contradiction, sloppy thinking, inconsistent application of standards, ‘a devotion to truth as against self-interest—these are essential components of the rational person. (p. 1) Use of Questions ‘The discussion method involves a questioning strategy. In advance of the discus- sion, you must prepare carefully sequenced questions in order to organize the dis~ cussion. In addition, you must be flexible and adapt your questioning strategy to the needs of the students as the discussion evolves, Student responses must be integrated into the discussion and student questions should be elicited. ‘You may be asking yourself, "What's so important about questions? (Que tioning is, perhaps, the single most influential teaching practice because teacher questions promote student involvement and are central to the analysis and syn- thesis of ideas (Dillon, 1988, 1990, 2004). ‘When wé Wary question levels) prOB8) réphtase) peOmpENwalffor student responses, ask process questions (“How did you get that answer?”), anglSt@35801- dents’ understanding of meaning, we promote critical thinking. We challenge stu- dents to think, not simply to parrot back to us what we've taught or what they've read in the textbook. “Most educators agree that questioning skills are very important, but teachers in training receive litle instruction in either the theory or the art of questioning (Collins, 1993). So, where do we begin’ The Best place js to rete £6 Bloom’ fonomy, Your questions, depending on how they are phrased, can require different levels of thinking, Table 6.1 indicates the levels and examples and typical question terms for each level ‘Research findings consistently show that most teacher questions occur on the knowledge (recall) level. Gall (1970) found that 60 percent of questions asked by teachers were recall level, 20 percent were procedural, aid Oflyi20 BercentlReS quired students to think at higher levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy, In a later study Gall (1984) found that 80 percent of the questions asked in classrooms required138 Unit IF © fstructional Strategies require students to break an idea into its component parts for logical analysis Example: Here are four models. of the communication process. How are the components of these models similar? How do TABLE61 Levels of Co Libel Key Words ‘Typical Question Terms A. Knowledge: Questions Remember 1. Name that requie simple recal of 2 List tell previously leamed material 3 Define Example: Whatare the ee ene siento ‘ Yes orno questions: "Was... 2s components of Berlo's See ‘communication model? i" ri ~ 17. Describe, label, match, select B. Comprehension: Questions Undestand |. Givean example that require students to restate 2. What i the speaker's most important cor reorganize material ina ides? literal manner to show that 3. What wil the consequences probably they understand the essential ter meaning 4. What caused this? . ; 5. Compare (What things are the same?) Beample: Explain He's model 6 Contrast (What things are dferent2) : aa 7, Paraphrase, rephrase, translate, pereaass cara ©. Application: Questions Solvethe 1, Solve that require students to wse problem 2. Apply he principe (concept) to proviotyilewned material 3. Compute, prepare, produce, relai, FD salve protien in new modify, classify situations Example: A Democrat and a Republican are discussing foreign policy. Where in Betlo's sodel of communication would you predict their communication wil break down? D. Analysis: Questions that Logical order 1. What reasons does the author giv his conclusions? 2. What does the author seem to believe? 3. What words indicate bias or emotion? 4. Daes the evidence given support the conclusion? 5, Break down, differentiate, distinguish they differ?| Level Chapter 6 * Leading Classroom Discussions Key Words Typical Question Terms E. Synthesis: Questions that Create 1. Develop a model require students to combine 2 their ideas into a statement, 3. Write a speech plan, product, and so forth, that 4 Combine those parts . Create, combine, design, diagram, for them document, propose, write Example: Diagram your own model do you of communication. F. Evaluation: Questions that Judge 1. Evaluate that idea in terms of require students to judge 2. For what reasons do you favor ...? something based on some 3. Appraise, criticize, justify, assess criteria Example: Which of the three ‘models presented in class think depicts the cottmunication process most accurately? students to do something other than think. If one of our goals as teachers is to help students develop their cognitive abilities, weneed to ask them questions tRat require higher-level cognitive processes than mere recall. In addition, higher-order questions require more student talk to answer, so student participation increases. Finally, we need to ask higher-order questions because such questions appear to have a positive effect on achievement. Deethardt (1974) and Redfield and Rous- seau (1981) cite research indicating that a teacher's asking of higher-order ques- tions has been linked to greater student achievement, When you are structuring your classroom questions, remember that.there's nothing inherently wrong with the lower-level questions of Bloom's Taxonomy. We need them to help guide students’ thinking patterns and to help eliminate compre~ hension problems. Notice the questioning sequence in the following example and the role of lower-level questions in creating the sequence (Duke, 1971, p. 4 Knowledge: When was Lyrica! Ballads published? Ginnie Compare a poem by Wordsworth with one by Coleridge What differences to you find? What similarities? Application: Does this particular poem show the characteristics of poetry as indicated by Wordsworth and Coleridge in the “Preface” to Lyrical Ballads? If s0, how? If not, what are the differences? ARAIYSEDWhat would some journalists and writers of the nineteenth century attack in Lyrical Bellas? Synthesis) From studying Wordsworth’s poetry, what conclusions can you make about his beliefs?Unit It + Instructional Strategies (GEGTAR Do you feel that the concepts of romanticism as expressed by Wordsworth and Coleridge are still affecting our modern literature? Explain. Although the taxonomy is helpful in determining the level of cognitive Fro- cess you are requiring of your students, itis not without limitations, Several imgor- tant types of questions are omitted. For example, the taxonomy does not include questions that cue students on an initially weak response, in other words, the prob- ing question. Questions such as “Why?” “Could you elaborate?” “Can you think of any other examples?” and “Doesn't that contradict what you said previously?” are all examples of probing questions. Probing questions are important. A positive relationship exists between the frequency of teacher probing questions and theamountof student ora participation, In addition, a positive relationship exists between a teacher's probing and pupil achievement. Finally, probing questions are important in fostering critical thinking (Kull, 1988). Also missing from the taxonomy are questions that stimulate a discuss.on atmosphere. For example, a question such as “Johnny, do you agree with —— ?” encourages students to question one another—an idea we'll return to later in this chapter. In Box 6.1, Davis (2004) suggests teachers develop an inventory of questions in order to balance the kinds of questions asked. As you begin to develop questions for your own classroom discussions, you may want to refer to this inventory as a model. Improving Classroom Questions Let It Live Neoer kill a question; it ia fragile thing. A good question deserves to live, One doesn’ so much answer it as corverse with it, 7, better yet, one lives with it Great questions are the permanent and bless guests of the mind, Dut the greatest questions of all ate those zokich build bridges tothe henrt, addressing the w ole person ‘No ansiver should be designed to Kill the question When one is too dogmatic, ar to sure, one shoros disrespect for truth sand the question wc points troard it Beyond ney answer ther is always more, more light waiting to break in, «and woazes of nexhaustible meaning rendy to break against wisdom’s widening shore Wherever there sa question, lei tive! (Frost, 1974, p. 31) BKChapter + Leading Classroom Discussions 14 | BOX 61° Inventory of Questions | CUBBIE ie fos and basic knowledge: "What research evidence suppor ine theory of a cancer prone personality? « GUBRERIIRrone assumptions, conclusions, and interpctalions "How Sbeauigitcreacrcunt for the findings of this experiment?” Gelling 3% or compaisons of herve, eas, oc asues “What prem Tees of Pacy Ferguson di the Supreme Court throw out in deciding Brown 2 Boon tual GUGM orcive motives or cause: “Why did Jo assume a new sda | + CREB 0: a conctuson oration: "in rexponse toast at Califor Tall wt should the chancellor do?” CGA aos caus reationships tween ideas, actions, ot Srrente Mt fe gevemrent topped farm subsides for wheat, what would hap- en ig ihe pric: of breac?” CRIBS pore te siscussion: "Vow does this comment relate (0 | shat we have previowsly sald?” HAAR cxe 2 range in the facts oc isves, “Suppose Gregg had | rinse poor; would the outcome have been thesame?” CRRA. > iaentity the most important sue: “From all that we ave ated about, what isthe most niportant cause ofthe decine of Amecican | Paine CRIED cx syntneses:“Wat themes orlessons have emerged fom today’s clas?" From Davis 2004, pp 83-5). \ Your success in the discussion method of teaching will depend greatly on your ability tallet questions “live.” Listed in Box 6.2 are several guidelines to help you develop and improve your questioning skills, These guidelines will be ex- | ‘tremely useful to you throughout your teaching career. You will want to reflect on them each time you decide to use the discussion method. As seasoned instructors, your authors still reflect on these guidelines to help Keep students at the center of instructional discussions, Response Styles Much research suggests that how we respond to students will stifle or enhance the discussion process. For example, students who perceived the greatest amount of sup- port for their discussion efforts were more motivated and active in the learning process (Karabenick & Sharma, 1994; see also, Aitken & Neer, 1993; Andersen, & Nussbaum, 1900; Auster & MacRone, 1994; Nadler & Nadler, 1990). Listed irtBox 63 tp. 144) are {Several praginaticslggestions tolhe|p you respond appropriately to your students and ‘thus encourage their participation. As with al the boxes provided in this text, you will ‘want to visit these suggestions early and often throughout your teaching career.Unit IL + Instructional Strategies BOX 6.2 ¢ Guidelines for Questions ‘+ Hace = commitment fo questions. Developing questioning skills is dilftcul. In 0 der to really master the art, you have to be willing to give the time and ef aa CRATE 1029 tog ee gssi oct + Hace clear purpose. Why are you asking the question? What's the response you ant? Phrase if students are unfamiliar with the words in the question, they cannot answerit even if they know the information being requested. In ad dition, teachers should ask only one question at a time, * Knoio your subject matter. When you do, you can direct your energies to observ ing and directing stuclents’ menial processes rather than having to foc notes, + Keep all students ‘moment, there is th ask, Because only one student answers a question at a given ance that other students may get of /hen students learn you'l your own questions if they simply wait long enough, they'll wai! you out, Wait forstudents toanswer. Silence seems very frustrating to teachers, yet itis not only desirable but also necessa There will be some silence in any class, Sometimes it may be just dead silence with nothing happening, sis a terrifying thing: cone can only ask the spirit to brood over it, creating again repeating the f irning nothing into something, But there are other silences, the silence of reflection, ion, or reafficmatian, or, the silence of recognition, affection, opposition, ‘oreven the silence of struggle id decision... Frost 1974, p miracle, in Chapter 4. The sem ircle. Remember our disc ion of seating arrangements rele or horseshoe (U-shaped) arrangement eneoarages in onder to change the subject, or modify’ the directior ward a particular s of steps toward a conclusion, + clarify a statement, help a member make a su whothver listening was accurate, or perm + probe for mote information, genera ment or ger t statement, establish member to amplify statemants e a more extensive response, or turn the sek to. member or the group,Facilitating the Discussion Chapters * Leading Classroom Discussions 143 + Ghue the flow ofthe discusston by asking questions in order to ‘+ suggest that the discussion might be wandering, + encourage consideration of the personal significance of a discussion and to relate it to members’ indivicual frames of reference. + avoid working over the same issues without fruitful resulls and to assess the eroup's position, if any «+ Glicita response when a conclusion or consensus is near, bul no one is willing to state itor fo suggest that it’s time fo move on. + suggest that a group is not ready to act. + get a student fo take the initiative ifthe group is experiencing a momentary Iu. Finally pon én a tony ta fosters the discussion process. Dr Simonds shares the following story: I remember a professor who asked us to read an article and come to class prepared to talk about it. He asked a question and a student answered. The professor responded, "No, you're wrong,” The discussion halted and the professor continued to lecture about why the student was wrong. We never had another discussion in that class. Figure 6.1 provides a facilitation model for leading classroom discussions developed by one of your authors, Dr. Simonds. rhatis, set the knowledge base for the question. What do students need to know in order to answer the ques- tion? This is when you reference the material of the lesson so that students can elaborate with their i nse by ce es Aili inieiaiiiipiaiadiaiaaiiaiiaee, (Gbigheblevelsorthinxingetim knowledge tevel questions so tha students donot ‘Structure —> Solict ~~~» Respond —> React Wait time , Y 1 ’ Reading Aska student Teacher Objective High Answers or Student ‘or Content Order ‘Comments Statement Question FIGURE61 Facilitation Model. From B. Simonds, C. Simonds, and. Hunt, 2005), Leading instructional Discussicns—video, Prentice Hall,Box 6s «(Responiding to Questions) rategies 1. Respond to student asivers positively aud constructively 2. Accept and develop stuenls’felings. Feelings are real. Demonstrate verbally and nonyerbally that you are receiving the message and that you are interested in #. Gauge when to pursue students’ feelings and when to take no action. Here, yyouas the professional must make the decision based on your knowledge of the student. 3. Praise rather than evtictze 4, Encourage. When you encourage, you are demonstrating your belie in the lent and her ability 5. Useactice listening. How many times do we hear and not listen? (See Chapter 3) 6. Encourage shucent inpu. First, don’t talk most of the time. Fram our own experi fence, we have found this is a most difficult task to accomplish. Second, redirect questions fo students, rather than simply answering questions directed toward mments such as “What do the rest of you think about that?” or rnyone have something they'd like to add?” encourage student input. .. Communicate about your communication. Make sure that yyou and the student both understand what's being said. 8. Accept student mistakes. Accept the mistakes without reprimanding, but focus on Why the student made the mistake, 9. Use a onrety of responses. Beginning teachers often ask, “What do I do if no one ansivers my question or if the answer given is wrong?” Too often beginning ieee When the student’s answer is correct L. Praise the student 2. Restate the correct response as given by the student, iodify the answer if necessary while maintaining the student's original idea. 4. Apply the siudent’s answer to some situation, 5. Compare the student's response to something in the text, something al ready discussed, or some similar, concurrent event. 6 ES ee b, When the student's answer is incorrect 1. Support the student's answer while saying the response is incorrect, ain Good try John, but that's not the correct answer. Rephrase the question Provice additional informatio 1 the student's use 4, Probe the student's response for a route to the correct answer: Consider the following: “What do you mean by “Can you give mean example 0 ‘igChapter 6 # Leading Clessroo “How does that relate to the problem or isstie?” “All of your answer depends on the idea th “Why did you base your answer on this rather than. “What are your reasons for saying this?” “Can you be mate specific?” “Let me gee if [understood you. Do you mean ‘Could you explain your answer further?” "Can you rephrase you answer?” What [heard you say was —_ 21s that what you meant?" “Pattie, do you agree with the ansiver Bitice just gave?” “Let me rephrase the question. Now, what do you think?" (Eleses, Long- ‘man, & Steib, 1996, p.3) ‘When the student’s response is “I don’t know" Urge the student to try to answer Restate the quéstion. Rephrase the question. Redirect the question to another student, Ask the student what part of the question is unclear or if she can answer part of the question. 10. Encourage quiet stucer + Assign a small specific task to a quiet student. + Reward inizequent contributors with a smile. Bolster students’ self-confidence by writing their comments on the board. 11, Disconrage students who monopolize the disc * Ifonly the dominant: re state your desire for greater + fone student has been dominating the discussion, ask otherstudents whether they agree or disagree with that student. + Ifthe monopolizer is a serious problem, speak to her after class or during of- fice hours, Tel the student that yon value her participation and wish more stu- denis contributed. Point out that learning results from give-and-take and that peepee eae Ma ey ERIM ive i tre aunt of tone the teacher walls fora ce sponse after asking, a question. When students are asked a question, they must go through a series of steps before responding, They must attend to the que flan, decipher its meaning, generale a covert response, and generate an overt response. To expect students to do this in one to three seconds is unrealistic that they are being quiz ‘ s that don’t necessarily have a correct or incorrect answe! 10 do wil Wait. One of the most difficult things for you asking a question, silence can be quite uncomfortable,146 Unit It + instructional Strategies sen e Tt “athisher onder question requires time for student to ‘Whatever you do, avoid answering your own questions. Students can become gqite adept at waiting you out, Once a student has responded, react positively 10 the student's response, The nature ofthis reaction will determine the future success ot failure of the discussion. As a student, how likely would you be to contbure toa discussion if your teacher reacted lke the professor in Di Simonds’ example earlier? Remember that you do not always have to be the one to react toa studeat response. Other students can build on contributions as well. Also, be sue that all students get to respond to a question. In other words, do not let questions die be- fore all students get to contribute with a particular line of discussion, Once you've reacted positively to a student's response, allow other students either to react to the student's response or to provide a response of their own, This Process should continue until you believe that all stucients have had an opportu- nity to share with regard to the original question, or until the discussion gets oif track, whichever comes first. Once this process is complete forthe first question, move on to the next question, Motivating Student Preparation for Participation in Class The success of the discussion depends not only on your use of questions and re- sponses, but also on stucents being prepared to participate. How do we get thems {0 do that? Rattenborg, Simonds, and Hunt (2005) discuss ways you can prepare Students to become active members of class discussion using two particulee ols reading objectives andl extended comments, Reading objectives act as a framework for the daily instructional discussion. They serve as the content knowledge that students and the instructor share so that higher-order questions can be asked ins discussion. Extended comments challenge students to think beyond the text and allow them to plan possible contributions (ideas, examples, or questions) discussion, These instructional strategies are especially helpful for communi tively apprehensive students, because they can carefully plan out their contribu. ul for students who may not be tions ahead of time. The strategies are also usef accustomed to taking an active role in class sessions, (Once you prepare students for the interactive classroom, you can use read- Uff Objectives to begin planning for the discussion, Box 6.4 provides an example of how you can use reading objectives as the knowledge base to ask higher onde auestions, The left-hand column provides the information that students have pre pared, whereas the right-hand column is the template for how you, the teacher prepare for is, class time should not be spent having students answer the reading objectives; rather, higher-order questions should be aclea ‘© extend the thinking ofthe class beyond the knowledge that reading objective BoxChapter 6 * Leading Ct BOX64 * Reading Objectives with Discussion Prompts Reading Objectives (Student Preparation) 1, Whenis it appropriate to use the dis- ‘cussion method of instruction? ‘+ Use the resources of the members of the groups. + Get prompt feedback on how well the teaching objectives are bet Give students practice in thinking. Help students formulate questions that require them to seek information from the readings and lectures. Gain students’ acceptance of infor- mation or theories counter to their previous beliefs. ached . What are the advantages and disad- vantages of the discussion method oF instruction? + Provides students practice in ex pressing themselves clearly and accurately Helps students gain skill in defend- ing and supporting their views. + Exposes students to a variety of ideas, beliefs, and information differ ent from their own. + Motivates students ‘Takes considerable time, ‘+ Requires that teachers and stud possess discussion skills. 3. Identify the steps in planning a discussion. Introduction (Ai Purpose, and Pr The Body + Use of Questions ++ Probing Questions + Response Styles 0) oom Discussions 17 Discussion Questions (Teacher Preparation) 1, There are a variety of instructional strategies that teachers may choose from including lecture, activities and small group-work, storytelling, and instructional discussions. What factors do you think should play a role in which strategy a teacher should choose if more than one ‘method is appropriate? Which strategy do you think you will use the most as an instructor? Why? 2, What characterizes 2 productive or unproductive instructional discussion? ‘What has been your experience in the past with productive/unpro- ductive instructional discussions? ‘What is the most important step? Why? Why is it important to have all steps accounted for in the discussion? (continued)BOX6.4 * Continued Unit IE + Instructional Strategies Reading Objectives (Student Preparation) Th * Koop mental notes during discussion, * Tiediscussion together, * Preview how information relates to upcoming lessons. 4. Describe the characteristics of the discussion method, + Experiential learning. + Emphasis on students * Focus on extical thinking + Use of questions ‘+ Responses to questions Define experiential learning. *+ We lear best when we are actively involved in the learning process— when we “discover” knowledge through active participation, 6. Listand define the levels in Bloom's ‘Taxonomy (ee Table 6.1). + Knowledge: + Comprehension: + Application alysis Synthesis: * Evaluation Identify guidelines for questions a teacher may follow to increase stu- dent involvement in discussions. * Have acommitment to questions. * Write out a sequence o! questions, + Fave a clear purpose. = Phrase cleatly. + Know vour subject matter. + Keep all students on-task * Don'tanswer your own questions, + Seat stusents in a semicircle. + Ask probing questions, * Guide the flow of the discussion. Discussion Questions (Teacher Preparation) 4, Why are these characteristics impor- tant to understanding and utilizing the discussion method? Which of these characteristics do ‘you feel is most important? Are there any that could be elim- inated? Why? 5, What are the teacher's responsibili- ties during the discussion? ‘What are the students’ respon: bilities during the discussion? 6. How is Bloom's Taxonomy used in the discussion method? Why is it beneficial to havea firm understanding of the taxonomy be- fore the discussion’ 7. What has been yous experience with teachers who effectively or ineffec- tively used questioning strategies? How might communication ap- prehension affect a student's will- ingness or ability to participate in lassroom discussion?Chapter 6 * Lending Classroom Discussions 149 Reading Objectives Discussios Questions (Student Preparation) (aches Preparation) '. Identify guidelines for responding 8. Whataresomeexamples of responses to students a teacher may follow that would encourage or discourage to increase siudent involvement in _ student involvement? discussions. How would you address the sit- «© Respond to student answers posi: uation when a student responds to tively and constructively. another student's response either + Accept and develop students’ positively or negatively? | feelings. Praise rather than criticize. active listening. courage student input. *» Metacommunicate + Accept student mistakes. + Use a variety of responses. + Encourage quiet students + Discourage students who monopo- | lize the discussion. + Provide wait time. 9. How can an instructor motivate 9. Why is this method effective? | students t0 be prepared for class What are potential issues with | participation? sing this method? + Through using tending objectives and Can you think of other methods to use to have students prepared for extended comments thatarecompleted. a class participation? by the student before class begins 10. What can an instructor do to involve 10. Can you think of other methods the | hhigh communication apprehension __text does not mention? students in discussion? ‘Are there ways to help facilitate «+ Providereinforcementto alkthrough _ participation Before discussions repeated speaking opportunites even begin? © Vary tasks ‘What would you do as an instruc- = Use small group or interpersonal _tor if those methods fail and the stu- settings dent still will not participate? + Provide opportunities to participate fe private and personal with com- munieating with the student Be specific Be positive before negative with feedback Provide a friendly, nonthreatening, classroom climate Tnvestigate toseelfthestudent’scultuce ‘may be affecting their participationUnit It + Instructional Strategies iow this information what higher-order questions can you ask to get them to talk about it further? Once youask the question and students respond, you now need to decide how to or whe should react to those responses, In other words, you need to consider how you wil facilitate the discus facilitation model in Figure 6.1 that discussions should start wih ti Tots tt Knog ices a hon aa students need to know in order to answer the question? Again, this is where read ing objectives and extended comments come in. Students consider the content of the reading objective and extend their thinking by planning a dialogue with the ‘material, providing an example, or asking a question. They can then use these ex: tensions to plan a contribution in class. You should take time after the class session to review student answers to the Teading objectives to ensure they are correct and to provide constructive feedback con the extended comments, This is an opportunity to dialogue with students about their personal examples and insights and to clarify any questions students may still have about the course material The discussion strategy focuses on student experiences as they relate to course content. In addition, reading objectives and extended comments allow stu dents opportunities to practice communication in the classroom. They read the content, answer questions, think about the material, and prepare contributions for class, When: they get to class, they have opportunities fo contribute and articulate as well as defend their ideas, The goal of using these tools isto change the way stu. dents spend time out of class, which will have implications for what students do in lass—talk rather than just listen. Hopefully, this will enable students to appreciate their responsibility in the learning process. To do so, students need to accept their role in the discussion process. Deemer (1986, p. 4) suggests teachers distribute list of participation principles to students: * Lam critical of ideas, not people. I challenge and refute the ideas, but [donot indicate that I personally reject them. 1 focus on coming to the best decision possible, not on winning. Tencourage everyone to participate listen to everyone's ideas even if | don’t agree. restate what someone has said if t is not clear to me. | first bring out all ideas andl facts supporting all sides, and then T try to put them together in a way that makes sense. try to understanc! all sides ofthe isstie I change my mind when the evidence clearly indi tes that I should do so. Tiberius (1990) also recommends several strategies students should follow in order to make discussions productive: Seek the best answer rather then tying o convince other people. StucChapter6 + Landing Classroom Discussions 151 «+ Try not to let your previous ideas or prejudices interfere with your freedom of thinking, « Speak whenever you wish (if you are not interrupting someone else, of course), even though your idea may seem incomplete. « Practice listening by trying to formulate in your own words the point that the previous speaker made before adding your own contribution. « ‘Avoid disrupting the flow of thought by introducing new issues; instead wait tunti the present topic reaches its natural end; if you wish to introduce a new topic, warn the group that what youare about to say will address a new topic and that you are willing to wait to introduce it until people are finished com- menting on the current topic. Stick to the subject and talk briefly. ‘Avoid long stories, anecdotes, or examples. Give encouragement and approval to others. Seek out differences of opinion; they enrich the discussion. Be sympathetic and understanding of other people's views: In Chapter 5, we discussed how teacher communication apprehension might affect the lecture process. Because student communication apprehension may af fect stuclent participation in the discussion method, it is important to address at this point. Student Communication Apprehension The presence of highly apprehensive students can baffle even the best teacher. There's nothing more disheartening than a student who has something worth- while to contribute but, because of communication apprehension, is both unwill- ing and fearful of sharing that knowledge with others. ‘The low communication-apprehensive student presents quite a different pic- ture, She is generally perceived as a high interactor, mature, independent, self assured, assertive, competitive, talkative, determined, decisive, open-minded, and tolerant of ambiguous or uncertain situations. She enjoys people, is chosen for leadership, has a high need to achieve, sees herself as being in control of her own life, seeks occupations requiring a large amount of communication, and has high self-esteem. Research indicates that high! QOMmnunica ion-appREnensive students inter- Beilbss frequently (Allen & Bourhis, 1996; Ericson & Gardiner, 1992; Hawkins & Stewart, 1991; Neer, 1992; O’Mara, Allen, Long, & Judd, 1996). In addition, highly apprehensive students + Do not assume positions of leadership in groups. Do not volunteer to participate in classroom question and answer sessions. Drop classes requiring a large amount of communication ‘Are perceived by teachers as having less likelihood of success in almost every subject area regardless of intelligence, effort, or academic ability152 Unit IT + Instructional Strategies + Have low self-esteem. Tal + Express a preference for seating arrangements that inhibit communication = interaction. a * Have lower grade point averages (GPAs) and score lower on studentachieve- a ‘ment tests than low communication-apprehensive students. + Are more likel 10 drop out of school. a ly n *+ Generally avoid classroom discussions. 1 Identifying the Highly Communication-Apprehensive Student a The first step in identifying the highly communication-apprehensive student is ob- servation. Reexamine the characteristics ofthis type of student. Ifyouhavea student 3 who exhibits several of these characteristics, he may be a highly communication- apprehensive person. You might also use an independent observer, such as your a Principal, speech therapist, or another teacher, to share their observations of your students with you. You can ao aninsr ER RTSSIETSST TOD ce Te s 62). The scale can be administered orally if students are inthe lower elementary grades, The $5 can indicate which students will be highly verbal. Although little 6 research has examined overly talkative children, they can be very frustrating to the classroom teacher. In addition, teachers must be carefull when “toning down” : overly talkative students in order to avoid causing communication apprehension ; (McCroskey & Richmond, 1991) ; Treating the Highly Communication-Apprehensive Student s Although clinical approaches to reducing communication apprehension (sy tematic desensitization, cognitive modification, skills training, and visualization) have been found to reduce apprehension, such methods are rarely at the classrocm & teacher's disposal (see, for example, Ayres, Hopf, & Ayzes, 1994; Whitworth & = Cochran, 1996). Reinforcement—a method in which individuals are conditioned St to talk more by a series of reinforcing events—has also been found to reduce ap- prehension ancl is more readily available to the classroom teacher. Vary the task assignments for students with hi apprehension. B ld é low communication apprehension. The more concrete the assigament for highly mn communication-apprehensive students, the better their performance will be. u In addition, some research suggests that students may benefit from work- se ing in small group or interpersonal settings with acquaintances (Booth-Butterficld, ® 1988). If you are having a difficult time getting some students to participate early e on, then you might consider’ by getting them to participate -n smaller groups before reporting back to the class as a whole. When talking to highly communication-apprehensive students about get- ting help for their apprehension, teachers should attempt to be private and per- sonal, provide positive feedback before negative feedback, be specific rather thanChapter 6 © Leuding Classroom Discussions 153 ‘TABLE 6.2 (GiiessiSeAeISS) “The following fourteen statements refer to talking with other people. Ifthe statement describes you well, cinle "YES." Ifit describes you somewhat, circle “yes.” If you are not sure whether it Jeseribes you or not, or if you do not understand the statement, circle“. Ifthe statement is a poor description of you, cicle “no.” Ifthe statement does not describe you a all circle “NO.” ‘There are no right or wrong answers. Answer quickly; record your first impression. 1, Tama shy person. 9, Lama quiet person. YES yes 7 no NO YES yes ? 0 NO 2, Other people think I talk a ot. 10. [talk more in a small group (3-406) than YES yes 7? 00 NO others do. 3, Tama very talkative person. YES yes 2 no NO YES ayers oP oO 1, Most peopl ak patina 4. Other people think Tam shy. YES yes 7 no YES yes ? mo NO 32. O1seipeople think Tamm Very aie 5. Italka lot YESpeyep? © NO YES yes 2 10 oO) 43) Talk more in class than most/people do. 6ltend to be verp ict and listen tn class. yes yes ? no NO esas | 7) Mo \ NO 14. Most people are more gigi’ am 7. Tdon't talk much, YES yes ? no NO YEsmy ys) 7 0 NO 8, [talk more than most people. YES yes ? mo NO Scoring: YES = 1: yes =2;?=3;no=4;NO= ‘To obtain your $$ score, complete the following steps: Step 1. Add the scores for items 1,4, 6,7,9, 11, and 12, Step 2. Add the scores for items 2,3, 5,8, 10, 13, and 1. Step 3. Complete the following formula: Shyness Score = from Step 2 ‘Your score should be between 14 and 70. ‘Scores above 52 indicate a high level of shyness, Scores below 32 indicate a low level of shyness, Scores between 32 and 52 indicate an average level of shyness. 2 (minus) total from Step 1 (plus) total Interpretation Tf-you scored above 52, its likely that you are shy and perhaps do not talk alot The higher your score, the more shyness you experience, and the ess likely you are to be talkative. This suggests hat you are quieter than most people. A high score does not necessarily mean that you are afraid to tall but only that you prefer to be quiet in many circumstances when others would prefer to talk. Tiyou scored below 22, itis likely that you are not shy and probably talka lot. The lower your score, the less shy you feel, and the more likely you are to be talkative. This suggests that you are trove talkative than most people. A low score means that your own oral activity will dominate the activity of quiet children. You will need to be particulary careful not to be verbally aggressive or to expect your children to become as talkative as you are.154 Unit I + Instructional Strategies TABLE6.2 Continued Scores within the moderate range (32 to 52) indicate that some situations might cause you to be shy. In other words, in some cases you might be quiet, and in other cases you might be verbally active Your score on the $5 should give a fairly good indication of your normal oral activity level. If your score is incongruent with your own perceptions of your behavior, however, do nt necessarily accept it at face value. Talk to someone whom you trust and who knows you well to see if your acquaintance thinks thatthe scale is accurate. Ifyou teach above the kindergarten to fourth-grade level, discuss shyness with your students to sce if their perceptions of you confirm your score, From Quiet Chidren and she Classroom Tear, by J. MeCroskey and V. Richmond (Bloomington, IN: ERIC, 191), 27-30, Copyright © 1991 by the National Comminication Associaton. Used By permis sion of he publisher general about what needs to be worked on, and note that they are encouraging, other students to seek help also (Proctor, Douglas, Garera-Izquierdo, & Wartman, 1994), One of the best ivays:toshelp the communication-apprehensive student is to(provide a friendly, nonthreatening classtoomiclimate|(Cooper & Galvin, 1983; Fiis, 1995). On the first day, make clear to students exactly what is expected of them! Set ground rules that foster communication (for example, "you don’t ‘cut down’ another student’s comment”). Engage in get-acquainted exercises (Friedrich & Cooper, 199), For example, you might use an exercise in which you and your students share your full name and the significance of it, The point is that the more practice students get participating in discussions, the more comfortable ‘hey will feel in doing so. Some students will need a little more encouragement and the sug- gestions provided in this chapter may help them along the way. Finally, recent studies have examined communication apprehension and culture (see, for example, Bolls & Tan, 1996; Klopf, 1984; McCroskey & Rich- mond, 1990; Olaniran & Roach, 1994; Olaniran & Stewart, 1996; Richmond & Andiiate, 1984), One general caution these studies suggest is that what appears to be communication apprehension in U.S. culture may not actually be sommu- nication apprehension when seen in students from other cultures. For example, Klopf (1991) suggests, “With a low inclination to talk, the [Japanese] student relies more on nonverbal behavior to communicate feelings ... the stucent will be rated low as a friendly, attentive, contentious, animated, impression. leaving, communicator” (p. 137). In general, Asians exhibit relatively low verbal output, cautious and indirect speech, periods of silence, low expressiveness, and lack of @¥e contact (Barnlund, 1975; Chou, 1979; Eliott, Scott, Jensen, & McDonough, 1981; Hall, 197; Kendon, 1967; Kindaichi, 1975, Nakano»1970; Schneider Slot dan, 1981), whereas persons in the United States tend 40 exhibit high verbal ‘output, self-assertion, verbal and nonverbal expressiveness, and frequent, sus- fained eye contact (Barnlund, 1975; Elliott etal., 1981; Hall, 1992; Kindaichi, 1975; Suzuki, 1973).Chapter 6 * Landing Classroom Discussions 155 Evaluating Your Discussion Skills In Sum If we want to improve our discussion skills, we need to honestly evaluate our- selves, Several types of evaluation are available. First, make your own informal evaluation of the discussion, Did everyone contribute to the discussion? How Gmuch did you dominate the session? What was the quality of students’ comments? ‘What questions worked especially well? How satisfied did the group seem about the progress that was made? Did students learn something new about the topic (Davis, 2004, p. 72)? Second, ask your students to make an informal evaluation of your discus- sion skills (see Table 63). Third, videotape one of your lessons. View the tape and complete the evaluation form that follows. Have a colleague view the tape with you and also complete the form, and discuss. In this chapter we have examined the discussion method of teaching. We have stressed not only the mechanics of this method but also the attitude toward teach- ing necessary fo use this method effectively. Gerhard Frost summarizes that attitude: Deliver Us! From classrooms rather thatthe needs of children; that creak and 4 from prison-houses rulecridden anc of arlficiality and anzciety, defensive and uohere nothing breathes, reflecting the neuroses Good Lord, of adults deliver us! (Frost, 1974, p. 70) Much research suggests that when students interact with one another in a coop- trative way, achievement increases, student attitudes toward learning and teach- ers are more positive, and self-esteem and motivation increase. Discussion that encourages students to work together to solve problems and to talk through ideas fosters positive results ohnson & Johnson, 2002) If you follow the guidelines presented in this chapter, two phenomena will ‘occur in your classroom. + (GEGEN PSRLIAHSAWAUNERERSE You'll foster a positive attitude toward cussion 2. Students will become questioning beings. Postman and Weingartner (1971) Suggest, “Children enter school as question marks and leave as periods” (p.3). They'll remain question marks in an atmosphere that fosters their cu- eecity and creativity in a classroom in which questions are encouraged:156 Unit 1+ Instructional Strategies TABLE63 Evaluating Your Discussion Skills 1. Introduction to the lesson, A. Attention gaining strategy was Successfull Unsuccessful B. Motivating strategy was Shcoesafal YY he integer bora aigaeta . Preview was SiC glean ee, Comments: . Questioning strategy A. Most questions were asked on the level. B. Any probing questions asked? C. Did students ask questions of me? Of one another? Comments: Generally, my questioning behavior was Effective waa — —_ ___ Ineffective Wait time A. Appropriate to question level Usually __ —_ —_ Never Response style A. What did I do to create a supportive, responsive climate? B. What types of responses did I get? Comment: Generally, my responses were Effective V. Conclusion A. Summary was Successful Unsuccessful Comments:Activities Chapter6 + Lending Classroom Discussions 157 One teacher describes the effect of following guidelines such as those pre- sented here: Since I changed my method of questioning, I've found that my students have changed their attitades toward learning, This change, very subtle at first, is now {quite startling, Students pay attention. They listen to each other and give answers, that show they're thinking about what they’re going to say. The quality of their {questions has also improved. They seem to have a better understanding of concepts and are showing improvement on tests and written work. Since I have become used to this new style, the amount of material | cover seems to be about the same now as it was in the past, although I must admit that ‘when I was leaming to use good questioning techniques, the process did take Ton- ger. (Schumaker, 1986, p. 37) Perhaps the determinant of commitment to the discussion method is yout fou must feel comfortable enough to relinquish your con- trolas the teacher and become a learning facilitator. When you encourage students to question you, themselves, and other students, everyone becomes a teacher. If you are a person who has a low tolerance for ambiguity and a high need for con- trol, the discussion method is probably not for you. 6.1 Consider your teaching field. Considering the advantages, disadvantages, appropriateness, and inappropriateness of the discussion method, list three topics for which the discussion method would be appropriate and explain why. 6.2 Read the following case study (Amidon & Hunter, 1966, pp. 114-116), In a small group, discuss how the cycle of experiential learning is exemplified. “You've all had time to finish the story assigned for today,” said Ms. Garber to one of her fourth-grade reading groups, "so let's take some time to discuss it.” “"Lwish I was Whitey and lived on a ranch. Fle was lucky.” “Yeah. He was a real cowboy, and he was only the same age as us.” “What do you mean by ‘real’ cowboy?” asked Ms. Garber. “Well, he had his own horse, and he wore cowboy clothes.” “And he worked like the cowboys do. He roped cattle and he rode around, the ranch.” “He didn’t rope cattle like at a roundup. All he did was use his rope to pull a calf outof the mud.” “Do you think that would be part of the job of a cowboy?” Ms. Garber inquired, “Tsaw a show on TV where the rustlers got the cattle. But they didn’t take the ‘meat like in this story and leave the hides. They took the cattle with them.” "Yeah, I saw a show like that. The bad guys were rustlers.”ret ciara yin) + ne? 5, sect 08 emia, cot bs eh wi etna vac on) sod sett yon uit mat pobre acew er gant Yr Zon th dA tm alton aay aque AT pitt hws esinatoig Ret) Sega: srewane sig tim cin ta & aml) iT inet aoe ogee 4 stot to alas ne an ot yy evo cnr ugh yrcllexpntt arte a cpomasbegetbantensbew wot ail me eT nat anh ee rclsey atom pair bas iad ni itgmeGeN Boe ae See sso | smote No tmeosa at ge tae ems et wat | sa vat seme nave 1 rican, ary lh wt ah ne wl Sel mr vl abi eee it gs noe gar! 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