ER 2101 MINE DEVELOPMENT

READING MATERIAL / RELATED LECTURE NOTES FOR

UNDEGROUND MINE SUPPORTS

Visiting Lecturer : Eng. Kapila Ekanayake C,Eng, B.Sc. Eng.( Hons), PG Dip, MIE(SL)
INTRODUCTION

Underground Mine Support is the term widely used to describe the procedures and materials
used to improve the stability and maintain the load bearing capacity of rock near to the
boundaries of an underground excavation. A distinction is drawn between rock reinforcement
or active support, where the supporting elements are an integral part of the reinforced rock
mass, and rock support or passive support, where the supporting members are external to the
rock and respond to inward movement of the rock surrounding the excavation. A good example
of active reinforcement is a pattern of un-tensioned grouted dowels which are tensioned as the
rock deforms and which interact with the rock in much the same way as reinforcing steel does
with concrete. Steel sets are an example of passive support since they external to the rock mass
and can only respond to progressive inward movement of the loosened rock mass.

TUNNEL SUPPORT

When a tunnel is excavated in all but the most competent of ground conditions it is an inevitable
consequence that some form support will be required if the tunnel is to retain adequate stability
and/or maintain sufficient dimensions ensuring safety in the intended manner.

Temporary Support:

In rock tunnels where the ground has insufficient stand-up time to allow the construction of the
permanent support behind the face, form of temporary support should be applied at the tunnel
face, E.g. rock bolts, shotcrete and steel sets and sometimes by timber.

As concerns its structural characteristics, temporary support is classified into sustaining support
designed to hold in place the roof and side-wall rocks from the moment of ground excavation
till erection of permanent support, and protective support, which is to secure safe work and
protect machinery and equipment in the heading being damaged by falling pieces of rock.

The general goal of an initial support system is to provide the following characteristics.

1) Absence of rock falls,

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 2) Control of stress induced instability,
3) Absence of mass instability by "reinforcing" rock, i.e, encouraging the rock to support
itself,
4) Restriction of loosening,
5) Control of water.

Final Supports/Permanent Supports:

Often this is minimum lining that can be constructed because the initial support system usually
reinforces, knits together, or confines the rock in such a manner that the rock actually provides
the majority of its initial support. It is also assumed that the final lining - Usually shotcrete or
cast-in-place concrete is properly and tightly placed, and that any voids between lining and
rock are properly and thoroughly contact-grouted.

As permanent supports,

1) Rigid steel sets/Frame -type supports,

2) Yieldable steel arch sets,
3) Poured monolithic concrete,
4) Prefabricated reinforced concrete, are used.
Rock Bolting

Rock bolting is a widely accepted technique in tunnel openings in all types of rock. There are
several theories explaining the action of rock bolts under different circumstances.

a) Beam Building

When the competent strata is

not within reach of ordinary
roof bolts or does not exist,
rock bolts can still be applied
to bind thin and weak
individual layers together to
form a “beam”. The internal
Figure 1: Beam building effect of roof bolting
rock bolts through the weak
layers can provide direct shear resistance to the horizontal movement that occurs
between the rock beds and can also increase the friction between the layers by applied
normal force perpendicular to the bedding plane (Luo, 1998).

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 b) Suspension

Suspension theory assumes that the immediate roof of the excavation is weak whereas
the upper layer is relatively stronger. In such situations, rockbolts hold the immediate
roof to the self-supporting main roof via transmitting the dead weight load of the strata
between face plates and anchors to the main roof. Figure 2 shows the weak roof strata
suspended to the competent strata. It is required that the bolt should be long enough to
anchor into the stable rock and that bolts should hold sufficient tensile strength to
maintain the rock dead weight.

Figure 2:Suspension effect of roof bolting

c) Keying

For highly fractured and

blocky roof strata, the
application of rock bolts
can essentially improve
the frictional resistance
along rock joints, cracks
and weak planes as
Figure 3: Keying effect of roof bolting
shown in Figure 3. The
installation of rock bolts can prevent or minimize the slippage and separation of rock
discontinuities. Bolt tension plays a vital role in the keying effect. The fractured rock
mass is locked or keyed together.

Rock may be broken into numerous slabs, irregular, interlocking fragments but without voids
or interlocking fractures. In such cases each rock bolt has the effect of clamping or squeezing
together the rock fragments in a circular zone around it so that they tend to make a solid mass.

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The primary effect of the bolts is to strengthen the rock structure. They also perform the
important function of compressing the rock surface and limiting the effects of expansion by
preventing the opening of cracks and joints.

Types of Rock Bolting

1) Partially Anchored Tensioned Rock Bolt

Partially anchored means anchored at the bottom of the hole only. Typical rock bolts of this
type used in mining are:

i. High tensile rock bolt with cone and shell (expansion shell anchor),
ii. Solid bar (plain or deformed) with slot and wedge (split bolt and forged wedge.)
iii. Resin-grouted bolts which may also be fully anchored.

These rock bolts exert a positive force against the rock before any rock movement begins.
Tensioning is achieved by tightening the bolt for (i) while for (ii) once the wedge is in place
the tensioning nut is tightened.

This type of support is installed as soon as possible after excavation. These bolts are installed
with a bearing plate which indicates the installation tightening to the correct tension.

Figure 4: Partially anchored tensioned rock bolts

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2) Fully Anchored Tension Rock Bolt

Typical bolts of this type are corrugated and deformed (steel reinforcing bar). The bolt is fully
grouted acting as an anchor for tensioning the short amount of bolt between the grout and
bearing plate and it also acts as a reinforcement bar.

Tensioning improves the bolt supporting action where mesh or plates are used. (Fig.5)

Fully anchored tensioned rock bolts may also include resin sealed bolts which may be of steel,
fiberglass, wire rope. Resin type of systems utilize a cartridge holding a resin and a catalyst in
separate chambers which is pushed into the bore hole; then the bolt is inserted, penetrating the
capsule. The bolt is rotated mixing the two elements and the resin gels sets within 12 to 120
secs., attaining 90% of strength 2 to 5 minutes.

Figure 5

Split-set is one version which uses a hollow, compressible, high-strength steel tube with a slit
extending its full length, a taper at the upper end a retaining ring at the bottom. The split-set is
used for small diameter bore holes.

Fig-6 below shows Split-set stabilizer, probably the most-widely used type of non-grouted
rock bolt. Split-set stabilizer consists of a steel tube about 4 mm larger in diameter than the
hole it is to be placed in, split along its full length. The bolt is mechanically rammed into the
hole, compressing the split to provide full friction contact with the rock along its entire length.
The plate and nut are then affixed and tightened.

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Split-set stabilizers load both axially and radially and give unique pear-shaped loading
condition in the rock. They combine the best features of resin-grouted and point-anchor bolts.
Split sets allow enough movement for controlled release of stress in the rock mass while
maintaining initial loading force, important in areas of high or insurmountable stress.

Figure 6: Split-set stabilizer

3) Fully Anchored Un-Tensioned Rock Bolt

A typical bolt of this type is a solid

deformed bar dowel which is fully
grouted. The action is equivalent to the
support given by a conventional timber
or steel support. (Fig.- 7)

Figure 7

4) Tensioned Fully Grouted Rock Bolt

This includes deformed bar with slot and wedge and fully grouted. It is essential that they are
fully tensioned before the grout sets.

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5) Other

Atlas Copco's "Swellex"(Fig-8) rock bolt consists of a steel tube with a convoluted internal
fold which is expanded by high pressure water so that the bolt adapts to fit the irregularities of
the drill hole, creating a full mechanical and frictional interlock throughout its length. This is
equally suited mechanical or manual installation; the only extra equipment needed being the
high-pressure pump. The very high rate of placement, one operator can typically set 40-50
bolts/hour. Swellex bolts are suitable for a very wide range of ground conditions from soft sand
and clay to granite. Hole range is 32-39 mm and bolts are available in lengths up to 8 m.
Yielding Swellex is used for extraordinary ground movements. Coated Swellex is the corrosion
resistant version. This is a flexible oil-based rubber coating for long-term rock support in
corrosive environments. Coated Swellex is used along with wire-mesh and with wire-mesh and
steel-fiber-armed shotcrete.

Figure 8: Atlas Copco's "Swellex" rock bolt

Corrosion is not a problem with fiber-glass resin rock bolts. (Launched by Swiss company
Wiedermann). These can be truly permanent in corrosive environments. One major advantage
is that the bolts are light to handle and cuttable. These are made from high quality glass fibers
embedded in polyester or epoxy resin.

Fiber content is approximately 70% and rod breaking loads range from 201-380 KN Should be
grouted over the entire length. The hollow core allows the grout to be injected through the bolt.

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Self-Drilling anchor (SDA) is used for unstable ground conditions such as sand, gravel, silt,
and clays and in soft to medium fractured rock formations. These systems are used to stabilize
weak rock and soil in tunneling, mining, and other ground engineering applications.

When drilling in collapsing soil or loose or decomposed rock, a sacrificial drill bit and hollow
rod are used. After the drilling is done, cementitious or resin grout is injected into the hollow
rod and the surrounding cavity.

Figure 9: Self-Drilling anchor (SDA)

Cable Bolts:

Cable bolts are more widely used for two reasons.

i. Larger excavations often require more support than a single bolt can provide. In a 4-m
high drift a 2.4-m long rock bolt is about the longest that can be practically inserted.
ii. Availability of cable-bolting equipment has made cable handling practicable. Cable
bolt is also widely used in production.

Factors affecting choosing the correct rock bolt

i. Size of excavation to be supported.

The length of the rock bolt necessary to support an opening is generally proportional to
the span of the excavation.
ii. Period for which support is required.
Unprotected high tensile or other rock bolts will last up to 5 years in dry conditions but
in wet acid conditions may last only for a few months. Corrosion resistance may be
achieved by fully grouting the bolt.
iii. The strength of the rock is a major factor in selecting the type of rock bolt. In weak
leached ground only fully anchored corrugated rock bolts are suitable. In broken blocky
country, any of the tensioned rock bolts provide adequate support.
iv. Pressure expected:

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 If the period is short, the area may be rock bolted, but if long, some form of set may be
used,
v. Depth of anchorage necessary.
This is dictated by the rock competency and the size of the opening.
vi. Rock bolt length and spacing:

Advantages of Using Rock Bolts

i. Rock bolting applies a restraining force to the rock soon after installation.
ii. A large amount of flexibility is that different rock bolt types and patterns are available
to provide support in a great variety of situations.
iii. Rock bolting is normally cheaper than installing sets.
iv. In many cases rock bolting can proceed with other mining operations, causing only
minor disruptions to the cycle.
v. Rock bolting takes up little of the drive space.
vi. Rock bolts can be used in any shape drive without necessitating stripping.
vii. Rock bolts bare not a fire risk.

Disadvantages of Using Rock Bolts

i. Rock bolts suitable for supporting wide spans must be impractically long.
ii. Give little indication of impending ground failure.

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Timber as Temporary Support

Figure 10: Different type of Timber Supports

Timber sets as shown in Fig:10 consist of cross beams and posts. A timber frame is used mainly
to support the roof, sometimes the sides and the floor of the mine drive. The simplest timber
set consists of a cross bar cap, or header supported by two upright posts.

Wooden supports are used for a limited period of service and at insignificant rock pressures.
The service life may extend from a few months to few years.

Rigid Steel Set/Frame Supports

Rib

Crown Bar

Figure 11: Crown bar

Figure 12:Rib-and-Post-type supports

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 Figure 13: Steel arch supports

1. "W" Strap or Sheet Lagging 6. Collar Brace

2. Crown Joint 7. Steel Post
3. Steel Rib 8. Butt Joint
4. Blocking Piece 9. Rib and Post Support
5. Tie Rod 10. Foot Plate

Ref.Fig.13, Arched steel support is made of I-beams or used mine rails and also of specially
shaped beams. The support consists of two semi-arches I the upper ends of which are usually
joined by means of connecting straps and bolts.

When the floor is week, the lower ends of the semi- arches, which are provided with metal
shoes, rest on wooden sills half-buried in the ground. When the floor is strong, metal bearing
plates are welded to the lower ends of the semi-arches and these are inserted directly into the
hitches. The upper ends of the semi-arches are connected by means of cast shaped straps or
bolts. The arched-shape steel used in a tunnel is shown in Fig.13.Steel lagging is used along
with back filling of voids.

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Some of the disadvantages of rigid support are that:

i. They do not fit well. Therefore, considerable lagging and packing are often required.
ii. Sets constitute obstructions to air flow, production drilling and trackless equipment.
iii. Sets can be knocked out easily by trackless equipment with possible ground collapse.
iv. Where rigid sets fail, they provide no further support and have to be replaced.

Yieldable Steel Arched Supports

Yieldable arched supports incorporate a sliding friction assembly or special fluted shape to
accommodate heavy pressures and this delay damage and distortion of the support. Yieldable
arches are used under severs conditions where extensive movement occurs because of the
presence of faulted ground. Where the ground load exceeds the design load, yielding occurs at
overlapping joint. As this occurs, the joint overlap decreases gradually and, the radius of arch
segments is reduced. The strength of the arch is increased as it yields and the ground settles
into a natural contour bringing forces into equilibrium.

Figure 14: Yieldable steel arched supports

Yieldable arches are used most in ring and semi-circular shape and consist of various section
sizes. Fig.14 consists of three segments. The end of top segment 1 enters telescopically side
segments 2 and the joint is tightened with clamps 3 by means of bolts and nuts. To prevent
their penetration into the floor the bottom ends of the support are provided with grips or bearing
steel shoes 4, with the aid of which they are set up on wooden sills.

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To provide rigidity in a lateral direction, sheets made of steel channels or rods are used. Lagging
and back-filling are necessary.

Advantages of Yielding Arch Sets:

i. The arch gets stronger as it yields because of the length of the set exposed to the ground
pressure becomes smaller.
ii. The yielding action allows the built-up stresses relieve themselves.
iii. The sliding arches adjust themselves.until all of them carry nearly equal loads and fail
in the order in which they are excessively loaded.
iv. Because of the inter-locking spreaders between arches, the yielding of any arch results
in a uniform yield of its neighbor because it exerts equal forces on these arches through
these spreaders. Uniform yielding is also promoted by using suitable lagging.

Disadvantages:

i. They are expensive,

ii. They are heavy to handle and require skilled installation crews.
iii. They require maintenance

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Concrete Support:

This can be monolithic (cast-in-situ) or pre-fabricated.

Monolithic concrete is cast on, or poured in place; it is mainly for workings which are subjected
to non-uniform or high rock pressures and for shaft-lining and also for sustaining shaft stations
or service rooms, crusher stations, pump sumps, slushier drifts and ore passes. Reinforcement
material is steel bars or mesh.

Pre-fabricated reinforced concrete support enjoys ever increasing popularity.

Rigid member joints-for workings driven outside the zone of influence of stoping operations
(shaft stations, cross cuts etc.)

Articulated member joints -for openings not affected by stoping operations, but exposed to
non-uniform ground pressure which brings about critical stresses in rigid mine support and is
readily withstood by a support possessing some degree of transverse mobility.

Flexible member joints -for openings within the zone of influence of stoping operations;

Pre-fabricated reinforced concrete support is made in frame sets assembled of reinforced

concrete tubular posts or of special structural members.

Figure 15 Figure 16

Fig.15 shows a prefabricated reinforced concrete support of a trapezoidal frame set consisting
of two reinforced -concrete posts, a solid reinforced concrete head piece with cantilevers, and
two square pieces of timber placed between the posts and the head pieces. Reinforced concrete
lagging slabs are laid between the head pieces and the back.

Fig.16 shows respectively ribbed, flat with ordinary reinforcement and slabs with pre-stressed
reinforcement.

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Shotcrete

Shotcrete is often defined to include indiscriminately pneumatically applied mortar and

concrete. It is a spray concrete that has been developed to become an effective ground support
method in tunnels and other underground excavations. It is a concrete with maximum aggregate
of 20 mm which is pneumatically projected at high velocity onto the rock surface. The material
is compacted without sagging or sloughing. Shotcrete can be applied in layers of 100 to 150
mm thick in one pass.It also plays the role of a seal.

Compressive strength afforded by shotcrete lining is high, giving also a fairly good flexural-
tensile strength. From 75 to 80% of the 28-day strength is reached in 48 hours.

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