Introduction

Ttranslation typically has been used to change written or spoken Second language
texts to equivalent written or spoken Target language texts. In general, the purpose of
translation is to reproduce various kinds of text including religious, literary, scientific, and
philosophical text in another language and making them available to wider readers.

If language were just a classification for a set of general or universal concepts. It would
be easy to translate from Source language to Target Language. Furthermore, under the
process of learning second language would be much easy. One of the problems of translation
is the disparity among languages.

The difference between a Source Language and Target Language. The variation in
their cultures make the process of translating a real challenge. Among the problematic factors
involved in translation such as form, meaning, style, proverbs, idioms, etc. the present paper
is going to focus on mainly on the procedures of translating in general and on the strategies of
rendering allusions in particular. Translating culture specific concepts in general and
allusions in particular seem to be one of the most challenging tasks to be performed by a
translator. In other words, allusions are potential problems of the translation process due to
the fact that allusions have particular connotations and implications in the source language
(Source Language) and the foreign culture but not necessarily in the Target Language and the
domestic culture. There are some procedures and strategies for rendering and allusions
respectively. I would like to share my summary of collecting my monograph I discussed
about (Translation strategies, procedures and method). I gathered a plenty of information
about this target language, I went to many places for finding fundamental information. They
were enough for me Eventually; I took very relevant information.

The problem that is encounter in all parts of country are libraries. We have variety
places but they are not good for me to use from them. Therefore, this problem would not have
been allowed me to find great information. Allah helps me that I found the information of my
monograph. The present paper aims to discuss about translation whether there exists any
point of similarity between these procedures and strategies and to identify which of these
procedures and strategies seem to be more effective than the others.

1
Translation procedures, strategies and methods
Translation typically has been used to transfer written or spoken Source Language
texts to equivalent written or spoken Target language texts. The purpose of translation is to
reproduce various kinds of texts including religious, literary, scientific and philosophical
texts in another language and thus making them available to wider readers. If language were
just a classification for a set of general or universal concepts. It would be easy to translate
from a Source language to a Target Language. Furthermore, under the circumstances the
process of learning a second language would be much easier than it actually is. In this regard,
Culler believed that languages are not nomenclatures and the concepts of one language may
different from those of another. Since each language articulates or organizes the world
different Target language and languages do not simply name categories. They articulate their
own (pp.21-2).

As we said, the choice of a particular technique during the process of translation

primarily depends on the language pair. In addition, the area of expertise and the specific
issue the translator is facing during a particular process of translation may determine the
choice of a certain technique.

The translating procedures as suggested by Nida are as follow:

Technical procedures

A. Analysis of the source and target languages.

B. Thorough study of the source language text before making attempts translate
it.
C. Making judgments of the semantic and syntactic approximations.

Organizational Procedure

Constant reevaluation of the attempt made contrasting with the existing available
translations of the same text done by other translators and checking the text's communicative
effectiveness by asking the target language readers to evaluate the accuracy and effectiveness
and studying their reactions (Kring, 2003, p.246).

Seguinot (1989) suggested that “there are at least three global strategies employed by
the translators. Translating without interruption for as long as possible, correcting surface
1
errors immediately and leaving the monitoring for qualitative or stylistic errors in the text to
the revision stage (P.34).

Moreover, Loescher defines translation strategy as a potentially conscious procedure

for solving a problem faced in translating a text or any segment. As it is stated in this
definition. The notion of consciousness is significant in distinguishing strategies which are
used by the learners or translators. In this regard, Cohen asserts that element of consciousness
is what distinguishes strategies from these processes that are not strategic. Furthermore,
differences between global (those dealing with whole texts) and local (those dealing with text
segments) strategies and confirms that this distinction results from various kinds of
translation problems.

Translation strategies involve the basic tasks of choosing the foreign text to be translated
and developing a method to translate it. The concepts of domesticating and foreign zing to
refer to translation strategies. A series of competencies, a set of steps or processes that favor
the acquisition, storage, and utilization of information. That strategies are heuristic and
flexible in nature. (Newmark, 2005, p. 71)

Taking into account the process and product of translation. Strategies divides into two
major categories. Some strategies relate to what happens to texts while other strategies relate
to what happens in the process. Product related strategies. As involves the basic tasks of
choosing the SL text and developing a method to translate it. However, that process related
strategies are a set of loosely formulated rules or principles which a translator uses to reach
the goals determined by the translating situation. Moreover, this into two types. Namely
global strategies and local strategies.

Global strategies refer to general principles and modes of action and local strategies
refer to specific activities in relation to the translator's problem-solving and decision making.
The difference between translation methods and translation procedures that while translation
methods relate to whole texts. Translation procedures are used for sentences and the smaller
units of language. (As cited Newmark, 2005, p.16).

Refer to the following methods of translation:

Word for word translation

2
The source Language word order is preserved and the words translated singly by their most
common meanings.

Literal translation

 The grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest equivalents but the
lexical words are again translated singly.

Faithful translation

It attempts to produce the precise contextual meaning of the original within the constraints of
the grammatical structures.

Semantic translation

It is differs from faithful translation only it must take more account of the aesthetic value of
the Source language text.

Adaptation

It is the freest form of translation and is used mainly for plays comedies and poetry, the
themes, characters, plots are usually preserved, the SL culture is converted to the culture and
the text is rewritten.

Free translation

It produces the target language text without the style, form, or content of the original.

Idiomatic translation

It reproduces the 'message' of the original but tends to distort nuances of meaning by
preferring colloquialisms and idioms where these do not exist in the original.

Communicative translation

It attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both
content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership.

3
 A continuum existing between semantic and communicative translation. Any
translation can be more or less semantic more or less communicative even a particular section
or sentence can be treated more communicatively or less semantically. Both seek an
equivalent effect. Translation to free translation writes that China it is agreed by many that
one should translate

Literally if possible or appeal to free translation. In order to clarify the distinction between
procedure and strategy. (Zhongying, 1994, p.97).

Procedures of translating culture specific concepts

There are some procedures of translating:

1. Making up a new word.

2. Explaining the meaning of the SL expression in lieu of translating it.
3. Preserving the SL term.
4. Opting for a word in the target language which seems similar to or has the same
"relevance" as the SL term.

Culler (1976) have explained, “Defining culture bound terms as the terms which refer
to concepts, institutions and personnel which are specific to the Source Language culture.
(P.2).

Puts forward the following four major techniques for translating:

Functional Equivalence

It means using a referent in the target language culture whose function is similar to that of
the source language referent. Authors are divided over the merits of this technique. It is ideal
method of translation. While asserts that it is misleading and should be avoided.

Formal Equivalence or linguistic equivalence

It means a word for word translation.

4
Transcription or borrowing

Reproducing or where necessary transliterating the original term. It stands at the far end
of Source Language strategies. If the term is formally transparent or is explained in the
context. It may be used alone. In other cases, particularly where no knowledge of the Source
Language by the reader is presumed. Transcription is accompanied by an explanation or a
translator's note.

Descriptive or self- explanatory translation

It uses generic terms not to convey the meaning. It is appropriate in a wide variety of
contexts where formal equivalence is considered unclear. In a text aimed at a specialized
reader. It can be helpful to add the original Source Language term to avoid ambiguity.

The following are the different translation procedures that Newmark

proposes:

 Transference: It is the process of transferring an SL word to a target language text.

It includes transliteration.
 Naturalization: it chooses the SL word first to the normal pronunciation then to
the normal morphology of the target language.
 Cultural equivalent: it means that replacing a cultural word in the Source
Language with a target language one. However they are not accurate.
 Functional equivalent: it requires the use of a culture neutral word.
 Descriptive equivalent: in this procedure the meaning of the is explained in
several words.
 Componential analysis: it means that comparing a Source Language word with a
target language word which has a similar meaning but it is not an obvious one to one
equivalent by demonstrating first their common and then their differing sense
components.
 Synonymy: it is a near target language equivalent. Here economy trumps accuracy.

5
  Through translation: it is the literal translation of common collocations names of
organizations and components of compounds. It can also be called: calque or loan
translation.
 Shifts or transpositions: It involves a change in the grammar from Source
Language to target language, for instance. Change from singular to plural, the change
required when a specific SL structure does not exist in the target language, change of
an Source Language verb to a target language word, change of an SL noun group to a
target language noun.

 Modulation: It occurs when the translator reproduces the message of the original
text in the Target Language text in conformity with the current norms of the target
language.
 Recognized translation: It occurs when the translator normally uses the official
or the generally accepted translation of any institutional term.

 Compensation: It occurs when loss of meaning in one part of a sentence is

compensated in another part.
 Paraphrase: In this procedure the meaning is explained. Here the explanation is
much more detailed than that of descriptive equivalent.
 Couplets: It occurs when the translator combines two different procedures.
 Notes: Notes are additional information in a translation.

A really troublesome area in the field of translation appears to be the occurrence

of allusions which seem to be culture specific portions of a SL. All kinds of allusions,
especially cultural and historical allusions, a specific density on the original language
and need to be explicated in the translation to bring forth the richness of the SL text
for the target language audience. (Newmark, 2005, p.4).

6
Strategies of translating allusions

Proper names which are defined as the names of a particular person, place or thing and
are spelled with a capital letter. Play an essential role in a literary work. For instance let us
consider personal PNs. They may refer to the setting, social status and nationality of
characters and really demand attention when rendered into a foreign language.

There are some models for rendering in translations. One of these models is there are
exist two strategies for translating PNs. either the name can be taken over unchanged from th
to the TT or it can be adopted to conform to the phonic/graphic conventions of the target
language (Hervey & Higgins, 1992, p.29).

Refer to the past as egotism which is tantamount to literal translation and involves no cultural
transposition. The latter as transliteration. However, they propose another procedure or

Alternative as they put it. Namely cultural transplantation. Being considered as the extreme
degree of cultural transposition. Cultural transplantation is considered to be a procedure in.

Which SL names are replaced by indigenous Target Language names which are not their
literal equivalents but have similar cultural connotations

The procedure of transference cannot be asserted to be effective where connotations and

implied meanings are significant. Indeed, there are some names in which bear connotations
and require a specific strategy for being translated. Solution of the mentioned problem is as
follows:

First translate the word that underlies the proper name into the target language and then
naturalize the translated word back into a new Source Language proper name. However, there
is a shortcoming in the strategy in question. As it seems it is only useful for personal PNs
since as ignoring the right of not educated readers to enjoy a translated text states it can be
utilized when the character's name is not yet current amongst an educated target language
readership. (Hervey & Higgins, 1986, P.29).

Leppihalme (1997) proposed another set of strategies for translating the proper name
allusions. (p.6).

 Retention of the name

7
 o Using the name as such.
o Using the name, adding some guidance.
o Using the name, adding a detailed explanation, for instance and a footnote.

 Replacement of the name by another

o Replacing the name by another Source Language name.
o Replacing the name by a target language name.

 Omission of the name:

o Omitting the name, but transferring the sense by other means, for instance by a
common noun.
o Omitting the name and the allusion together.

Moreover, nine strategies for the translation of key phrase allusions are proposed by
Leppihalme as follows:

 Use of a standard translation.

 Minimum change that is a literal translation without regard to connotative or
contextual meaning.
 Extra allusive guidance added in the text.
 The use of footnotes, endnotes, translator's notes and other explicit explanations not
supplied in the text but explicit Target language given as additional information.
 Stimulated familiarity or internal marking that is the addition of intra-allusive allusion
 Replacement by a target language item.
 Reduction of the allusion to sense by rephrasing.
 Recreation, using a fusion of techniques: creative construction of a passage which
hints at the connotations of the allusion or other special effects created by it.
 Omission of the allusion.

Translation Strategies
Translation strategy as translator’s potentially conscious plans for solving translation
problems in the terms of a concrete translation task.
There are at least three global strategies employed by translators:
(I) Translating without interruption for as long as possible.

8
 (II) Correcting surface errors immediately.
(III) Leaving the monitoring for qualitative or stylistic errors in the text to the
revision stage.
The notion of consciousness is significant in distinguishing strategies which are used by the
learners or translators.
The element of consciousness is what distinguishes strategies from these processes that are
not strategic.

Translation method
According to Newmark (2005) suggested, “Translation methods relate to whole texts,
translation procedures are used for sentences and the smaller units of language,” (p.8)
Communicates the same message in another language that prefer to talk of the ambit of
translation.

Short and simple definition from point of view Hatim and Munday
The process of transferring a written text from source language to target language. It
conducted by a translator or translators in a specific socio cultural context. The written
product or target text which results from that process and which functions in the sociocultural
context of the target language.

Translation consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural

equivalent of the source language message. First, in terms of meaning and secondly in terms
of style. Likewise, translation involves the transfer of meaning from a text in one language
into a text in another language. Finally, translation is a two edged instrument. It has special
purpose of demonstrating the learner's knowledge of the foreign language.

From those four definitions. It can be concluded that translation is the process of
transferring a written text from a source language into a target language by using thought and
ideas. Reproducing the closest natural equivalent of the source language in terms of meaning
and style then transforming a written source language which has the special purpose of
demonstrating the learner's knowledge of the foreign language. (Nida, 1964, P. 83).

9
Translation Strategies in many terms
Larson divides two kinds of translation. Literal translation and idiomatic translation. If
you’re interested in translation or even if you has done wonderful work in these two books on
Pablo Neruda and Paul Celan. He writes brilliantly about translation, which is very difficult
to do. In both of these books he deals with very complex poets.

Translating Neruda is kind of a diary of the practice of translation, and it’s very
theoretical which makes me happy. It’s extremely practical in terms of what the challenges
were in the original, and how he went about solving those challenges in his translations. The
first chapter especially is an entire course on translation. It’s just brilliant. It’s a book not only
about translating, but about Neruda’s poetry and by extension about Neruda himself.

Literal translation
Literal translation is known as form based translation. It is a kind of translation that
emphasizes on form. It just changes the form of the source language into the target language.
This kind of translation does not communicate all of the messages contained in the source
language in the target language. Sometimes it does not work so, that it may make reader get
difficulty to catch the message delivered.

Idiomatic translation
Idiomatic translation is also known as meaning based translation. It gives emphasis on
meaning. It uses the natural form of the source language to communicate all of the
messages contained in the source language. Both in grammatical and the choice of lexical
items. Those two kinds of translations are the crystallization of a continuum in translation
that starts from very literal, to modified literal, near idiomatic, idiomatic and then may even
move to unduly free. (Larson, 1984, p.67)

10
Translation Procedures
Vinay and Darlbelnet are the first in translation procedure. They present the
procedures as a description of the ways open to the translator in the translation process.
Nevertheless, the procedures as they are presented, do not refer to the process followed by
the translator but to the final result. This theory also goes to translation technique.

Venuti L (1998) defined, “translation techniques as procedures to analyze and classify

how translation equivalence works. It affects only the micro unit of text and the result of the
translation. From these explanations. It is clear that translation procedure and translation
technique refer to the same idea”. (P.43).

Vinay and Dalbernet introduce several procedures in translation which are divided into
two strategies. Direct and oblique translation. Direct or literal translation is used when a
source language message can be transferred Target language into a target language message.

This strategy consists of three procedures:

Borrowing
Borrowing is the simplest of all translation procedures. We can say that this task refers to
a case where a word or an expression is taken from the source language and used in the target

Language but it in a naturalized form that is it is made to conform the rules of grammar or
pronunciation of the target language.

Borrowing in translation is not always justified by lexical gap in the target language but
it can mainly be used as a way to preserve the local color of the word or be used for fear from
losing some of the semiotic aspects and cultural aspects of the word if it is translated. For
examples borrowing with no change in form and meaning pure loanwords.

Email email

Dollar dollar

11
Internet internet

Calque
A calque is a special kind of borrowing where a language borrows an expression from
another but then translates literally each of its elements. Calque where the source
language expression is literally transferred to the target language such as pen name, is
translated into Indonesian as Nama Pena. Pen means Pena and name means Nama.

Transposition
Transposition is a change of sequence of parts of speech with another without changing
the meaning of the message. The change of sequence also can be followed by the change
of word class. The change from singular to plural and others. This change can occur because
the source language and the target language have the different grammatical structure for
example big house is translated into rumah besar in Indonesian.

Modulation
Modulation is a variation of the form of the message it obtained by a change in the point
of view. This change can be justified when a literal or even transposed. Translation results in
a grammatically correct utterance. It is considered unsuitable, unidiomatic or awkward in the
target language. To make it natural, modulation needs to apply as bellow:

It isn’t expensive harganya murah.

It is not possible to do ini mustahil.

Equivalence
Vinay and Dalbernet use this term to refer to the cases where languages describe the
same situation by the different stylistic or structural means. The classical example of
equivalence is given by a reaction of an amateur who accidentally hits his finger with
hammer. If he were a French. His cry of pain would be transcribed but he is an English and
the expression would be interpreted as ouch and if he were an Indonesian. He would say
aduh. Another striking case of equivalences are the many onomatopoeias of animal sounds
for example:

Miaou (English) meong (Indonesian)

Groaarr (English) auumm (Indonesian)

12
Adaptation
With last procedure. We reach limit of translation. It is used in those cases where the
type of situation being referred to by the source language’s message is unknown in the target
language culture. Adaptation can be described as a special kind of equivalence, a situational
equivalence. Cultural equivalent is transferring a source language cultural word into target
language cultural word. In this procedure. The situation to which the message refers does not
exist in the target language and must be created by reference to a new situation which has
quite similar concept. This procedure is usually applied in the translation of book and film’s
Target languages for example kung Fu in Chinese is translated into silt in Indonesian. (Bell,
1998, p.25).

Translation Techniques of adjustment

Nida proposes three types: additions, subtractions and alterations.

They are used:

1. To adjust the form of the message to the characteristics of the structure of the target
language.
2. To produce semantically equivalent structures.
3. To generate appropriate stylistic equivalences.
4. To produce an equivalent communicative effect.

Additions
Several of the procedures are included in this category. Nida lists different
circumstances that might oblige a translator to make an addition. To clarify an elliptic

Expression, to avoid ambiguity in the target language, to change a grammatical category this
corresponds to transposition, to amplify implicit elements this corresponds to exploitation, to
add connectors this corresponds to s articulation required by characteristics of the TARGET
LANGUAGE, etc. Examples are as follows.

When translating from St Paul’s Epis Target languages. It is appropriate to add the
verb write in several places even though, it is not in the source text. A literal translation of
they tell

Him of her. Mazatec would have to be amplified to the people there told Jesus about the
woman. Otherwise, as this language makes no distinctions of number and gender of
pronominal affixes it could have thirty six different interpretations.
13
He went up to Jerusalem. There he taught the people some languages require the equivalent.
He went up to Jerusalem. Having arrived there, he taught the people.

Subtractions
Nida lists four situations where the translator should use this procedure in addition to
when it is required by the target language unnecessary repetition, specified refer fences,
conjunctions and adverbs. For example: the name of God appears thirty two times in the
thirty one verses of Genesis. Nida suggests using pronouns or omitting God.

Alterations
These changes have to be made because of incompatibilities between the two languages.
There are three main types.

1) Changes due to problems caused by transliteration when a new word is introduced

from the source language. E.g. the transliteration of Messiah in the Loma language
means death’s hand. So, it was altered to Masaya.

2) Changes due to structural differences between the two languages. E.g. changes in
word order, grammatical categories, etc.

3) Changes due to semantic misfits, especially with idiomatic expressions. One of the
suggestions to solve this kind of problem is the use of a descriptive equivalent i.e. a
satisfactory equivalent for objects events or attributes that do not have a standard term in the
target language. It is used for objects that are unknown in the target culture e.g. in Maya the
house where the law was read for Synagogue and for actions that do not have a lexical
equivalent (e.g., in May desire what another man has for covetousness etc.

Nida includes footnotes as another adjustment technique and points out that they have two
main functions:

To correct linguistic and cultural differences e.g. to explain contradictory customs, to

identify unknown geographical or physical items, to give equivalents for weights and
measures, to explain word play, to add information about proper names, etc.

2) To add additional information about the historical and cultural context of the text in
question. (Culler, 1976, p.90).

Various strategies opted for by translators in rendering allusions seem to play a crucial
role in recognition and perception of connotations carried by them. If a novice translator
14
renders a literary text without paying adequate attention to the allusions. The connotations are
likely not to be transferred as a result of the translator's failure to acknowledge them. They
will be entirely lost to the majority of the readers and the translation will be ineffective.

It seems necessary for an acceptable translation to produce the same or at least similar
effects on the readers as those created by the original work on its readers. This paper may
show that a translator does not appear to be successful in his challenging task of efficient
target language rendering and when he sacrifices or at least minimizes, the effect of allusions
in

Favor of preserving graphical or lexical forms of source language. In other words, a

competent translator is well advised not to deprive the target language reader of enjoying, or
even recognizing, the allusions either in the name of fidelity or brevity. (Dryden, 2008, P.2)

The essential differences

Margot presents three criteria that is used to set the cultural adaptation. He refers to them
as the essential differences.

Items that are unknown by the target culture. He suggests adding a classifier next to the
word as Nida does. E.g. The city of Jerusalem or by using a cultural equivalent similar
to the SCFA procedure of adaptation.

Teaberry Nida list five factors that have to be taken into account when it is used:

A) The symbolic and theological importance of the item in question.

B) Its frequency of use in the Bible.

C) Its semantic relationship with other words.

D) Similarities of function and form between the two items.

E) The reader’s emotional response.

2) The historical framework. Here Margot proposes a linguistic rather than a cultural
translation.

3) Adaptation to the specific situation of the target audience. Margot maintains that the
translator’s task is to translate and that it is up to preachers, commentarists and Bible study

15
groups to select the biblical text to the specific situation of the target audience. He includes
footnotes as an aid to cultural adaptation.

16
The explicative paraphrase
Nida Taber and Margot decide in distinguishing between legitimate and illegitimate
paraphrasing. The legitimate paraphrase is a lexical change which makes the longer than the
ST but does not change the meaning. The illegitimate paraphrase makes ST items explicit in
the Target language. Nida Taber and Margot agree this is not the translator’s job. It may
introduce subjectivity.

The concept of redundancy

According to Seguinot (1979) showed,” redundancy tries to achieve symmetry
between readers and readers. This is done either by adding information. Those are
grammatical, syntactic and stylistic elements, etc. when differences between the two
languages and cultures make a similar reception impossible for the readers or by suppressing
information when Source elements are redundant for the readers. E.g. The Hebrew
expression, answering. He said that is redundant in some other languages. This procedure is
very close to implication and exploitation.”(p.74)

The concept of naturalization

This concept was introduced by Nida after using the term natural to define dynamic
equivalence. Nida suggests that naturalization can be achieved by taking into account:

1) The source language and culture understood as a whole.

2) The cultural context of the message.

3) The target audience. This procedure is very close to adaptation.

The other categories Delisle introduces are:

• Addition vs. Omission: He defines them as unjustified paraphrases and concision and
consider to translate as errors. Addition introduces unjustified stylistic elements and
information. Omission is the unjustifiable suppression of elements.

• Paraphrase. This is defined as excessive use of paraphrase that complicates the without
stylistic or rhetorical justification. It is also classified as a translation error.
• Discursive creation. This is an operation in the cognitive process of translating by
which a non-lexical equivalence is established that only works in context. E.g. in the

17
world of literature the ideas become easy and the experience of others can be usefully.
(Kring, 2003, p.42)

Critical review of translation techniques

As we have seen. So, there is no general agreement about this instrument of analysis
and there is confusion about terminology, concepts and classification. The most serious
confusions are the following.

Terminological confusion and over lapping terms

Terminological diversity and overlapping of terms make it difficult to use these
terms and understood. The same concept is expressed with different names and
the classifications vary and covering different areas of problems. In one classification one
term may over-lap another term in a different system of classification. The category itself
is given different names. For example, Delisle uses procedure and translation strategy etc.

The confusion between translation process and translation result

This confusion was established by Vinay Darbelnet’s pioneer proposal. When they
presented the procedures description of the ways open to the translator in the translation
process. Nevertheless, the procedures as they are presented. Do not refer to the process
followed by the translator but the final result. The confusion has persisted and translation
techniques have been confused with other translation categories.
In some of the proposals there is a conceptual confusion between techniques and
translation method. Vinay Darbelnet introduced the confusion by dividing the procedures
following the traditional methodological between literal and free translation. As they worked
with too many units. They did not distinguish between categories that affect the whole text
and categories that rear to small units. Furthermore, the Target language of their book caused
even more confusion. In our opinion. A distinction should made between translation methods
that is part of the process. A global choice that affects the whole translation and translation.
Techniques that describe the result and affect smaller sections of the translation.

(Hervey, S., & Higgins, I. 1992, P.20).

18
The confusion between issues related to language pairs and text pairs
Vinay Darbelnet’s original proposal help to a confusion between language problems and
text problems. Their work was based on comparative linguistics and all the examples used to
illustrate their procedure. In addition, they gave a single translation for each linguistic item.
The result was pair’s equivalences. This direct to a confusion between comparative linguistic
phenomena and phenomena related to translating texts.

The use of translation techniques following approach is locked to the classification of

differences between language systems but not the textual solutions needed for translation. For
example. Borrowing, transposition and inversion.

(Larson, 1984, P.74)

A definition of translation techniques

Translation techniques shows the way a particular translation process is carried out in
terms of the translator’s objective for example: a global option that affects the whole text.
There are several translation methods that may be chosen. It depends on the aim of the
translation, interpretative communicative, translation of the sense, literal linguistic ran’s
codification, free modification of semiotic and communicative cat ego rise and philological
academic or critical translation.

Our proposal is based on two premises:

1) The need to distinguish between method, strategy and technique.

2) The need for a dynamic and functional concept of translation techniques.

The need to distinguish between method, strategy and technique.

We think that translation method, strategies and techniques are essentially different
categories.

Translation method and translation techniques

Each solution the translator chooses when translating a text responds to the global
option that affects the whole text and depends on the aim of the translation. The translation
method affects the way micro-units of the text are translated. The translation techniques.

19
Thus, we should distinguish between the methods chosen by the translator, e.g. literal or
adaptation that affects the whole text, and the translation techniques, e.g., literal translation or
adaptation, that affect micro-units of the text.

Logically, method and functions should function strongly in the text. For example, if
the aim of a translation method is to produce a foreign sing version then borrowing will be
one of the most frequent Target language used translation techniques. Cf. this has been shown
in Molina where she analyses the three translations into Arabic of Garcia Marquez’s A
Hundred Years of Solitude. Each translation had selected a different translation method and
the techniques were studied in relation to the method chosen. (Leppihalme, 1997, p. 32)

20
Conscious and unconscious method in Translation
Whatever method is chosen, the translator may face with problems in the translation
process because of, a particularly difficult unit or there may be a gap in the translator’s
knowledge or skills. When translation strategies are activated. Strategies are the procedures
conscious or unconscious, verbal or non-verbal used by the translator to solve problems that
emerge. When carry the translation process with a particular objective in mind. Translators
use strategies for comprehension e.g. Distinguish main and secondary ideas, establish
conceptual relationships, search for information and for reformulation (e.g., paraphrase,
retranslate, say out loud, avoid words that are close to the original). Strategies play an
essential role in problem solving. They are a central part of the sub competencies that make
up translation competence.

Strategies open the way to find a good solution for a translation unit. The solution will
be materialized by using a particular technique. Therefore, strategies and techniques occupy
different places in problem solving. Strategies are part of the process, techniques affect the
result. However, some mechanisms may function both as strategies and as techniques. For
example, paraphrasing can be used to solve problems in the process. This can be a
reformulation strategy and it can be an amplification technique used in a translated text. This
does not mean that paraphrasing as a strategy will necessarily lead to using an amplification
technique.

A dynamic and functional approach to translation techniques

In our opinion, most studies of translation techniques do not seem to fit with the
dynamic nature of translation equivalence. If we are able to the dynamic dimension of
translation. A clear distinction should be made between the definition of a technique and its
evaluation in context. A technique is a result of a choice made by a translator. Its clearly will
depend on various questions related to the context. The purpose of the translation, audience
expectations, etc.

If a technique is evaluated out of context as fitted, unjustified or erroneous. This denies

the functional and dynamic nature of translation. A technique can only be meaningfully when
it is evaluated within a particular context. Therefore, we do not consider it makes sense to
evaluate a technique by using different terminology, two opposing pairs and one correct and
the other incorrect.

21
 Translation techniques are not good or bad in themselves. They are used functionally
and dynamically in terms of:

1) The genre of the text letter of complaint, contract, tourist brochure, etc.

2) The type of translation technical and literary.

3) The mode of written translation, sight translation and consecutive interpreting.

4) The purpose of the translation and the characteristics of the translation audience.

5) The method chosen as interpretative, communicative, etc.

A proposal to classify translation techniques

Our classification of translation techniques is based on the following criteria:

1) To isolate the concept of technique from other related notions translation strategy,
method and error.

2) To include only procedures that are characteristic of the translation of texts and not
those related to the comparison of languages.

3) To maintain the notion that translation techniques are functional. Our definitions do
not evaluate whether a technique is appropriate or correct, as this always depends on
its
situation in text and context and the translation method that has been chosen.

4) In relation to the terminology, to maintain the most commonly used terms.

5) To formulate new techniques to explain mechanisms that have not yet been described.

(Newmark, 2005, p.90)

Nonliterary text in modern translation

Nonliterary and literary texts have two distinct genres or text types. It may be
differentiated in the sense that non-literary texts refer to a specific class of texts characteristic
of a given scientific community or professional group with certain features of vocabulary
form and style. Which are all function-specific and conventional in nature. A more detailed
analysis of the literature related to non-literary text. So, it is called communicative pragmatic
turn in linguistic studies at the outset of the 1990s started to propose the idea of text being

22
conceived as text injunction. Text in situation and as a socio communicative functional unit.
Therefore, the term non-literary slowly began to refer to texts which are meant to inform,
educate, announce, entertain, illustrate, instruct, present, argue, explain, teach, refer, denote,
communicate and etc.

The Applicability of Existing Solutions in Non Literary Translation

As a result, especially during the last two decades. The problems investigated within
related linguistic disciplines have been transferred into the field of translation studies in order
to provide new ideas concerning those same problems but from the point of view of
translation within a discipline of its own.

In brief, one of the most important steps forward within the discipline that both in theory
and in practice. It is the recognition of the fact that the translation of literary and nonliterary
texts have to be investigated separately. Moreover, different methods, techniques and
strategies have to be applied in the investigations of each genre which is why more details,
regarding the translation of non-literary texts in particular will be presented in the following
section.

A general conclusion be at this point is that the translation of non-literary texts may be
based on the following premises. (Venuti, 1998, p.13)

Non-literary translation
It is exist along different lines of discourse and text comparison to literary translation.
This means that a non-literary text has a completely different function, aim and purpose.
Primarily identified as informative and educational. In comparison to that a literary text has
aesthetic and artistic values meant to evoke emotions and to provide a certain level of
entertainment.

Formal criteria
Such as the style, structure and target audience of the non-literary text in the source
language select the style, structure and target audience of the nonliterary text in the target
language. In other words. If a particular text has been written for an audience from a
particular academic or scientific field, it should be assumed that the translation of such text
will be read primarily by a similar audience.

23
The terminology
It used in the translation of a specific non-literary text must be based on the particular register
and terminology that used in the respective area in the source language. For instance, the
translation of a text related to the area of law and regulations will have to be related to the
specific area of law and regulations in the target language.

The way a certain non-literary text

This is perceived in the source language might not necessarily be identical to the way the
corresponding text will perceived in the target language. Given that the study of translation
was formally constituted as an individual discipline only a few decades ago. (Bell, 1998,
p.80).

Methods of Translation
There are four basic theories or methods of translation which have been used by those
who do the works of translating from the original languages.

Literal or Highly Literal

This is where the exact words, word order and syntax are as literally followed and translated
into English. Many of the interlinear such as Berry's Interlinear are examples of this method
of translation. Young's Literal Translation is another example of this method of translation.

Even though these are highly accurate to the Greek. It often times they are difficult to
read in English. For instance reads in John "for God did so love the world, that His Son - the
only begotten. He gave that everyone who believes in him may not perish but may have life
age during”,

Although these are accurate translations due to word order and syntax they are difficult
to read in English. They are best used as tools for those who wish to study the literal English
translation and for those who are more concerned with the structure of the original than the
structure of English. They would be difficult to use in public readings or even daily Bible
reading.

Formal Equivalence, Form Oriented or Modified Literal

24
 This is where the actual words are translated and then adjusted slight Target language
in order and syntax to conform to the target language. This method respects the verbal
inspiration of the Scriptures. It focuses on the form or the very words of the text and
translates them. It is based upon the philosophy that each and every word of the text is
important and carries a meaning of its own which is possible to express in another language.

This method involves a single process whereby the words are direct Target language
translated from the original to the target language. The emphasis is given to translating the
words and the various parts of speech as closely as is possible without distorting the meaning.
This means that nouns are translated as nouns, verbs as verbs, articles as articles, adverbs as
adverbs and adjectives as adjectives. Close attention is given to grammar so that tenses,
moods, numbers and persons are translated as closely as possible.

Functional Equivalence, Context Oriented, Idiomatic and Dynamic

Equivalence
This method of translation departs from the formal equivalence method in two areas:

It is concerned with the thought of the writer as if they knew.

The reaction of the translated message by the person reading. It is based on the
underlying theory that communication takes place and not in word form but in sentence form
or that the sentence is the smallest unit of communication. Although we recognize that the
definition of words must be in their context. This does not mean that words have no meaning
of themselves or do not communicate themselves. Just yell "Fire" real loud in a crowded
place sometime and see if a single word can communicate. Or whisper "Shop" or "Sale" to a
woman and see what happens next.

This method of translation is defended by such men as Eugene A. Nida and Charles
R. Taber in a book Target languages The Theory and Practice of Translation. In contrasting
what they term the "new focus" Dynamic Equivalence and the "old focus" Formal
Equivalence. They write "The new focus...has shifted from the form of the message to the
response of the receptor. Therefore, what one must determine is the response of
the receptor to the translated message. The response must then be compared with the way in
which the original receptors presumably reacted to the message when it was given in its
original setting.
25
In order to achieve this result they go through a three step process which involves:

(1) Analyzing what they think the inspired writer meant.

(2) Transferring the thought to the target language.

(3) Restructuring it to fit what they think the person reading it will understand.

The fundamental difference between Formal Equivalence and Dynamic Equivalence is

that is a word-for-word translation which derives doctrine from God's Word while DE is
a thought translation which allows the translator's doctrine to determine what he thinks the
Word of God should say. Needless to say, we reject the Dynamic Equivalence approach to
translation as being an accurate or valid method of translation. (Nida, 1964, p 33).

Paraphrase or Unduly Free

This method is hardly worthy of being called a method of translation. Since it is not
concerned with the words or sometimes not even the meaning of the original. It is so loose
that it will allow excess words. Whole sentences or even paragraphs inserted into the text
without any justification other than the paraphraser's belief that he is producing a product
which is easier to understand than the Word of God.

Further, some of them include words and thoughts which are vulgar and disrespectful of
the dignity which should befit the Word of God. Such liberties are taken in this method that
even liberal scholars do not recognize this as a valid or accurate method of translation.
Neither should we!

While we recognize that there is a place for paraphrasing and commenting upon the
Scriptures, honesty demands that we call it a commentary or a paraphrase of the Scriptures
rather than trying to pass it off as the Word of God in a more readable or understandable
form.

Some Examples of Various Methods of Translation

In order to understand these methods of translation better. We now present some

examples. Since, very few would regularly read from an interlinear or the result of the highly

26
literal method and since all agree that they are accurate. We will not include them in our
examples. The real debate is between the thought translations and the word translations.

However, since paraphrases are readily available and some people are deceived into
thinking they are obtaining the Word of God by the packaging of such, we shall also give
some examples of these. One of the ways we can determine the translators' method is by
reading the Preface and Introduction of each. (Hervey& Higgins, 1992, p.76).

The Living Bible

Paraphrased by Kenneth Taylor. As the Target language indicates this is a paraphrase

or loose commentary. In the Preface of this book, he writes that "A paraphrase is guided not
only by the translator’s skill in simplifying but also the clarity of his understanding of what
the author meant and by his theology. When the Greek or Hebrew is not clear then the
theology of the translator is his guide, along with his sense of logic.

The New English Bible is another example of the paraphrase method of translation,
even though some may place it in the DE method of translation. C.H. Dodd, who served as
the General Director of this project, admitted this in the introduction, "The line between
translation and paraphrase is a fine one. But we have had recourse to deliberate paraphrase
with great caution, and only in a few passages where without it we could see no way to attain
our aim of making the meaning as clear as it could be made."

He also admits in the Introduction that the method used was different than a word-for-
word translation: "This meant a different theory and practice of translation. Fidelity in
translation was not to mean keeping the general framework of the original intact while
replacing Greek words by English words more or less equivalent." That he followed the
paraphrase method of "thought" or "sentence" translation is further seen in this statement of
the "freedom" of the translator from the Introduction: "...he is free to exploit a wide range of
English words covering a similar area of meaning and association he may hope to carry over
the meaning of the sentence as a whole.

Examples of the Dynamic Equivalence Method

27
 As we pointed our earlier. The goal of those who embrace this method is not to
translate the very words of the original but translate what they think the writer of the
original meant in sentence form and then restructure the result of that process to what they
think the person reading it will be able to understand in his own language. One of the most
notable examples and widely accepted versions in this category.

(1) It mistranslates the Greek word sax in numerous passages as "sinful nature" thus teaching
the false doctrine of original sin or total hereditary depravity.

(2) It tries to eliminate from the inspired text by stating, "The most reliable early manuscripts
and other ancient witnesses do not have.

(3) It teaches faith only or that salvation comes at the point of faith or confession in such
passages.

These are only a few of the areas where it teaches false doctrines and presents them as
God's Word! Even though a great number of our liberal brethren have accepted. It is not an
accurate translation of God's Word and should not be accepted as such!

B. Today's English Version: Most place them in the Dynamic Equivalence method, even
though in places it borders on being in the paraphrase category because of its extreme
looseness and overall irreverence for the Word of God. When it first came out it was called
the two-bit version because it cost 25 cents. Those who read it with discernment quickly
found out it wasn't worth it!

Examples of the Formal Equivalence Method

There are three translations which I believe fall in the category of word for word
translations which are current Target language available today. The first two of these can be
without reservation and reliable translations of the original language to English.

From an examination of the 15 rules Target language to the translators. We can reach
the conclusion that these men were given the responsibility of producing a translation as close
to the original language as possible thus, they employed what we would call the method or
word translation. Notice some of the rules given by Gustavo’s.

28
1. The ordinary Bible read in church.it is commonly called the Bishop's Bible.

4. When a word hath divers significations that to be kept which hath been most commonly
used by most of the ancient fathers.

6. No marginal notes at all to be affixed but only for the explanation of the Hebrew or Greek
words which cannot without some circumlocution. So, briefly and Target language expressed.

(Zhongying, 1994, p. 9).

Principles of Translation

There are several factors which influence those who translate from the original
languages of the Bible: Attitude toward inspiration, Character, Doctrinal Bias and the
Number of People Involved in the translation process. Since these factors often effect the
result of their work. We need to look at the translator's philosophy and beliefs concerning the
Word of God. This is sometimes called principles of translation or philosophy of translation.

The Translator's Concept of Inspiration

Does he believe in the Verbal Plenary Inspiration Scriptures that every word is God
breathed? Does he believe that God gave the appose Target language and other inspired
writers the thoughts and allowed them the liberty to select their own words? Does He believe
that the Scriptures are complete and that revelation has ended or does he believe that the Holy
Spirit is still revealing new truths which are not found in the Bible? Does he believe that
every word is inspired and therefore, every word of the text is God's Word or that just some
of the words are inspired and some are the words of man? Many times we can find the
attitude of the translators expressed in the Preface and Introduction of these versions. We
should beware of all that do not express a firm belief in every word being God's Inspired
Word. (Kring, 2003, p.67).

29
30
 Conclusion
Various strategies are selected by translators in rendering allusions seem to play a
crucial role in recognition and perception of connotations carried by them. If a novice
translator renders a literary text without paying adequate attention to the allusions, the
connotations are likely not to be transferred as a result of the translator's failure to
acknowledge them. They will be entirely lost to the majority of the Target Language readers;
consequence target language, the translation will be ineffective.
It seems necessary for an acceptable translation to produce the same or at least similar
effects on the readers as those created by the original work for the readers. This paper may
show that a translator does not appear to be successful in his challenging task of efficient
Target language or at least minimizes. The effect of allusions in favor of preserving graphical
or lexical forms of source language. In other words, a competent translator is well-advised
not to deprive.

In conclusion, It can be claimed that the best translation method seem to be the one
which allows translator to utilize notes Furthermore, employing notes in the translation both
as a translation strategy and a translation procedure seems to be indispensable so, that the
foreign language readership could benefit from the text as much as the readers do.

31
 Reference

1. Bell, R. T. (1998). Psychological/cognitive approaches. In M. Baker. (Ed), Ru Target

Language. Encyclopedia of translation studies. London & New York:
Ru Target language.
2. Culler, (1976). The translation process. Toronto: H.G. Publications.
3. Hervey, S., & Higgins, I. (1992). Thinking Translation. London & New York:
Ru Target language.
4. Kring, 2003. Strategies of translation. In M. Baker (Ed), Encyclopedia of translation
Studies (pp. 240-244). London and New York: Ru Target language.
5. Larson, C.1984). Translation performance, translation process and translation
Strategies. Tuebingen: Guten Narr
6. Leppihalme, (1997). Towards a science of translation, with special reference to
Principles and procedures involved in Bible translating. Leiden: Brill.
7. Newmark, (2005). A textbook of translation, London: Prentice Hall International.
8. Nida, E. A. (1964): Toward a Science of Translating with Special Reference to
Principles and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating, Leiden: E.J.Brill.
9. Seguinot, (1989). Culture bumps: an empirical approach to the translation of
Allusions. Cleve don: Multilingual Matters.
10. Venuti, L. (1998). Strategies of translation. In M. Baker (Ed), Encyclopedia of
Translation studies (pp. 240-244). London and New York: Ru Target language.
11. Zhongying, F. (1994). An applied theory of translation. Beijing:
Foreign Languages Teaching & Research Press.

32
33