MIS 101 ICT

APPLICATION
SYSTEMS
Study Guide
i
M Ndlovu 6/6/20 MSU Diploma
 Table of Contents

COURSE OUTLINE AND SYLLABUS BREAKDOWN ........................................................................... i

CHAPTER 1................................................................................................................................................1
HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE ...............................................................................................................2
1.1. ICT - Information and Communication Technology.......................................................................2
1.2. What Is A Computer? ....................................................................................................................2
i. Data and information .....................................................................................................................2
1.3. The data processing cycle ..............................................................................................................2
i. Data capturing ...............................................................................................................................3
ii. Verification and Validation ........................................................................................................3
iii. Processing ..................................................................................................................................4
iv. Information ................................................................................................................................4
v. Decision Making ........................................................................................................................4
vi. Evaluation ..................................................................................................................................4
1.4. TYPES OF COMPUTERS ............................................................................................................4
i. Micro Computers: ..........................................................................................................................4
ii. Mini-Computers .........................................................................................................................7
iii. Mainframe computers ................................................................................................................7
iv. Super Computers........................................................................................................................8
v. Embedded Computers ................................................................................................................9
1.5. Advantages of using computers ................................................................................................... 10
1.6. Disadvantages of using computers ............................................................................................... 10
1.7. Factors to consider when buying a computer................................................................................ 10
1.8. Main Components of Computer Systems ..................................................................................... 10
1.8.1. Software ............................................................................................................................... 11
1.8.2. Hardware .............................................................................................................................. 17
Chapter 2 ................................................................................................................................................... 39
Desktop, Icons ....................................................................................................................................... 40
Different parts of a window ................................................................................................................ 41
Command Bar .................................................................................................................................... 45
Microsoft Word Window ....................................................................................................................... 46
The Desktop .......................................................................................................................................... 50
Desktop Icons .................................................................................................................................... 51
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 Folder Hierarchy ................................................................................................................................ 56
Chapter 3 ................................................................................................................................................... 61
Microsoft Word ..................................................................................................................................... 63
What is Microsoft Word? ................................................................................................................... 63
Starting Word .................................................................................................................................... 63
Elements of the Word Window .......................................................................................................... 66
Using the Control Buttons .................................................................................................................. 67
File menu ........................................................................................................................................... 67
How to open Multiple Documents at Once ......................................................................................... 68
Close: ................................................................................................................................................ 68
Save: .................................................................................................................................................. 69
Saving a Document for the First Time ................................................................................................ 69
Saving as You Work .......................................................................................................................... 69
Save as: .............................................................................................................................................. 70
Page setup: - ...................................................................................................................................... 71
Margins ............................................................................................................................................. 71
Print preview: .................................................................................................................................... 74
Print: -................................................................................................................................................ 74
Find and replace ................................................................................................................................. 78
Replace: ............................................................................................................................................. 78
Go to:................................................................................................................................................. 79
View menu ........................................................................................................................................ 79
Toolbars:............................................................................................................................................ 80
Insert Menu ........................................................................................................................................ 82
Page number: ..................................................................................................................................... 83
Format Menu ..................................................................................................................................... 84
Bullets and numbering:- ..................................................................................................................... 86
Tabs: .................................................................................................................................................. 88
Review menu ..................................................................................................................................... 91
Mail merge: ....................................................................................................................................... 92
Insert Table: ....................................................................................................................................... 93
Chapter 4 ................................................................................................................................................... 96
SPREADSHEETS ................................................................................................................................. 97
Components of spreadsheet ................................................................................................................ 97

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Starting excel ..................................................................................................................................... 97
Components of the excel window ....................................................................................................... 98
Functions and formulas ...................................................................................................................... 98
Working with sheets .......................................................................................................................... 99
Entering and editing formulas .......................................................................................................... 100
Entering formulas ............................................................................................................................ 101
Find and Replace ............................................................................................................................. 102
The Find Command ......................................................................................................................... 102
Saving and updating a workbook ..................................................................................................... 102
Creating a new folder ....................................................................................................................... 103
Updating a workbook ....................................................................................................................... 103
Opening and navigating a workbook ................................................................................................ 104
Moving and copying data ................................................................................................................. 104
The office clipboard ......................................................................................................................... 106
The collect and paste feature ............................................................................................................ 106
Moving data in a worksheet ............................................................................................................. 106
Moving data using the clipboard ...................................................................................................... 106
Moving data using the standard toolbar ............................................................................................ 107
Copying data in a worksheet ............................................................................................................ 107
Copying data using the clipboard ..................................................................................................... 107
Copying data using the standard toolbar ........................................................................................... 107
Using drag-and-drop ........................................................................................................................ 108
Moving data using the drag-and drop method ................................................................................... 108
Copying data using drag-and drop .................................................................................................... 108
Moving and copying formulas .......................................................................................................... 108
Moving formulas ............................................................................................................................. 108
Using shortcut menus ....................................................................................................................... 109
Copying formulas ............................................................................................................................ 109
Relative cell references .................................................................................................................... 109
Using the fill handle to copy formulas .............................................................................................. 109
Using absolute references ................................................................................................................. 109
Limited of relative reference. ........................................................................................................... 110
ABSOLUTE REFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 110
Mixed references.............................................................................................................................. 110

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 Entering functions ............................................................................................................................ 110
Function name (argument1, argument2…..) ..................................................................................... 110
Entering range references ................................................................................................................. 110
Using the mouse to enter range references ........................................................................................ 111
Pasting functions .............................................................................................................................. 111
Using autosum ................................................................................................................................. 111
Using average, min, max, and count ................................................................................................. 111
Using average .................................................................................................................................. 112
Using min ........................................................................................................................................ 112
Using count ...................................................................................................................................... 112
Formatting text ................................................................................................................................ 113
Number formatting........................................................................................................................... 115
Creating a chart ................................................................................................................................ 116
Modifying charts .............................................................................................................................. 116
Applying the background to the worksheet ....................................................................................... 117
Preparing to print ............................................................................................................................. 117
Controlling margins ......................................................................................................................... 118
Controlling sheet options ................................................................................................................. 119
Printing the print dialog box ............................................................................................................. 119
Printing multiple worksheets. ........................................................................................................... 119
Using the print button ...................................................................................................................... 119
Setting and clearing a print area ....................................................................................................... 119
Setting a print area ........................................................................................................................... 119
Clearing a print area ......................................................................................................................... 120
Printing a selection ........................................................................................................................... 120
Printing charts .................................................................................................................................. 120
Wrapping text and merging cells ...................................................................................................... 120
Chapter 5 ................................................................................................................................................. 122
Chapter 6 ................................................................................................................................................. 123
COMPUTER NETWORKS, Securityand web browsing concepts ........................................................... 124
Definition of Terms ............................................................................................................................. 124
Advantages of Networking................................................................................................................... 124
Disadvantages of Networking .............................................................................................................. 124
Servers ................................................................................................................................................. 124

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TYPES OF NETWORKS .................................................................................................................... 125
1. LOCAL AREA NETWORKS (LAN) .......................................................................................... 125
Advantages of Ring Network ........................................................................................................... 126
Disadvantages of Ring Network ....................................................................................................... 127
Advantages of Star Network ............................................................................................................ 127
Disadvantages of a Star Network ..................................................................................................... 127
Advantages of Mesh Network .......................................................................................................... 128
Disadvantages of Mesh Network ...................................................................................................... 128
Wireless LANs (WLANs) ................................................................................................................ 129
WiFi ................................................................................................................................................ 130
Bluetooth ......................................................................................................................................... 130
Network devices .............................................................................................................................. 130
2. WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN) .................................................................................................. 133
Hardware Requirements for a WAN................................................................................................. 133
Software Requirements for a WAN .................................................................................................. 133
THE INTERNET ................................................................................................................................. 134
Hardware Requirements for an Internet Connection ......................................................................... 134
Software Requirements for an Internet Connection .......................................................................... 134
Other requirements........................................................................................................................... 134
Information from the internet ........................................................................................................... 135
Security issues ................................................................................................................................. 135
Internet Terms ..................................................................................................................................... 137
Websites .......................................................................................................................................... 137
Accessing the internet ...................................................................................................................... 138
Intranets ........................................................................................................................................... 140
Extranet ........................................................................................................................................... 140
Communication methods ..................................................................................................................... 140
Services Provided by the Internet ..................................................................................................... 140
Internet developments .......................................................................................................................... 145
Blogs ............................................................................................................................................... 145
Wikis ............................................................................................................................................... 145
Digital media sharing websites ......................................................................................................... 145
Social networking sites .................................................................................................................... 146
Folksonomies ................................................................................................................................... 146

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 OTHER INTERNET ACCESS SOFTWARE AND SERVICES ...................................................... 146
EFFECTS OF E-COMMERCE TO THE COMMUNITY ................................................................ 148
THE CASHLESS SOCIETY ........................................................................................................... 148
However, a cashless society will have the following problems: ........................................................ 148
Data Communication ........................................................................................................................... 148
Bandwidth ....................................................................................................................................... 148
GUIDED MEDIA ............................................................................................................................ 148
UNGUIDED MEDIA ...................................................................................................................... 149
WIRELESS COMMUNICATION ....................................................................................................... 149
Advantages of wireless communication include: .............................................................................. 150
Disadvantages of Wireless Technology: ........................................................................................... 150
SECURITY ............................................................................................................................................. 151
Network security.................................................................................................................................. 151
User IDs........................................................................................................................................... 151
Passwords ........................................................................................................................................ 151
Encryption ....................................................................................................................................... 151
Authentication techniques ................................................................................................................ 152
Banking example ............................................................................................................................. 152
COMPUTER VIRUSES ...................................................................................................................... 153
Signs and symptoms of virus attack on a computer: ......................................................................... 153
Effects of computer viruses: ............................................................................................................. 153
Methods by which viruses spread from one computer to another ...................................................... 153
Methods of preventing virus attack on the computer......................................................................... 153
Antivirus programs .......................................................................................................................... 154
TYPES OF COMPUTER VIRUSES ................................................................................................ 154
Health and safety issues ....................................................................................................................... 154
Health aspects .................................................................................................................................. 155
Safety aspects .................................................................................................................................. 156
Chapter 7 ................................................................................................................................................. 158
APPENDIX ............................................................................................................................................. 159
ASSIGNMENT COVER PAGE .......................................................................................................... 159
ASSIGNMENT ONE........................................................................................................................... 160
ASSIGNMENT TWO .......................................................................................................................... 161
ASSIGNMENT THREE ...................................................................................................................... 162

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COURSE OUTLINE AND SYLLABUS BREAKDOWN
1. Rationale:
Information technology is pervading every aspect of day to day life, and as such, the contemporary
professional cannot afford to be computer illiterate. It offers an abundance of opportunities and
technological developments are moving at an astounding rate. This module provides a foundation in
ICT applications.
2. Aim: This module aims to give learners a sound understanding of:
 System software and application software
 Functions of common office packages
 Practical knowledge of common ICT applications
3. Objectives: Successful candidates will be able to:
 Understand key concepts relating to ICT, computers, devices and software.
 Work effectively on the computer desktop using icons, windows.
 Create a simple document and print an output
 Know about the main concepts of file management and be able to efficiently organise files
and folders.
 Understand web browsing and online security concepts.
 Search effectively for online information and critically evaluate web content.
 Send, receive e-mails and manage e-mail settings.
 Work with spreadsheets and save them in different file formats.
 Enter data into cells and use good practice in creating lists. Select, sort and copy, move and
delete data.
 Edit rows and columns in a worksheet. Copy, move, delete, and approximately rename
worksheets.
 Create mathematical and logical formulas using standard spreadsheet functions. Use good
practice in formula creation and recognise error values in formulas.
 Format numbers and text content in a spreadsheet.
 Choose, create and format charts to communicate information meaningfully.
 Adjust spreadsheet page settings and check and correct spreadsheet content before finally
printing spreadsheets.
 Work with documents and save them in different file formats.
 Create and edit small-sized word processing documents that will be ready to share and
distribute.
 Apply different formats to documents to enhance them before distribution and recognise
good practise in choosing the appropriate formatting options.
 Insert tables, images and drawn objects into documents.
 Prepare documents for mail merge operations.
 Apply document page settings and check and correct spelling before finally printing
documents.
Syllabus Detail
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TOPIC SKILL SET TASK ITEM
Computers and Hardware Define the term hardware. Identify the main types of computers e.g.
Devices mainframes, minicomputer, laptop
Peripherals Identify the main types of peripheral devices like: printers, monitors,
keyboards
Software Define the term software, the main types of software
Define operating system and identify some common examples.
Identify common examples of applications.
Desktop, Icons Desktop and Identify common icons like those representing files, folders, applications,
icons printers, drives, recycle bin
Using Identify different parts of a window: title bar, menu bar, tool bar, ribbon,
windows status bar, scroll bar
Open, collapse, resize, expand, restore, maximize, move, close a window,
switch between windows
Word Working Open, close word processing application, open, close document
processing with
documents
Create a new document based on default template, other available
template like: memo, fax, agenda
Save a document to a location on a drive. Save a document under another
name to a location on a drive.
Save a document as another file type like: text file, Rich Text format,
template, software specific file extension, version number
Switch between open documents
Enter text Enter text into a document. Insert symbols or special characters
Select, edit Display, hide non-printing formatting marks like: spaces, paragraph
marks, manual line break marks, tab characters.
Select character, word, line, sentence, paragraph, entire body text
Edit content by entering, removing characters, words within existing text,
by overtyping to replace existing text
Use a simple search command for a specific word, phrase
Use a simple replace command for a specific word, phrase
Copy, move text within a document, between open documents. Delete
text.
Change text formatting: font sizes, font types
Apply text formatting: bold, italic, underline
Apply text formatting: subscript, superscript
Apply different colours to text
Apply case changes to text
Apply automatic hyphenation
Paragraphs Create, merge paragraph(s)
Insert, remove soft carriage return (line break)
Recognize good practice in aligning text: use align, indent, tab tools
rather than inserting spaces
Align text left, centre, right, justified
Indent paragraphs: left, right, first line
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 Set, remove and use tabs: left, centre, right, decimal
Recognise good practice in paragraph spacing: apply spacing between
paragraphs rather than use the Return key
Apply spacing above, below paragraphs. Apply single, 1.5 lines, double
line spacing within paragraphs
Add, remove bullets, numbers in a single level list. Switch between
standard bullet, number styles in a single level list
Add a box border and shading/background colour to a paragraph
Apply an existing character style to selected text
Apply an existing paragraph style to one or more paragraphs
Use copy format tool
Table Create a table ready for data insertion
creation
Insert, edit data in a table
Select rows, columns, cells, entire table
Insert, delete, rows and columns
Table Modify column width, row height
formatting
Modify cell border line style, width, colour
Add shading/background shading to cells
Graphical Insert an object (picture, image, chart, drawn object) to a specified
objects location in a document
Select an object
Mail merge Open, prepare a document, as a main document for a mail merge. Merge a
mailing list with a letter.
Prepare Change document orientation, paper size.
outputs
Change margins.
Insert and delete page breaks.
Add, edit text in headers and footers
Spreadsheets Spreadsheet Open and close spreadsheets. Creating, saving spreadsheets
basics
Cells Insert, select, sort and edit cell contents.
Copy, move, delete.
Rows and Select, insert, delete rows and columns. Adjust column width, row height.
columns
Worksheets Switch between worksheets. Copy, move, rename a worksheet within a
spreadsheet.
Formulae Create formulae, identify and understand standard error values: #NAME?,
and functions #DIV/0!, #REF!
Absolute and relative cell referencing
Use sum, average, minimum, maximum, count, IF
Formatting Numbers, dates,
Alignment Text wrapping, merging cells, alignment, border effects
and border
effects
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 Charts Create different types of charts, move, resize, delete chart.
Edit chart Add, remove, edit chart title, add data labels.
Change font size, and colour of chart title,
Prepare Change margins, page orientation, paper size, preview worksheet, print a
outputs selected range of cells, selected chart.
Presentations Presentations Create a new presentation using PowerPoint’s design templates.
basics
Navigate around a presentation.
Add slides to a presentation
Add text and clip art to a slide
Edit a presentation. ƒ Add predesigned transitions and effects. ƒ View,
Print, and Save a presentation. ƒ Open an existing presentation.
Web browsing Key concepts Understand the terms: Internet, WWW, URL, hyperlink
concepts
Define web browser and identify examples
Outline different Internet activities like information searching, shopping,
learning, publishing, entertainment, communication etc
Security and Recognise ways to protect yourself when online; purchase from secure,
safety reputable sites, avoid unnecessary disclosure of personal and financial
information
Using the Open, close browser, enter URL, refresh page, stop web page from
web browser downloading, view history, navigate between pages.
Tools and Set home page, dealing with cookies and pop ups (allow, block).
settings
Delete history, temporary Internet files
Bookmarks Add and delete bookmarks.
Search Identify common search engines and their function.
Carry out a search using a key word, phrase.
Refine a search using advanced search features.
Critical Outline factors that determine credibility of a website like author,
evaluation referencing,
Recognise the appropriateness of online information for a particular
audience.
Copyright Define copyright and intellectual property. Recognise the need to
acknowledge sources and/or seek permission as appropriate.
Communicatio Online Understand concept of an online community. Identify examples like
n concepts communities social networking sites,
Outline ways that users can publish and share content online: blogs,
microblogs, podcasts, audio and video clips.
Email Identify the structure of an email address.
concepts
Outline differences between the To, Copy Cc, Bcc fields and recognise
their appropriate use.
Be aware of possibility of receiving fraudulent email and spam, and
infected attachments.
Phishing Recognise potential phishing scams.

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Using Email Create an email. Outline the main purpose of standard folders: Inbox,
outbox, sent, Deleted/Trash items, Draft, Spam/Junk

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CHAPTER 1

TOPIC SKILL SET TASK ITEM

Computers Hardware Define the term hardware. Identify the main types of computers e.g.
and mainframes, minicomputer, laptop
Devices
Peripherals Identify the main types of peripheral devices like: printers, monitors,
keyboards
Software Define the term software, the main types of software
Define operating system and identify some common examples.
Identify common examples of applications.

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HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE
1.1. ICT - INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY
A subject that deals with features, uses, benefits and effects of computers.

1.2. WHAT IS A COMPUTER?

It is an electronic device that works under the control of stored programs to automatically accept, store and
process data into information. Therefore, a computer has the following characteristics:
 It is electronic: - can only work when there is electricity
 It is a device: a machine
 Is controlled by programs: Works according to instructions, written in computer language, given by
the user for it to perform a specific task.
 Is automatic in operation: Can work with minimum or no human intervention.
 Can accept data: data can be entered into the computer through various means and the computer
accepts it.
 Can store data and programs: Data and programs entered into the computer can be stored for future
use.
 Can process data into information

i. Data and information

Data: refers to raw facts and figures of an activity. It can just be a list of numbers, names or a
combination of these. Data is meaningless and needs to be processed. Data cannot be used for decision
making purposes as it is meaningless.
Information: It is data that has been converted into meaningful form. In general, it is processed data.
Information can be understood and therefore can be used for decision making purposes. Information is
meaningful. To get relevant information, data entered into the computer must be relevant, accurate and
up-to date. If data entered into the computer is wrong (Garbage In) the results will also be wrong
(Garbage Out), and is generally referred to as Garbage-In Garbage-Out (GIGO). It is a rule stating that
the quality of the output is a function of the quality of the input; put garbage in and you get garbage out.
Therefore, the accuracy of the results produced by the computer depends on how accurate the user
enters data, functions, formulae and codes program procedures.

1.3. THE DATA PROCESSING CYCLE

Is a diagram that shows the stages that data passes through until it is converted into information, which is
then used in making decisions and evaluating the effectiveness of the decisions made and implementing
amendments if necessary. The cycle differs from organization to organization but has the following basic
stages:

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 Verification and Process
Validation

Data Capturing Information

Evaluation Decision Making

Figure 1: Data Processing Cycle

i. Data capturing

This is the collection of data from internal and/or external sources. This data is recorded onto source
documents such as receipts, invoices, meter reading sheets etc. An organisation should set standards
on what data to collect and how it will be collected i.e. method, frequency etc.

ii. Verification and Validation

Verification is a completeness check aimed at ensuring that the data has been captured completely
and exactly as it appears on the source documents. This is so because should incorrect data be
introduced into the computer system; incorrect information will be obtained and naturally lead to
incorrect decisions being adopted. GIGO (garbage-in, garbage-out) is a term used to refer to such
mishaps.
Validation refers to checking for the accuracy of the data captured as compared to how it appears on
the source documents. (For instance, a data capture clerk can switch name and surname such that
upon verification, there is no problem but validation will establish that what has been captured as
name is surname and vice-versa).

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 iii. Processing

This is the actual transformation of data into information. The method depends on the data being
processed. Some steps that may be involved in processing include sorting, analyzing, summarizing
etc.

iv. Information

This is what comes out of a process and can be used in decision-making, assessing the status of an
organization, plan for the future etc.

v. Decision Making

Refers to the adoption of choices or alternatives after considering the available information.

vi. Evaluation

After a decision has been implemented, follow-ups are made to assess the effects of the decision
selected.
The more complex the data is, the more stages there should be in order to convert it into
information. For instance, steps such as “storage” and “retrieval” can be added onto the cycle above
in a more complex cycle.

1.4. TYPES OF COMPUTERS

There are many types of computer systems in existence. This section summarises some of the more
common types currently available.

i. Micro Computers:

These are computers with a microprocessor inside them, and include the following
 Desktop Computers
 Personal Computers (PC)
 Palmtops
 Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs)
 Cell phones
 Laptops (Notebook computers)
 Tablet Personal Computers
PC/desktop computers
PC/desktop usually refers to a general-purpose computer which is made up of separate
monitor, keyboard, mouse and processor unit (see diagram). The term PC (personal
computer) usually refers to computer systems which are IBM compatible, thus
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distinguishing them from, for example, Macintosh systems. It is worth making a comparison here
with laptop computers:
Advantages

 Spare parts and connections tend to be standardised, which usually results in low costs.
 Desktops tend to have a better specification (e.g. faster processor) for a given price (often
due to size and construction constraints in laptops). The large casing allows good
dissipation of any heat build-up.
Disadvantages

 Desktops are not particularly portable since they are made up of separate components.
 All the components need to be hooked up by wiring, which can be quite complex and
clutters up the desk space.
 Because they are not particularly portable, it is necessary to copy files, etc. when you want to
do some work elsewhere (e.g. at home).
Laptop computers
Laptop (or notebook) refers to a type of computer where the monitor, keyboard,
pointing device and processor are all together in one single unit. This makes them
extremely portable systems.

The key features you would expect to find in a laptop are:

 low weight (to aid portability)
 low power consumption (and also long battery life)
 a processor that does not generate too much heat (cooling is very important).
Advantages

 They are very portable, since the monitor, pointing device, keyboard, processor and backing
store units are all together in one single box.
 There are no trailing wires, etc. because everything is in one single unit.
 They can take full advantage of WiFi.
 Since they are portable, they can link into any multimedia system.
Disadvantages

 Since they are portable, they are easy to steal!

 They have limited battery life so the user may need to carry a heavy adaptor.
 The keyboards and pointing devices can sometimes be awkward to use.
 Heat dissipation is more difficult due to the structure of the laptop computers.
Netbooks

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Netbook is a term used to describe a computer that can almost fit onto a hand and
is a smaller version of a laptop. These used to be known as palmtop computers,
but this term now generally applies to much smaller devices which use touch
screens and often a stylus to key in data (see below).

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 Advantages

 Netbook computers have many of the features of laptops and therefore have similar
advantages and disadvantages.
Disadvantages

 In addition to the disadvantages listed above for laptops:

 netbooks don’t have optical drives
 the keyboards are only about 80 per cent the size of laptop keyboards
 they lack some of the features found in larger machines, principally due to the size
constraints and to the fact that they are cheaper to purchase.
Personal digital assistants’ PDAs
Personal digital assistants (PDAs) are small handheld computers that usually come
with a touch screen that is activated using a stylus. Data (e.g. text) is entered by
using a keyboard that appears on the touch screen. Originally, these devices were
used as personal organisers but their use has expanded somewhat to include new
generation mobile phones, data loggers, satellite navigation systems, etc. Many PDAs now have
basic database, word-processing and spreadsheet facilities.
Advantages

 They can be used anywhere because of their size.

 They are very lightweight and are more portable than laptop computers.
Disadvantages

 It is difficult to enter text quickly.

 They have very limited capabilities due to the software and the operating system used.

ii. Mini-Computers

These are in-between mainframe computers and microcomputers computers. They are suitable for
large business organizations like in banks where they process client accounts. Computer that is
smaller, less expensive, and less powerful than a mainframe or supercomputer, but more expensive
and more powerful than a personal computer. Minicomputers are used for scientific and engineering
computations, business-transaction processing, file handling, and database management, and are
often now referred to as small or midsize servers.

iii. Mainframe computers

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 Mainframe computer is a term used for a large, very powerful, computer system. The
name comes from the days when the individual components were housed in large
(often room-sized) frames.
Uses

Their main purpose is to run commercial applications, such as banking and insurance,
where huge amounts of data need to be processed each day.

The main features of main frame computers are as follows.

 They can have several CPUs.
 They have very fast processor speeds.
 They can support multiple operating systems.
 They have huge amounts of storage capacity.
 They have huge internal memories (e.g. several hundred Gbyte of RAM).
 They often operate using time sharing or batch processing (see Chapter 7).
Advantages

 Due to the features listed above, they can be used to do very large jobs which require large
memories and very fast processor time.
 They are used in time-sharing systems to allow users to be given a time slice of the very
powerful facilities afforded by a mainframe system.
 They are capable of very large number crunching, and so can deal with very complex
mathematical functions (e.g. fractals) which would be very time-consuming using, for
example, a PC.
Disadvantages

 Mainframe computers need to be permanently housed in a large room, so cannot be moved

around.
 They are very expensive to operate and maintain.

iv. Super Computers

These are very powerful computers that are used to perform detailed calculations and for design
purposes, for example, modelling of aircraft wings, testing bombs, etc. They are the fastest and
most expensive computers

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v. Embedded Computers

Refers to use of microprocessors in non-computer equipment like in cameras, washing machines,

watches, etc. These are normally dedicated for a specific task they are designed for. Embedded
computers are also found in household items like camera, microwave, washing machine, video
recorder, fridge, sewing machine, air conditioning, electronic toys, rice cooker dish washer,
Televisions, alarms, clock, radio, DVD players, etc. Tasks performed by microprocessor inside
some of the devices include:

 In digital camera: automatically adjust film speed, positions the end of film, adjust distance
from object, adjusts light.
 In Speed cameras: are used on many roads to take photographs of cars which have
exceeded the speed limit. Some of these cameras use microprocessor-controlled chips to
store information. The advantages of speed cameras with microprocessor-controlled chips
are that:
Data and images can be transferred automatically which will be faster. Image can be viewed straight
away. Can store considerably more data and photos. Can store other information (apart from photo
image) e.g. road conditions. Chips can be re-used.
Tasks which would be carried out by the microprocessor as a speeding car approaches a camera
include: Sense and record speed of vehicle. Compare speed of vehicle with stored value(s) and
decide whether photograph should be taken. Check on value of light intensity. Adjust focal length,
focus image, adjust shutter speed and set exposure.
9
 Tasks which would be carried out by the microprocessor as the photograph is being taken include:
Log the time. Log the date. Log the speed. Record the road conditions. Operate ―flash. Operate
shutter. Store the image. Check on value of light intensity. Adjust focal length and focus image. In
washing machine: Controls the amount of water. Adjust and controls speed of wash. Control
temperature of water and the time taken to wash the clothes. In fridges: Controls temperature level.
Control the display panel. Switch on lights if door is opened and off when closed. In air
conditioners: Controls temperature. Controls timing and the display panel

1.5. ADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS

They process data at very high speed, thus large volumes of goods can be produced. Computers are very
accurate in making calculations and thus ensure that no calculation errors occur. Computers are very
reliable to use since they rarely make mistakes. Computers store large volumes of data for a long period of
time. Computers cut labor costs as they can perform duties that need many people. They replace humans
and thus cut labor costs on wages, medical aid, retirement benefits, leave payments, etc. Computers can
work for 24 hours a day with no complains as humans. They do not get tired. Computers create
employment for the community, for example, computer teachers (tutors), programmers, computer
technicians, database administrators, etc. High quality goods are produced using computers. Ensures
efficient, easier and faster communication through the internet.

1.6. DISADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS

Continuous usage can lead to health problems like Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI), back ache, eye problems,
etc. Lead to increase in computer crimes like computer fraud, hacking, music and software piracy, data theft
using computers, sending of viruses, etc. Can lead to unemployment since computers can replace human
labor as in car assemblies. Expenses related to repairs, maintenance and safety can be high. They only work
when there is electricity.

1.7. FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN BUYING A COMPUTER

 Hard disk storage capacity: Affects the volume of data that can be stored by the computer.
 RAM size: affect the number of programs that can be run on the computer and the overall speed of
the computer. The bigger the RAM size the better.
 Processor Speed: Determines the amount of data that can be processed at a given period of time.
The processor speed can be affected by clock speed, word size (16, 32, 64, 128 bits), bus size.
 Application intended for: what the computer will be used for, general purpose or specialized
purpose.
 Method of operating the computer: single user, multi-access, etc.
 Number of Input and output devices it can handle.

1.8. MAIN COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS

A typical computer system is made up of hardware and software.

10
1.8.1. Software

Software is a general term for the programs that control the computer system.
There are two main types of software:
• systems software: programs that allow the hardware to run properly, e.g. operating
systems
• applications software: programs that allow the user to do specific tasks, e.g.
spreadsheets.

I. Systems Software
Is a program or suit of programs that manages the computer’s resources. It is mainly made up of an
operating system (OS). Examples of operating systems are, UNIX, Windows NT, Windows 2000,
and the famous MS-DOS (Microsoft Disc Operating System).
On a microcomputer system the OS is usually held on the hard disk, otherwise it’s held on a diskette
called a system disk. On all computers a small program held on ROM called the ‘loader’ will tell the
computer where to look for the OS and give instructions for loading at least part of it into memory.
Once loaded more instructions can be executed to load the rest of the nucleus. This method of
‘pulling itself by its own bootstraps’ is where the expression ‘booting’ comes from. Booting is the
process of loading the OS.
Operating Systems enable users to communicate with computer systems such as Windows 7, 8, 10,
Linux, Ubuntu, Unix, Android etc. The general tasks for a typical operating system include:
 controlling the operation of the input, output and backing storage devices
 supervising the loading, running and storage of applications programs
 dealing with errors that occur in applications programs
 maintaining security of the whole computer system
 maintaining a computer log (which contains details of computer usage)
 allowing communication between user and the computer system (user interface).
11
Computer users need to be able to communicate with the operating system – this is called the ‘user
interface’. There are two main types of user interfaces: command line interfaces (CLIs) and
graphical user interfaces (GUIs).
a. Command line interfaces (CLI)
CLIs require a user to type in instructions in order to choose options from menus, open software etc.
There are often a number of commands that need to be typed in, for example, to save or load a file.
The user therefore has to learn a number of commands just to carry out basic operations. It is also
slow having to key in these commands every time an operation has to be carried out. However, the
advantage of CLI is that the user is in direct communication with the computer and is not restricted
to a number of pre-determined options.
For example, the code snippet shows the CLI code required for importing data into a table
called B.
1. SQLPrepare(hStmt,
2. ? (SQLCHAR *) "INSERT INTO tableB SELECT * FROMtableA",
3. ? SQL_NTS):
4. ? SQLExecute(hStmt);
The above statements show how complex it is just to carry out a fairly straightforward operation
using CLI.
b. Graphical user interfaces (GUI)
GUIs allow the user to interact with a computer (or MP3 player, gaming device, mobile phone, etc.)
using pictures or symbols (icons) rather than having to type in a number of commands. For example,

the whole of the CLI code shown in the diagram could have been replaced by a single icon:
(table update). Simply selecting this icon would automatically execute all of the steps shown in
above without the need to type them in each time.
GUIs use various technologies and devices to provide the user interface. One of the most common is
windows icons menu and pointing device (WIMP) which was developed for use on personal
computers (PCs). This uses a mouse to control a cursor, which then selects icons to open/run
windows. Each window contains an application and modern computer systems allow several
windows to be open at the same time. In the example shown in the diagram, a number of icons can
be seen on the left-hand side and on the bottom right; three windows are open and these are shown
as grey rectangles at the bottom of the screen.
A windows manager looks after the interaction
between windows, the applications and the
windowing system (which handles the pointing
devices and the cursor’s position).
A typical GUI
In recent years, devices such as touch screen
phones use post-WIMP interaction, where fingers
12
are in contact with the screen. This allows actions such as pinching and rotating, which would be
difficult to do using a single pointer and device such as a mouse.

13
II. Applications Software
These are written to meet specific user requirements. Application software can be divided into General
purpose (application packages) and function-specific/bespoke/tailor made. People in different
industries at different levels can use general-purpose software.
i. General purpose (application packages)
Application packages can be classified into the following categories:
a) Word-processing software is a collection of software that permits the user to create, edit
and print text documents. Most word processing packages come with spell-checkers,
grammar checkers and thesaurus programs for creating drawings and table of contents.
Word, WordPerfect are examples of word processing software.
b) Spreadsheet software is used mainly for mathematical calculations allows managers to
prepare budgets, tax analysis, sales and profit projections. Managers can design templates,
which contain formulas used to create columns or row averages. Spreadsheets allow
managers to simulate various solutions. A user may enter a number of different values and
see the effect on the results such as profit margins. MS Excel and Lotus 1-2-3 are examples
of spreadsheets.
This is software with pages that have 2 dimensional tables concerned with the manipulation
of numeric data and text. The pages consist of a matrix of cells, which form at the
intersection of rows and columns.
c) Presentation graphics software; Presentation graphics software lets managers prepare
slides containing charts, text and images. Presentation graphics software usually provides
libraries of clip art images that can be cut and paste into a slide to make the slide more
attractive and informative. Examples of Presentation packages include MS PowerPoint.
d) Database management software is software that allows users to prepare reports based on
data found in different records on the database. Database management software is an
important managerial decisions support tool for managers at all levels of an organization.
Examples of database management packages include MS Access, Dbase IV, e.t.c.
Application packages/ off the shelf' packages are pieces of software which have been created by a
software manufacturer, tested, documented and copied many times. Application packages tend to be
generalist in nature i.e. used by many different organizations for word processing and spreadsheet
work.

Integrated packages consist of a number of modules, which either act totally independently or can
be linked together to perform joint functions e.g. smart, Microsoft Office etc.

Advantages of integrated packages

1) Easy to learn
2) Cheaper
3) Faster
4) More flexible

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 Disadvantages of integrated packages
i. May not meet the user’s requirements
ii. Less easy to update
Advantages of Packaged Software
 The software tends to be relatively cheap as the cost of development can be spread
over a large number of users.
 They are likely to be available almost immediately
 Any system bugs should have been discovered by other users and eliminated.
 They come with good training programmes and documentation.
Drawbacks of Packaged Software
 The software can be highly complex and will usually include large sections that you
will never use (the average Word user is reputed to only use about 10% of the
available facilities).
 It tends to be a compromise. By its nature it is designed for many different types of
users, each of whom will have different requirements.
 As the software tends to be large and complicated it may take a long time to learn
properly (some of the most asked for additions to later versions of Word were ones
that already existed in the previous version - it was just that the users did not know
that they existed because the application was so big).
 You may have to alter the way that you work in order to fit in with the way that the
software has been designed.
 As the same system can be bought by your competitors it is very difficult to gain any
competitive advantage from its use.
ii. Bespoke software/ Tailor made/ Custom made software
Bespoke refers to software that has been custom made for a company, because generic software
does not have the functionality they need.
Advantages of Bespoke Software
 It has been specifically designed for your particular requirements and can be tailored to
fit in exactly with the way that your business or organization wishes to operate.
 It can be customized to interface with other software that you operate with the potential
to provide you with a fully integrated IT infrastructure across your whole organization.
 The software can be tuned to your specific needs thus providing you with performance
benefits that are just not feasible with packaged software.
 Users will usually find it easier and more intuitive to use as it should not contain
unnecessary or superfluous facilities and should operate in the way that they are used to
working.
 It can incorporate business processes that are specific to you and which do not exist in
any packaged solution.
 It is much more flexible than packaged software and can be modified and changed over
time as your requirements and business practices change.

15
  You will (usually) receive much better support and can in many cases talk directly to the
developers concerned.
 If you are lucky and find a good developer then they can significantly add value to your
company by suggesting alternatives, improvements and by acting as a source of IT
advice and information.
 The use of professionally developed bespoke software applications can give you a
significant business advantage over your competition.
Drawbacks of Bespoke Software
 If you do not have the source code you are dangerously exposed and are wholly
dependent upon the developers continuing existence and good will. To avoid this
problem make sure you choose a developer who provides you with the source code.
 If the software is not developed to professional Best Practice standards it may be
unstable, unreliable and full of bugs (but then again so is some packaged software!).
Selecting a developer who works to Best Practice should counteract this.
 The investment required will usually be much higher than with packaged software. This
is usually the biggest reason for not going down the custom route - you need to
undertake a business justification exercise and compare the costs against the expected
benefits and commercial advantages.

16
1.8.2. Hardware

Hardware is a general term for the physical components that make up a computer system, for example
keyboard, mouse, monitor, processor, circuit board and so on.
The diagram below shows an example of a computer system consisting of input devices, output devices and
secondary storage.

 input devices: keyboard, mouse

 output devices: monitor, printer
 secondary storage devices: DVD R/W drive, removable hard drive.
 Processor and internal memory devices

Figure 2:Components of a computer system

17
i. Processor and internal memory
Processor and internal memory devices consist of four key components called the central processing unit
(CPU), internal hard disk, random access memory (RAM) and read only memory (ROM).
The central processing unit (CPU) is the part of the computer which interprets and executes the commands
from the computer hardware and software. CPUs used to be made up of discrete components and numerous
small integrated circuits, which were combined together on one or more circuit board/s. However, due to
modern manufacturing techniques, the term microprocessor is now used instead of CPU. This is a single
integrated circuit (see diagram below) which is at the heart of most PCs and is also found in many
household devices and equipment where some control or monitoring is needed (e.g. the engine management
system in a car).
The internal hard drive is the computer’s main memory; this is where the applications software, disk
operating system and data files are stored. The main advantage of these memories is the fast data
transfer/access times and their large capacity to store data

typical microprocessor

Internal memory consists of Random-Access memory and Read Only Memory. Random access
memory (RAM) is an internal chip where data is temporarily stored when running applications. This
memory can be written to and read from. Since its contents are lost when power to the computer is turned
off, it is often referred to as a ‘volatile’ or ‘temporary’ memory.

Read only memory (ROM) is a memory used to store information that needs to be permanent. It is often
used to contain, for example, configuration data for a computer system. These chips cannot be altered and
can only be read from (hence their name). One of the main advantages is that the information stored on the
ROM chip is not lost even when power is turned off to the computer. They are often referred to as ‘non-
volatile’ memories.

It is worth noting that ROM also contains some coding known as the boot file. This code tells the computer
what to do when it first starts up; it is often referred to as the BIOS (basic input/output system). When the
computer is turned on, the BIOS carries out a hardware check to find out if all the devices are present and
whether they are functional. Then it loads the operating system into the RAM. The BIOS stores the date,
time and system configuration in a non-volatile chip called a CMOS (complementary metal oxide
semiconductor), which is usually battery powered.

18
ii. Input devices
As the name suggests, input devices are hardware devices that allow data to be input into a computer. Many
such devices exist, ranging from the more common ones, such as the keyboard, through to the more
specialist devices, such as barcode readers. A number are described in this section.
Keyboards

These are the most common input devices and are used to input text, numbers and
instructions into the computer. Most use the QWERTY layout (this name comes
from the keys on the top row, which spell out ‘QWERTY’).
Ergonomic keyboards have also been developed recently. These are designed to
reduce health-related problems associated with the standard keyboard (e.g. carpal tunnel syndrome or
repetitive strain injury (RSI)).
Uses

 Keyboards are used to input data into applications software (e.g. text into word processors, numbers
into spreadsheets, etc.).
 They are also used for typing in commands to the computer (e.g. Prnt Scrn, Ctrl+P to print out, etc.)
Advantages

 Keyboards enable fast entry of new text into a document.

 They are a well-tried technology and a well-known method of entry.
 Most people find them easy to use.
 It is easy to do verification checks as data is entered, as it appears on the screen simultaneously.
Disadvantages

 Users with limited arm/wrist use can find keyboards hard to use.
 Entering data using a keyboard is slow when compared to direct data entry (e.g. optical mark
recognition).
 Keyboards are fairly large devices that use up valuable desk space.

19
 The concept keyboard uses icons or phrases instead of standard letters. These are
often used in, for example, fast food restaurants, offices and shops, where a single
key represents an item. For example, the symbol shown in the photo represents
‘add tax’. The person using the keyboard only needs to touch this key to calculate
the tax on an invoice.

Advantages

 Concept keyboards enable fast data entry, as there is no need to type in whole
commands.
 They are waterproof, which is useful in a restaurant environment.
 These keyboards are tamper proof and so are useful in certain applications (e.g. at
unmanned airport information kiosks), preventing people from keying in information
which could potentially corrupt the computer system.
Numeric keypads
 A numeric keypad is used to enter numbers only (although some have a
function key to allow input of alphabetic characters).

Uses

 Numeric keypads are used in automatic teller machines (ATMs), where customers can
key in their personal identification number (PIN), an amount of money, etc.
 Telephones have numeric keypads to allow phone numbers, etc. to be keyed in.
 Electronic point of sale (EPOS) terminals have numeric keypads in case the barcode
reader fails to read the barcode and the number has to be keyed in manually by the
operator.
 Chip and PIN devices have numeric keypads for entry of PIN, amount of money, etc.
 They are used to enable fast entry of numeric data into a spreadsheet.
Advantages

 Numeric keypads are faster than standard keyboards for entry of numeric data.
 Since many are small devices (e.g. mobile phones), they are very easy to carry around.
Disadvantages

 They can be difficult to use, due to very small keys.

 It is difficult to use them for entering text.
 Sometimes the order of the numbers on the keypad isn’t intuitive.

0
 Mice
The mouse is an example of a pointing device. A ball is used underneath the mouse
to detect movement, so by moving the mouse around the user can control the
position of a pointer on the screen. There are usually two buttons, which have
different functions: very often the left button is used to select something by double
clicking it and the right button brings up drop-down menus (see diagram).
Many mice also have a scroll button, which speeds up the process of moving through a
document.
Example of a drop-down menu
Recent developments have produced the optical mouse (where movement is detected by reflected
light rather than the position of a moving ball) and the cordless mouse (which is an example of a
wireless device). The advantage of an optical mouse is it has no moving parts and it also doesn’t
pick up any dirt. This makes it more robust and improves its performance, since the older type of
mouse can ‘skid’ on certain surfaces reducing the control of the pointer.
Uses

 Mice can be used for opening, closing and minimizing software.

 They can be used for grouping, moving and deleting files.
 They are very useful when editing images, for example controlling the size and position
of a drawing pasted into a document.
 Mice are used for controlling the position of a pointer on the screen to allow selection
from a menu or selecting an icon and for scrolling up and down/left to right.
Advantages

 It can be faster to select an option using a mouse rather than a keyboard.

 Mice enable rapid navigation through applications and the internet.
 Mice are small and so take up little area.
Disadvantages

 People with restricted hand/wrist movement can find it hard to operate a mouse.
 Mice are easily damaged and the older type of mouse also quickly becomes clogged up
with dirt.
 They are difficult to use if there is no flat surface readily available (e.g. on an airplane).
Touchpads
Touchpads are used in many laptop computers as a pointing device. The pointer is
controlled by the user moving their finger on the touchpad and then gently tapping it to
simulate the left-hand button of a mouse (i.e. selection). They also have buttons under the
touchpad which serve the same function as the left and right buttons on a mouse.

1
Uses

 The uses of a touchpad are the same as those of a mouse.

Advantages

 It can be faster to select an option using a touchpad rather than a keyboard.

 Touchpads enable rapid navigation through applications and the internet.
 Since the touchpad is integrated into the laptop computer, there is no need for a separate
mouse, aiding portability.
 They can be used even when there are no flat surfaces available.
Disadvantages

 People with limited hand/wrist movement find touchpads difficult to use.

 It can be more difficult to control the pointer when compared with a mouse.
 They are more difficult to use when doing certain operations such as ‘drag and
drop’.
Trackerballs
Trackerballs are similar to a mouse, except that the ball is on the top of the device and the user
controls the pointer on the screen by rotating the ball with the hand. Some trackerballs have two
buttons which have the same function as the left- and right-hand mouse buttons. If they have a
third button, this is equivalent to a double click.
Uses

 They have the same pointing/cursor control capability as a mouse.

 They are used in applications where the user has a disability (such as RSI).
 They are used in a control room environment, where it is faster than a mouse to navigate
through process screens and is more robust than a mouse.
Advantages

 Trackerballs do not need the same fine control as a mouse.

 People with limited hand/wrist movement find it easier to use than a mouse.
 The pointer can be positioned more accurately on the screen than with a mouse.
 They take up less desk space than mice since they are stationary.
Disadvantages

 Trackerballs are not supplied with the computer as standard, so they are more expensive.
 User may need training since they are not standard equipment.

2
 Remote controls
A remote control is used to control the operation of other devices remotely by using infra
red signals. The buttons on the keypad are used to select options (such as television
stations, sound levels on a hifi, timings on a DVD recorder, etc.).
Uses

 Most home entertainment devices such as a television, satellite system, DVD

player/recorder, hifi systems, etc. have remote controls.
 Remote controls are also used to control multimedia systems.
 They are used in industrial applications to remotely control processes, stop and
start machinery, etc.

Advantages

 Remote controls enable devices to be operated from any distance, which is particularly
useful for people with disabilities.
 Some chemical processes are hazardous, so it is safer to operate equipment from a
distance.
Disadvantages

 People with limited hand/wrist movement can find them hard to use.
 The signal between the control and the device can be easily blocked.
Joysticks
Joysticks have similar functions to mice and trackerballs. By gripping the stick, a pointer on the
screen can be controlled and buttons are used to make selections. Often they have another
button on the top of the stick that is used for gaming purposes, e.g. to fire a weapon.
Uses

 Video/computer games are often controlled by joysticks.

 They are used in simulators (e.g. flight simulators) to mimic actual controls.
Advantages

 It is easier to navigate round a screen using a joystick rather than a keyboard.

 Control is in three dimensions.
Disadvantages

 It is more difficult to control the on-screen pointer with a joystick than with other
devices, such as a mouse.

3
 Touch screens
With this system the user can choose an option by simply touching the button/icon on the
screen. The selection is automatically made without the need for any pointing device.
Uses

 Touch screens are used for self-service tills, e.g. petrol stations, where the user just
touches the screen to select the fuel grade and payment method.
 Touch screens are used where selections are made on screen, for example ATMs, point
of sale terminals (e.g. at restaurants), public information systems at airports, railway
stations, tourist offices.
 Personal digital assistants (PDAs), mobile phones and satellite navigation systems use
touch screens.
 Interactive white boards used for education are large touch screens.
 Touch screens are used in computer base training (CBT) where selections are made in
answering on screen testing.
Advantages

 Touch screens enable faster entry of options than using a keyboard or a mouse.
 It is very easy to choose options.
 It is a user-friendly method for inputting data, so no training is necessary.
 Touch screens are tamper proof, preventing people from keying in information which
could potentially corrupt the computer system (e.g. at unmanned ticket collection
kiosks).
Disadvantages

 There is a limited number of options available.

 Using touch screens frequently can lead to health problems (e.g. straining of arm
muscles, RSI, etc.).
 The screen can get very dirty with constant touching.

4
 S.J.Driver

The magnetic stripe on a credit card The chip on a

smart card
Magnetic stripe readers
These are used to read information on the magnetic stripe found, for example, on the back of a
credit card (see diagram above). The stripe contains useful information, such as the account
number, sort code, expiry date and start date.
Uses

 Credit and debit cards have magnetic stripes that are used by ATMs or EFTPOS
(electronic funds transfer point of sale) terminals.
 Security cards for entry to buildings, hotel rooms, etc. use magnetic stripes.
 Travel systems (e.g. train and underground tickets) use magnetic stripes.
Advantages

 Data entry is faster compared with keying in using a keyboard or keypad.

 The system is error free, since no typing is involved.
 The information held on the magnetic stripe is secure: because it cannot be read
directly by a person; and, since there is no typing, there is not the risk of somebody
observing your key strokes.
 They can prevent access to restricted/secure areas.
 Magnetic stripes are unaffected by oil, water, moisture, etc.
 There are no moving parts, so they are physically very robust.
Disadvantages

 If the magnetic stripe gets damaged (e.g. due to exposure to a strong magnetic field or
excessive use) the data is lost.
 The card needs to be in close contact with the reader, so magnetic stripe readers don’t
work at a distance.

5
  Since the information is not human readable, this can be a disadvantage in some
applications (e.g. hotel room numbers are not printed on the card, so there needs to be
another way of showing the information for the customer).
Smart card readers
Smart cards contain chips (see diagram above) and are similar to magnetic stripe cards. With
these cards the information is stored on the chip (e.g. PIN and personal data). The data stored on
the chip can be updated (e.g. on loyalty cards). For example, certain oil companies use these
cards: when a customer buys fuel at a filling station, the loyalty card is swiped and ‘points’ are
added to the card; these points can be used for air miles, money off next purchases, and so on.
The storage capacity of the chip is much greater than a magnetic stripe, so more information
(such as customer details) can be stored.

Uses

 Loyalty cards, ID cards and public transport passes use smart cards.
 Smart cards can be used to track customer/passenger movements (e.g. on a metro
system).
 They are used with satellite systems to decode program signals.
 Smart cards are used for electronic passports and driving licences.Advantages
 Some smart cards (e.g. transport tickets) are used instead of money, reducing the need
to carry cash.
 The chip on the card does not need to be in contact with reader, so there is less damage
compared with a magnetic stripe reader.
 Data is more secure, since it is easier to copy information on a magnetic stripe than it
is to copy information on a chip.
Disadvantages

 If the card is lost, information stored on the chip could be used in identity theft.

Chip and PIN readers

Chip and PIN readers are similar to smart card readers, but are used at EFTPOS
terminals. The device has a slot into which the card is placed and the chip is read.
The PIN is entered using the keypad. A small screen is also part of the reader,
which gives instructions to the operator.
Uses

Chip and PIN readers are used where payments are made using cards (restaurants, supermarkets,
travel agents, etc.).

6
Advantages

 Chip and PIN readers provide a more secure payment system than requiring a signature
or using a magnetic stripe, since the PIN typed in must match up with PIN stored on chip.
 Chip and PIN readers provide a more robust system than magnetic stripe readers, since
the chip does not need to be in contact with the reader.
Disadvantages

 Since the customer types in the PIN, they need to be careful that it isn’t read by
somebody else, thus giving an opportunity for fraud.
Scanners
Scanners are used to enter information on hard copy (e.g. text
documents, photographs) into a computer. The most common type is
the flat bed (as shown here) which is made up of a glass panel and lid.
The hard copy document or photo is scanned by a light source and
produces a computer-readable image.
The subsequent image can then be manipulated using a drawing
package. Images can also be used with optical character recognition
(OCR) software to allow the information to used in a word processor, desktop publishing,
presentation software, etc. Specialist scanners exist which are designed to carry out a specific
task, e.g. barcode scanners (discussed later in this section).
Uses

 Scanners are used to scan in documents and convert them into a format for use in various
software packages.
 Old and valuable documents and books can be scanned, thus protecting the originals
from damage through handling and also producing records in case the paper copies are
lost or destroyed.
 Non-digital photographs need to be scanned if they are to be stored on computer.
Advantages

 Images can be stored for editing at a later date (paper documents cannot be edited unless
they are scanned first).
 Scanners are much faster and more accurate (i.e. no typing errors) than typing in
documents again.
 It is possible to recover damaged documents and photographs by scanning them and then
using appropriate software to produce an acceptable copy.
Disadvantages

The quality can be limited, depending on how good the scanner resolution is.

7
Barcode readers
Barcode readers are used to read information in the form of a bar code
(illustrated in diagram). The readers are usually in the form of a barcode
scanner and are often built into POS terminals in supermarkets. Handheld
scanners or wands (as shown here) are also very common for reading
barcodes if portability is required (e.g. if the barcodes are on large or fixed
objects).

Uses

 Barcode scanners are used in supermarkets and other shops where the goods are marked
with a barcode; the barcodes are used to give information about the product, which
enables automatic stock control, itemized billing, etc. to take place.
 They are used in libraries, to scan both users’ library cards and barcodes on the diagram
A barcode books, in order to keep track of books on loan.
 They are used as a safety function in many companies to ensure that electrical equipment
is checked on a regular basis. Barcodes are placed on an item to identify it and a
database holds all the information related to that barcode so it is possible to interrogate
the system as part of a safety audit.
Advantages

 Scanning barcodes is much faster than keying in data manually and fewer mistakes are
made.
 When barcodes are used as a way of recording data, they can improve safety.
 Barcodes enable automatic stock control.
 Barcode scanning is a tried and trusted technology.
 When an item price is changed, only the central database needs to be updated. There is
no need to change the prices individually on each item.
Disadvantages

 Barcode scanning is a relatively expensive system to administer since every item in the
shop needs a barcode and every barcode needs to be entered on to the central database.
Also, there is a need to invest in the computer technology together with staff training,
which can all be very expensive.
 The system is not foolproof – barcodes can be swapped around on items!

8
 OMR devices
Optical mark recognition (OMR) is a system which can read marks written in pen or
pencil. The places where the pen or pencil marks can be made are clearly shown on
the form, for example:
1–2-3
In this example, a pencil mark has been made between the dots on answer 1. The position of the
mark is stored in the computer’s memory after being read by the OMR device.
Uses

 OMR devices are used to read questionnaires, multiple-choice examination papers and
many other types of form where responses are registered in the form of lines or shaded
areas.
Advantages

 It is a very fast way of inputting the results of a survey, etc. – the documents are fed in
automatically and there is no user input.
 Since there is no typing, it is more accurate than keying in the data.
 OMR is more accurate than OCR (discussed later in this section).
Disadvantages

 The forms need to be carefully designed to make sure that the marks/shading are
correctly positioned to gather accurate information.
 There can be problems if the forms haven’t been filled in correctly and sometimes they
have to be manually checked before being read by the OMR device – this is both time
consuming and expensive.
OCR readers
Optical character recognition (OCR) is the name given to software that takes
scanned text and converts it into a computer readable form. The text can then be
used in various application packages such as word processors, desktop publishers
and presentation software.
Uses

 One of the most recent uses is in the processing of passports and identity cards.
 OCR is used when scanning in documents so that they can be modified using a word
processor or desktop publisher package.
Advantages

 It is a much faster data entry system than manually keying in data.

 Since no manual data entry, the number of errors is also reduced.

9
Disadvantages

 The system still has difficulty reading handwriting.

 It is still not a very accurate technique.
MICR devices
Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR) is a system which can read characters printed in a
special ink (containing iron particles). Only certain characters written in a standard font can be
read, for example the characters at the bottom of a bank cheque (see diagram). These characters
are converted into a form that the computer can understand and then stored in a computer file.

Uses

It is primarily used to process cheques in banking operations. When a cheque is presented its
value is then printed on the cheque in the special ink. The cheques are all gathered together
(either at the end of the day or after some specified period) and then read using a batch
processing method.
Advantages

 MICR offers greater security than OCR since the printed characters cannot be altered.
 There is no manual input, thus errors are reduced.
 Even if somebody writes over the magnetic ink characters (e.g. with a signature) they
can still be read.
Disadvantages

 Only certain characters can be read and the number of different characters is very
limited.
 It is a more expensive method than other methods used in direct data entry.
Digital cameras
Digital cameras are rapidly replacing traditional, film-based cameras. Once
photographs are stored in memory, they are easily transferred to a computer
using a universal serial bus (USB) connection (see diagram). Once saved, the
images can be manipulated (e.g. cropped, re-sized, contrast altered, etc.).
Uses

 Digital cameras produce photographs for transfer to a computer directly or to print out
by connecting directly to a printer.
 Many digital cameras also allow short video clips to be produced.
 Photographs can be uploaded directly into applications software
such as word processors, desktop publishers, etc.

10
Advantages

 It is easier to produce better quality photographs than with a traditional camera. It is

easier and faster to upload photographs to a computer rather than having to scan in hard
copies when using traditional methods.
 There is no need to develop film and print out photographs any more – this saves money
and is also environmentally more acceptable (saves paper and no longer need the
chemicals used in developing the films).
 It is easy just to delete an image from memory if it is not satisfactory and take the
photograph again.
 The memory cards can store several hundred photographs. A traditional camera was
limited by the number of photographs that could be taken on a roll of film.
Disadvantages

 The camera user needs to be computer literate to use the cameras properly; also the
transferring, storing and manipulating of the images via a computer requires some
understanding of how computers work.
 There is some artistry lost since clever software now corrects errors in the photographs
(e.g. incorrect exposure, removal of red eye, etc.).
 The resolution is not yet as good as traditional cameras, although this is improving all
the time. The quality of photographs depends on the number of pixels (many cameras
now offer more than 10 mega pixels per image), quality of lens, etc.
 Images often need to be compressed to reduce the amount of memory used (a single
image can use more than 2 Mbytes of memory, for example).
 It is possible to fill up computer memory very quickly with several photographs of the
same subject in an attempt to find the ‘perfect’ snap shot.

Webcams
Webcams are similar to digital video cameras; however, they are connected
directly to the computer (through a USB port) and they do not have a
memory. The information that the webcam picks up is transmitted directly
to the computer. Many computer systems now have webcams built into the
top of their monitors as standard equipment.
Uses

 While chatting online, many people use webcams as a more personal

way of having a conversation.
 They are used to enable video conferencing to take place (discussed in Chapter 4).
Advantages

 Webcams can be left on constantly, only being activated as required.

11
  They allow people to keep in contact with each other without the need to travel, so they
are particularly useful for elderly or disabled people.
Disadvantages

 Webcams have very limited features and the picture is often of poor quality.
 They need to be connected to the computer, although this is less of an issue with laptop
computers when the webcam is built into the monitor lid.
Microphones
Microphones can be connected directly to a computer. Sounds can be inputted and then
manipulated. The input sound is converted to an analogue signal and then converted into a
digital signal. The computer’s sound card usually does this automatically (i.e. it acts as an
analogue to digital converter (ADC).
Uses

 Microphones are used to input speech/sounds to be used in various applications, e.g.

presentations, sampling (in films, music, etc.), special effects (films).
 They are used in voice recognition software, which can have a number of purposes, for
example:
 conversion of speech into text that can be used in, for example, a word processor
 recognition of commands (e.g. some cars now have voice-activated systems to switch on
the lights, turn up the radio volume, etc.).
Advantages

 It is faster to read in text than to type it in using a keyboard.

 Using special software, it is possible to manipulate sound in real time rather than
working on a recording done at some earlier stage.
 If used in a voice activation system, this has the advantage of improving safety since, for
example, car drivers don’t need to take their hands off the wheel to operate a switch or
alter the radio station etc.
Disadvantages

 Sound files can use up a lot of computer memory.

 Voice recognition software isn’t as accurate as typing in manually (for example, the
software can’t distinguish the difference between ‘their’ and ‘there’).
Sensors
This section deals with analogue sensors. A sensor is a device which inputs
data to a computer, where the data is a measurement of some physical
quantity which is continuously changing (e.g. temperature, light, moisture,
etc.). These physical quantities are analogue in nature. Since computers only
understand digital data (i.e. 1s and 0s), the information from the sensors

12
needs to be converted into a digital form. This is done using an analogue to digital converter
(ADC).
Uses

Sensors are used in monitoring and control applications – the type of sensor depends on the
application (see Table below). When monitoring, the data sent to the computer is often
transferred directly to a spreadsheet package (e.g. taking measurements in a scientific
experiment, measuring atmospheric pollution, etc.).

Type of sensor Applications

Automatic washing machines, central heating systems,

Temperature
automatic greenhouses, ovens

Burglar alarm systems, washing machines, robotics,

Pressure
environmental monitoring

Automatic greenhouses, automatic doors, burglar alarm

Light
systems, street lighting control

Sound Burglar alarm systems, monitoring liquid and powder

flow in pipes

Automatic greenhouses, environmental monitoring,

Humidity/moisture factories where moisture levels are crucial (e.g.
manufacture of microchips, paint spraying)

Automatic greenhouses, chemical processes,

pH
environmental monitoring

Applications of different types of sensors

Advantages

 Readings taken using sensors are generally more accurate that those taken by human
operators.
 Readings are continuous, so there is no break in the monitoring.
 Because it is a continuous process, any necessary action (control system) or warning
(monitoring system) will be initiated immediately.
 The system can be automatic, removing the need for human intervention. This is
particularly important if the process is hazardous or needs precise control/monitoring.

13
Disadvantages

 Faulty sensors can give spurious results (e.g. if the sensors on the rear bumper of a car
which monitor for obstacles become dirty, they may either not identify an obstacle or
give a continuous alarm).
Graphics tablets
A graphics tablet is used with a stylus to produce freehand drawings for
example. The images produced can then be stored in a file on a
computer.

Uses

 Graphics tablets are used to produce drawings, computer graphics, etc.

 In countries where characters are complex (e.g. China, Japan), they are used as a form of
input since it is faster than typing in the characters using a keyboard. They are used in
computer aided design (CAD) work.
Advantages

 It is possible to modify drawings before they are input.

 They offer a very accurate method of drawing, which is better than using a mouse or
trackerball.
Disadvantages

 They are more expensive than other pointing devices, such as a mouse.
Light pens
Light pens contain sensors that send signals to a computer whenever light
changes are detected. At the moment, the devices only work with cathode
ray tube (CRT) monitors because they rely on the screen image being built
up row by row by an electron beam. The screen is refreshed 50 times every
second, so the computer is able to determine the pen’s position by noting exactly when the light
pen detected the electron beam passing its tip. Systems to operate with thin film transistor (TFT)
monitors are still at the development stage.
Uses

 Light pens are used for selecting objects on CRT screens.

 They are also used for drawing on screen (e.g. with CAD packages).
Advantages

 Light pens are more accurate than touch screens.

14
  They are small, so can be used where space is an issue.
 They are easy to use.
Disadvantages

 There are problems with lag when drawing on screen.

 At the moment, they only work with CRT monitors.
 They are not very accurate when drawing.

15
iii. Output devices
As the name suggests, output devices are hardware devices that allow data to be output from a
computer. Some devices hold the data temporarily (such as a printer) whereas other devices
produce permanent output in the form of a hard copy (such as a printer producing output on
paper). There is a third type of output device which is used to control processes in conjunction
with sensor input devices.
Monitors

Liquid-crystal display (LCD):

A screen back-lit by light-emitting diodes and with liquid crystal cells sandwiched between
polarisers.

In the flat-screen technology that is most used at present, the pixel is not a light source. The
liquid-crystal display (LCD) screen has individual cells containing a liquid crystal to create the
pixel matrix but these do not emit light. The pixel matrix is illuminated by back-lighting and each
pixel can affect the transmission of this light to cause the on-screen display. A typical
arrangement is shown above.

Plasma

*research

LED

*research

16
CRT monitors
CRT monitors are the least expensive type of monitor, although they are
becoming increasingly rare as TFT monitors are now taking over. They
come in various sizes. They use an electron gun to fire against a phosphor
screen, which creates a picture that is made up of tiny dots. Each dot is
coloured red, green or blue – the intensity of each coloured dot makes up
the vast range of colours interpreted by the eye.
Uses

 CRT monitors are used as the primary output device for computers so the user can see
immediately what they are typing in.
 They are used with light pens, for example to allow designs to be created on screen.
Advantages

 CRT monitors still produce a higher quality image than TFT monitors.
 The angle of viewing is still better than with a TFT monitor.
 They work with light pens in computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing
(CAD/CAM) applications.
Disadvantages

 CRT monitors tend to be rather heavy and are a weight hazard if not supported properly.
 They run very hot and can cause fires if left unattended (especially as they get older).
They consume considerably more power than the modern TFT monitors.
 They can flicker, which can lead to headaches and eyesight problems with prolonged
use.
TFT monitors
TFT monitors are taking over from CRT monitors as the main output
device. One of the reasons for the rapid development of laptop computers
can be attributed to the advancements made in TFT technology. The
screen is made up of thousands of tiny pixels, which are made up of
transistors controlled by a microprocessor. Each pixel has three
transistors, coloured red, green or blue; the intensity of each governs the
effective colour of the pixel seen by the eye.
Uses

 TFT monitors are used as the primary output device for computers so the user can see
immediately what they are typing in.
 They are an integral part of laptop computers.
Advantages

17
  TFT monitors are lightweight, so do not pose the same risks as CRT monitors.
 They produce less glare than CRT monitors and also emit less radiation.
 They consume much less power and do not generate as much heat as a CRT monitor.
Disadvantages

The angle of viewing a TFT monitor is fairly critical, with the image appearing unclear when
viewed slightly from the side. This can be an issue if several people are looking at a screen at the
same time.
The definition is sometimes not as good as CRT monitors.
TFT monitors cannot yet be used with light pens, so these monitors cannot be used in CAD if
light pens are used to create and edit drawings.
Laser printers
Laser printers produce very high-quality hard copy output. The print
rate per page is very quick if a large number of pages are being printed.
They rely on large buffer memories, where the data for the whole
document is stored before the pages can be printed out.

Uses

 Laser printers are used where noise levels need to be kept low (e.g. in an office).
 They are the best option for fast high-quality high-volume printing.
Advantages

 Printing is fast for high volumes. If only a few pages are to be printed they are little
faster than inkjet printers.
 They can handle very large print jobs.
 The quality is consistently high.
 Toner cartridges last for a long time, so laser printers can be a cost effective option,
particularly if colour outputs are not required.
Disadvantages

 Laser printers are expensive to buy.

 They are only really fast if several copies are being made.
 Colour laser printers tend to be expensive to run, since four cartridges (three colours plus
black) are needed as well as diffuser kits, etc.
 They produce ozone and volatile organic compounds because of their method of printing
and type of toner/ink used. These have been linked to health hazards in the office.

18
Inkjet printers
Inkjet printers are used to produce good quality hard copies. Although the
quality is not quite as good as that from laser printers, it is far better than
that from dot matrix printers. Unlike laser printers, inkjet printers do not
have large buffers, so printing is done a bit at a time. This is why printing
is sometimes paused, since the whole page can’t be stored in the buffer and
it has to wait for the computer to send more data.
Uses

 Inkjet printers are used where low output volumes are required.
 If high-quality printing is required for single pages (or only a small print job) then these
printers are ideal, for example they are very good at producing photo quality printouts.
 3D inkjet printers are now being used in industry to produce prototypes (see below).
Advantages

 The output is of high quality.

 Inkjet printers are cheaper to buy than laser printers.
 They are very lightweight and have a small footprint (i.e. take up little space).
 They do not produce ozone and volatile organic compounds, unlike laser printers.
Disadvantages

 The output is slow if several copies needed, as there is little buffer capacity to store the
pages.
 The ink cartridges run out too quickly to be used for large print jobs.
 Printing can ‘smudge’ if the user is not careful.
 Inkjet printers can be expensive to run if they are used a lot, since original ink cartridges
are expensive.
3D inkjet printers

A prototype produced on a 3D inkjet printer

19
These are a new type of printer that produce solid 3D models using modified inkjet technology.
In this technology, known as ‘tomography’, thin layers of fine powder (plaster, resin and starch)
are bonded together as a 3D model is slowly built up (each layer is only about 0.25mm thick).
Diagram above shows some items produced on a 3D inkjet printer – these are known as
prototypes.
Uses

 Inkjet printers are used to produce prototypes which actually work from CAD packages,
photograph images, stored drawings, etc.
 Scale models are produced in colour before the real thing is manufactured.
 The ultimate objective is to produce organic objects (such as replacement human organs)
using this layering technology.
Advantages

 3D inkjet printers save a lot of money, since making prototypes by other methods is very
time consuming and expensive.
 Physical scale models are produced with working parts, which gives a better idea of how
the end product will look.
 The powders used can often be ground up and re-used.
Disadvantages

 3D inkjet printers are expensive to buy.

 They are slow at producing their output.
 The end product can sometimes be a little rough and often needs further work to be done
on it.
Dot matrix printers
Dot matrix printers are a type of impact printer, where a printhead (made up
of a matrix of pins) presses against an inked ribbon. They tend to be slow,
noisy and the output is not good quality. They are still useful, however,
where multi-part or continuous stationery (e.g. long reams of perforated
paper) is being used.
Uses

 They can be used in noisy environments (e.g. garage workshops) and in applications
where print quality is not very important.
Advantages

 Dot matrix printers can be used in environments which would be a problem for laser or
inkjet printers (e.g. dusty, dirty or moist atmospheres).
 Carbon copies or multi-part outputs can be produced.

20
  They are very cheap to run and maintain.
 They are easy to use if continuous stationery is required (e.g. long print jobs such as
wages slips).
Disadvantages

 They are very noisy and so not good in an office environment.

 They cost more than an inkjet printer to buy.
 They are very slow and the printing is of poor quality.
Plotters
Plotters (also known as graph plotters) are devices that produce hard copies,
but operate in a different way to printers. They are not limited to normal
printer paper size and are capable of producing highly accurate, very large
drawings and posters. The most common types are pen plotters (which use
coloured pens to draw), electrostatic (similar method to laser printers) and inkjet plotters. With
pen plotters the coloured pens are controlled by a computer and the paper can move backwards
and forwards to allow accurate shapes to be drawn.
Uses

 Plotters are used to produce large drawings (e.g. blueprints of buildings, factories, etc.)
and are often used with CAD applications.
 They are used to produce large pictures for use on billboards or giant posters.
 They can also print on plastic-coated paper.
 If the pens are replaced with cutting tools, it is also possible to make large signs.
Advantages

 They can produce huge printouts.

 The print quality is extremely high.
Disadvantages

 They are slow in operation.

 They are expensive, both to buy and to maintain.
Speakers
Speakers can be connected directly to a computer or are built into the
monitor or casing (as in a laptop computer). Digital data from the computer
is converted into analogue form, using a digital to analogue converter
(DAC). The signal is then amplified through the speakers.
Uses

 Speakers are used to output sound from multimedia presentations.

21
  They are used in home entertainment centres.
 They can help blind people (together with speech generation software) through audio
output of text on the screen.
 They are used to play downloaded sound files.
Multimedia projectors
Multimedia projectors receive signals that can be either analogue or digital,
although most modern projectors only work with digital inputs. The signal
source is usually from a computer, television or DVD player. The image
from the source is magnified and projected onto a large screen. The devices
usually work with a remote control, but can also use virtual mouse
technology which actually becomes a cordless PC mouse with the same features as a mouse. It is
then possible to direct the computer presentation without being tied to the computer. Another
feature of the virtual mouse is the laser pointer. Most multimedia projectors take input from
various types of video format such as NTSC, PAL or SECAM.
Uses

 Multimedia projectors are used for training presentations (to allow the whole audience to
see the images from a computer).
 They are also used for advertising presentations (large images showing product features
of, for example, a new car, can be shown at exhibitions, shopping malls, etc.).
 Home cinema systems (projecting the images from a DVD or television) use multimedia
projectors.
Advantages

 They enable many people to see a presentation rather than all of them crowding round a
small computer screen.
 They avoid the need for several networked computers. For example, when looking at a
video clip on an internet site, everybody can see the video on the large screen rather than
logging on to a number of computers.
Disadvantages

 Images can sometimes be fuzzy.

 Multimedia projectors are expensive to buy.
 Setting up projectors can be a little difficult.

22
iv. Control devices
Control devices are another type of output device. They are used to control processes in
conjunction with sensor input devices.
Actuators
Actuators are transducers and are used to take signals from a computer and convert them into
some form of motion, for example operating motors, pumps, switches and valves. As part of the
control process, digital signals are sent from the computer to an actuator to operate a device.
Usually, conversion of the digital signal to analogue is required first (using a DAC).

Motors

The motor is turned on or off by the actuator.

Uses

 Motors are used in many domestic appliances, such as automatic

washing machines (to make the drum rotate), cookers (to switch on fans), water pumps in
central heating systems and automatic greenhouses to open windows and switch on fans.
 In industry, they are used to control robot arms.
 In computers, they operate fans, disk drives and DVD drives.

Buzzers

The buzzers are switched on or off by the actuator.

Uses

 Buzzers are used in cookers and microwave ovens to tell the operator when the cooking
process is complete.
 They are used in burglar alarm systems to warn if intruders are present.

23
Lights

The actuator is connected to the switch that turns the lights on or off.
Uses

 They are used for security lights.

 Lights are used in greenhouses to control the lighting conditions.

Heaters

Actuators are connected to switches which turn the heater on or off.

Uses

 Heaters are used in automatic washing machines, cookers and central heating systems.
 Heaters are used in automatic greenhouses to control the temperature.

24
v. Storage Media /Backing up media

What is backing up of data?

Backing up refers to the copying of files and data to a different medium (disk, tape, flash drive,
etc.) in case of a problem with the main storage device. Backing up files and data on a regular
basis is seen as good computing practice and many computer systems can be set to back up files
automatically on a regular basis.
The backups are often stored in a different place to the main storage. This is in case of fire or
some other situation which could lead to irretrievable loss of key data and files.
Why back up data?

There are various reasons why backups are made. Some of the more common reasons are
considered below:
 Data could be lost due to failure of the original storage device. This could be due to
hardware failure (e.g. head crash on a hard drive unit), problems caused by files being
over-written accidentally (or otherwise) or possible corruption of files (e.g. caused by
power surges).
 Hackers could be responsible for the corruption or even loss of data. This may not be
their intention (they may only want to gain access to the information for other purposes,
e.g. to find personal information such as bank account details). However, the very act of
hacking into files could cause problems such as corruption or data loss.
 Backups are also made in case the files need to be used elsewhere. The original files are
then protected against possible corruption or loss.
However, backups do not necessarily guard against the effect of a virus. The virus could attach
itself to the files which could mean that the backups were also affected. If the computer was
‘cleaned’ of the virus and then the backup files were re-loaded there would remain the risk that
the same virus could infect the computer system again.

25
Types of Back up

Differential Backup

Differential backup is one practical method for backing up single files or folders that change
every day in backup strategies. A differential backup backs up only the files that changed since
the last full backup.

For example, suppose you do a full backup on Sunday. On Monday you back up only the files
that changed since Sunday, on Tuesday you back up only the files that changed since Sunday,
and so on until the next full backup.
Differential Backup .vs Full Backup

 Differential backups are quicker than full backups because so much less data is being
backed up. But the amount of data being backed up grows with each differential backup
task until the next full back up.
 Differential backups are more flexible than full backups, but still unwieldy to do more
than about once a day, especially as the next full backup approaches.
What is incremental backup?
Incremental backups also back up only the changed data, but it only backs up the data that has
changed since the last backup - be it a full or incremental backup. They are sometimes called
"differential incremental backups," while differential backups are sometimes called "cumulative
incremental backups." Confused yet? Don't be.
Let's suppose that you do an incremental backup on Tuesday, you'll only back up the data that
changed since the incremental backup on Monday. The result is a much smaller and faster
backup. The advantage of incremental backups is the shorter the time intervals between backups,
with fewer data to be backed up.

26
Full Backup
A full backup created from within Windows, of course, backs up all the files in a partition or on
a disk by copying all disk sectors with data to the backup image file. Creating a full backup for
unknown or damaged file systems Acronis True Image copies all sectors to the image file,
whether or not the sector contains data. This is the simplest form of backup, but it is also the
most time-consuming, space-intensive and the least flexible.

Types of access

The way data is stored and read by different backing storage devices varies considerably. This
section briefly describes the two main methods of accessing data.

Serial access
With this system, to access data it is necessary to start at the beginning and then access each
piece of data in turn until the required information is found.

It is primarily used on magnetic tape systems and is a very slow form of access. It is used in
applications where speed of access or where the order in which
the data is accessed is not important, for example in utility
billing, clearing bank cheques or producing pay slips.

27
When a magnetic tape needs updating, an additional tape is required so that the old information
can be merged with the new data
Updating the data on a updated
tape
(itself often on another tape, but the new data could be stored in various ways) to produce the
(diagram).
Direct access
This method is used with magnetic disks and with optical media (such as CDs and DVDs). The
computer uses a key field to calculate where data has been stored. It is then able to access the
data directly from the calculated position. Consequently, access is much faster than with serial
access.
It is used in applications where access speed is vital (e.g. in real-time process control systems
such as controlling a chemical plant or online systems such as booking air tickets or automatic
stock control).
When updating media which uses direct access, the new data is written to the next available
location and its position is calculated using the built-in algorithm.
Backing storage media
Dating back to the development of the personal computer, all computer systems have come
equipped with some form of backing storage. When a user types data into a computer, the
information is stored temporarily on the RAM – however, this information would be lost as soon
as the computer was turned off. Backing storage devices ensure that data is stored permanently
and can be used at a later date. This section will be considering various types of backing storage
and the media used.
Backing storage devices are either internal or external (i.e. plug-in devices) to the computer, and
are one of four types:
 magnetic
 optical
 solid state.
 cloud

MAGNETIC

Fixed hard disk

Fixed hard disk drives are available on all computers and are the main method used
for data storage. On a PC this is usually a fixed hard disk with read/write heads
allowing data to be written to or read from the disk surface. The disk surface is coated

28
in a magnetic film which allows data to be stored by altering the magnetic properties to represent
binary 1s or 0s (the fundamental units of computer memories). The hard drive disks usually store
the disk operating system (DOS) and other important software and files. Applications software
(e.g. spreadsheets and word processors) need a hard drive to allow them to quickly retrieve and
save data.
Uses

 Fixed hard drives are used to store the operating system and working data.
 They are used for storing applications software that needs fast retrieval and storage of
data.
 Real-time systems (e.g. robots, control of a chemical plant) and online systems (e.g.
booking airline tickets, automatic stock control (using EPOS)) used fixed hard drives.
 They are used in file servers for computer networks.
Advantages

 They have a very fast data transfer rate and fast access times to data.
 They have very large memory capacities.
Disadvantages
 They can be fairly easily damaged (e.g. if the correct shut-down procedure on a laptop
computer has not been correctly carried out and the computer is then moved).
 They lack portability unless a portable hard disk drive is used (see next sub-section).

Portable hard disk drives

These devices work in much the same way as fixed hard disk drives but are usually connected to
the computer via a universal serial bus (USB) port and can be disconnected and used on different
computers. The disks are generally capable of storing more data than the equivalent optical disk
(CD, DVD and so on).
Uses

 Portable hard disks can be used as back-up systems to prevent loss of data.
 They can be used to transfer data, files and software between computers.
Advantages

29
  The data access time and data transfer rate is very fast.
 They have large memory capacities.
 They can be used as a method of transferring information between computers.
Disadvantages

 As with fixed drives, a portable hard disk can be easily damaged if the user accidentally
drops it or does not shut it down correctly after use.

Floppy disk drives

Floppy disks are still used on some computer systems. They consist of a thin disk of plastic
which is housed in a plastic case with a window where the disk can be accessed. As the disk
rotates, a read/write head is used to add or read data stored on the surface.
Uses

 They are still used where small files need to be transferred/stored (e.g. word-processed
documents).
 Some older computer systems still make use of this method of storage.
Advantages

 Using a CD to store a small file (e.g. a word-processed document) is often regarded as

wasteful – especially if CD-R is used.
 It is a very simple technology. Floppy disk drives are also extremely low cost items to
buy.
Disadvantages

 Floppy disks have a very low memory capacity when compared to CD/DVDs, for
example.
 Very few modern computers have floppy disk drives.
 The data transfer rate is slow compared to more modern data storage devices.
 Floppy disks are not very robust.

Magnetic tapes

A magnetic tape is a very thin strip of plastic which is coated in a magnetic layer. They
are read and written to by a read/write head. The data is stored in magnetic areas which
represent 1s and 0s. Data is written to and read from the tape in sequence (i.e. in order) –
for example, if five records A, B, C, D and E were stored they would be in the order E D C B
A on the tape; so if record B was to be read it would be necessary to read E, D and C first before
getting to the required record. This is known as serial access. This type of storage is useless in a

30
real-time or online application (due to the very slow access speeds) and is best suited to offline
or batch processing.

31
Uses

 Magnetic tapes are used in applications where batch processing is used, for example in
clearing bank cheques, utility billing (gas, electricity, water) and producing pay slips. In
these applications, there is no need for any specific processing order and speed of data
access is not important).
 They are used as a back-up media since all the data needs to be stored.
Advantages

 They are generally less expensive than the equivalent-capacity hard disk.
 It is a very robust technology.
 The data transfer rate is fast.
Disadvantages

 Access time is very slow.

 When updating, another tape is needed (i.e. original tape + tape with the changes
produces an updated tape).

Optical storage media

Optical storage devices, such as CD and DVD, all use optical (i.e. light) read/write
methods, unlike tapes and floppy/hard drive disks which are magnetic media. A laser
beam is used to write to and read from the optical media.
The CDs and DVDs are manufactured either from a single polycarbonate disk or from two
polycarbonate disks bonded together. A very thin layer of metal or organic dye is used as the
recording media. The big advantage of these storage media is that they are portable and can store
large data files (e.g. films, music or multimedia files) which would be too large for a floppy disk.

CD-ROM and DVD-ROM

CD-ROMs and DVD-ROMs are read only memory (ROM), which means they cannot be written
over and can only be read. The data is stored as a series of pits (equivalent to a binary value of 1)
and lands (equivalent to the binary value of 0) in the metallic optical layer. The pits are formed
by a laser beam etching the surface at the manufacturing stage. Only a single track exists which
spirals out from the center of the disk.
The pits and lands are read by a low-powered laser beam which follows the data stream and
reads from the center outwards in a spiral. The light reflects differently off a pit than it does off a
land and this is interpreted as 1s and 0s (i.e. data) – hence the term digital media.
Uses

32
  CD-ROMs are used by manufacturers to store music files and software, computer games
and reference software (such as an encyclopedia).
 DVD-ROMs have much larger storage capacity than CD-ROMs and are used to store
films. They are now increasingly used to store computer data and ever-more sophisticated
computer and arcade games.
Advantages

 They hold far more data than floppy disks, so one CD/DVD could replace several floppy
disks in some applications.
 They are less expensive than hard disk drive systems.
Disadvantages

The data transfer rate and data access time are slower than for hard disks.

CD-R and DVD-R

The letter ‘R’ here means the disk is recordable once only and then it becomes a CD-ROM or
DVD-ROM. These use a thin layer of an organic dye as the recording media; DVDs also use an
additional silver alloy or gold reflector. A laser beam produces heated spots and unheated spots.
On reading the disk, a laser beam is capable of distinguishing between the two types of spots and
effectively reads the data stream from the centre outwards in a spiral action. This data is then
interpreted as 1s and 0s.
Uses

 They are used for home recordings of music (CD-Rs) and films (DVD-Rs).
 They are used to store data to be kept for later use or to be transferred to another
computer.
 They are used in applications where it is necessary to prevent the deletion or over-writing
of important data).
Advantages
 CD-Rs and DVD-Rs are cheaper than RW disks.
 Once burned (and finalized), they are like ROM disks.
Disadvantages

 They can only be recorded once, so if an error occurs then the disk has to be thrown
away.
 Not all CD/DVD players can read CD-R/DVD-R.

33
CD-RW and DVD-RW

The ‘RW’ means that these disks are a re-writable media and can be written over several times.
Unlike CD-R/DVD-R, they don’t become ROMs. The recording layer uses a special phase-
changing metal alloy. The alloy can switch between crystalline and amorphous (non-crystalline)
phases, thus changing its reflectivity to light, depending on the laser beam power. Spots are
produced which can be read by a laser and then interpreted as 1s and 0s. The system allows data
to be written, erased and re-written many times.
Uses

 CD-RWs and DVD-RWs are used to record radio and television programmes, but can be
recorded over time and time again.
 They are used in closed circuit television (CCTV) systems.
Advantages

 CD-RWs and DVD-RWs can be re-used many times.

 They can use different file formats each time they are used.
 The RW format is not as wasteful as the R format since files or data can be added at a
later stage.
Disadvantages

 CD-RWs and DVD-RWs can be relatively expensive media.

 It is possible to accidentally overwrite data.

DVD-RAM

DVD-RAM is a recent addition to the optical media group. Unlike other CD and DVD formats,
DVD-RAMs have several discrete concentric tracks rather than a single spiral track. This gives
them the advantage that writing and reading can occur at the same time. This makes it possible to
watch an already recorded television programme at the same time as a different programme is
being recorded. DVD-RAMs can be written to many times.
Diagram compares the single spiral track found on normal CDs and DVDs with the discrete
single tracks found on a DVD-RAM.
The recording layer is made from a similar diagram a Spiral tracks on a normal CD or DVD.
Discrete tracks phase-changing material to that used in RW on a DVD-RAM technology. When
writing, a laser heats the phase changing alloy on the disk to about 500–700ºC, changing the
reflective properties from shiny to dull (i.e. pits). If the disk needs to be erased, a laser heats the
surface to about 200ºC to return the disk to its original shiny state. A low power laser is used to
read the written marks on the surface. The shiny and dull (pits) marks represent data to a
computer where they are interpreted.

34
Uses

 DVD-RAMs are used in recording devices such as satellite receivers to allow

simultaneous recording and playback.
 They are used in camcorders to store films.
Advantages

 DVD-RAMs have a long life – minimum life is estimated to be 30 years.

 It is possible to do a re-write operation over 100,000 times, compared with the RW
format which only allows about 1,000 re-writes.
 Writing on DVD-RAMs is very reliable, as they have in-built verification software to
ensure the accuracy of the data.
 Access is very fast if the files are fairly small.
 There is no need to finalise the disk.
 They have a very large capacity (about 10 Gbyte if double-sided format is used).
 They offer the ability to read data at the same time as data is being written.
Disadvantages

 DVD-RAMs are not as compatible as R or RW format, as many systems will not

recognise their format.
 They are relatively expensive, costing about 4 times as much as a DVD-RW disk.

Blu-ray disks

Blu-ray disks have the largest capacity of all the optical media available and go up to 100 Gbyte
(at the present time). The laser beam used is at the blue/violet end of the spectrum, rather than
red which is the colour of the lasers used in other optical media. Consequently, the light used has
a shorter wavelength, allowing more data to be stored/read on the disk.
Uses

 Blu-ray disks are used in home video consoles.

 They are used for storing and playing back films: 1 high-definition film of two hours
duration uses 25 Gbyte of memory.
 PCs can use this technology for data storage or backing up hard drives.
 Camcorders can use this media (in cartridge form) to store film footage.

35
Advantages

 They have a very large storage capacity, and so are ideal for storing high definition films.
 The data transfer rate is very fast.
 The data access speed is also greater than with other optical media.
Disadvantages

 The disks are relatively expensive.

 At the time of writing, blu-ray systems still have encryption problems (which are used to
stop piracy) when used to store video.

SOLID STATE BACKING STORE

Solid state technology is being developed to the point where solid-state drives will soon replace
hard disk drives in laptop computers. This is due to their inherent thinness, their much faster data
access time and the fact that they are extremely robust.
They are similar to magnetic and optical media in that data is still stored as 1s and 0s. However,
instead of changing the magnetic properties on the thin film surface of a rotating disk, these
solid-state systems control the movement of electrons within a microchip. The 1s and 0s are
stored in millions of miniature transistors within the microchip: if the transistor conducts a
current, this is equivalent to a 1, otherwise it is a 0.
They consequently have no moving parts, consume much less power and are extremely robust.
They are used primarily as removable storage devices and are collectively known as flash
memory. The most common examples are memory sticks/pen drives and memory cards.

Memory sticks/pen drives

Memory sticks/pen drives can store several Gbytes of data and use the solid state
technology described above. They are usually connected to a computer through the USB
port and power to operate them is drawn from the host computer. They are extremely
small and very portable. Most operating systems recognise these storage media, which
means that no additional software is needed to operate them.
Some expensive software increasingly use these storage methods (sometimes referred to as
portable flash drives) as a form of security. They plug into the computer using the USB port and
are known as dongles. The software installed on a computer sends out a request (in encrypted
form) to the dongle asking for an encrypted validation key. Thus a person trying to commit
software piracy would have to crack the code on the dongle first before they could use the
software. Some systems go one stage further and have key bits of software stored on the dongle
36
in encrypted form. The software looks for these pieces of encrypted code to enable it to run. This
gives an added security benefit to the software.
Uses

 Memory sticks and pen drives are used for transporting files between computers or as a
back-up store.
 They are used as a security device – a dongle – to prevent software piracy.
Advantages

 They are very compact and portable media.

 They are very robust.
Disadvantages

 It is not possible to write protect the data and files.

 Their small physical size means that they are easy to lose.

Flash memory cards

These are a form of electrically erasable programmable read only memory

(EEPROM) and are another example of solid-state memories.
Uses

 Flash memory cards are used to store photos on digital cameras.

 Mobile phones use them as memory cards.
 They are used in MP3 players to store music files.
 They are used as a back-up store in handheld computer devices.
Advantages

 Flash memory cards are very compact, so they can be easily removed and used in
another device or used for transferring photos directly to a computer or printer. Since
they are solid state memories, they are very robust.
Disadvantages

 They are expensive per Gbyte of memory when compared to hard drive disks.
 They have a finite life in terms of the number of times they can be read from or written
to.
 They have a lower storage capacity than hard disks.

37
38
CHAPTER 2

TOPIC SKILL TASK ITEM

SET
Desktop, Desktop Identify common icons like those representing files, folders,
Icons and icons applications, printers, drives, recycle bin
Using Identify different parts of a window: title bar, menu bar, tool bar,
windows ribbon, status bar, scroll bar
Open, collapse, resize, expand, restore, maximize, move, close a
window, switch between windows

39
DESKTOP, ICONS

Before switching on a computer, make sure that it's plugged in - Then, you can switch on
the computer by pressing the power button - The power button is usually found on the
system unit - You should also switch on the screen (monitor).
After you have turned on the computer, it takes a while to start - This start-up process is
called booting. When the computer is booting, it checks that devices such as the
keyboard, CD-ROM drive and hard disk are operational.
After the initial booting process is over, an operating system starts - In this course, we
will use the Windows 7 operating system - After Windows finishes loading, the Windows
log on screen is displayed- This screen will prompt you to enter your user name and
password to log on securely to the computer -
Sometimes, computers may have more than one user account. For instance, most
companies usually have an Administrator account with permission to install and uninstall
software and a User account with permission to only use the software- in such cases; you
may need to select your user account first to enter the Windows log on screen.
The user name is either assigned to you or chosen by you to allow the computer system to
identify you. After you enter your username, your password backs up this information by
confirming your identity -

40
 A password is a combination of characters that are either assigned to you or chosen by
you to give you access to the computer – It’s very important that you do not tell anyone
your login details.
When you have entered your user name and password to log on, a screen called the
desktop is displayed- You will now be able to use the computer

Different parts of a window

Icons
Programs on the desktop are represented in the form of small pictures called icons. You
can start a program by double clicking on an icon with your mouse. You can doubts-click
by clicking the left mouse button twice in quick succession.

41
 Figure 3: Icons on the Desktop
Windows 7 is considered a Graphical User interface (GUI) based operating system
because you interact with it through on - screen images rather than keyboard.

Taskbar
The taskbar shows the programs that are currently running. The taskbar also contains the
Start button and the Status area. You can use the Start button to start a program. Suppose
you want to start a computer game. You use the Start button to locate the program icon
and launch the program. The Status area is used to display information such as the date
and the time.

The icons on the desktop are shortcuts to files, folders and applications on your computer.

Window
When you double click an icon a box appears which is called a window - You have used
the Computer icon on the desktop as a shortcut to get to the Computer folder - Not
surprisingly, windows are a fundamental part of the Windows 7 operating system. You
will be working with many such windows throughout this course.

42
Details Pane
The Details Pane displays a thumbnail image and information about the currently selected
folder or file. It can be easily resized by dragging its divider bar.

Navigation Pane
It displays links to various folders and files in the computer and allows you to navigate to
a desired folder easily. without closing the window.

43
Scroll Bar
These parts of the window are called Scroll Bars. Scroll Bars appear when the contents of
the window are too many to display.

Title Bar
The Title Bar contains the Minimize, Maximize and Close buttons. These buttons are
used to change the size of the window or to close the window.

Address Bar
The Address Bar appears at the top of every folder and displays your current location as a
series of links separated by arrows. Using the Address Bar, you can see your current
location on the computer or on a network.

44
Menu Bar
The Menu Bar is not visible by default, but can be displayed by selecting it from the
Layout option under the Organize command on the toolbar. The Menu Bar contains
commands grouped into several drop-down menus. To perform a task by using the Menu
Bar, you first select a menu by clicking on it, and then select a command from the list of
commands displayed by clicking the option you wish to use.

Command Bar

The Command Bar contains commands grouped together according to the kind of tasks
they perform. The Command Bar contains buttons for frequently performed tasks.

45
MICROSOFT WORD WINDOW

When you open Word, a blank file appears in the Word window - A file in Word is
referred to as a document - Using the keyboard, you type text into the document - A
document can have one or more pages - You could compare a page to a sheet of paper.
To use Word effectively, it is important for you to be familiar with different parts of the
Microsoft Word window.

Title Bar
The Title bar displays the name of the document that is open, which helps you,
distinguish one document from another when you are working with multiple documents.

Quick Access Toolbar

The upper left corner of the Title bar displays the Quick Access Toolbar. You can
customize the Quick Access Toolbar to display frequently used commands.

Ribbon
The Ribbon is a command bar that organizes a program's features into a series of tabs at
the top of a window- The Ribbon is positioned below the Quick Access Toolbar. It
46
 includes eight standard tabs: File, Home, Insert, Page Layout, References, Mailing,
Review, View.

Tabs
Tabs are toolbars organized around a high-level task and contain commands for
accomplishing that task - When a tab is selected, the commands associated with it are
displayed- For example, the Home tab contains the frequently used commands such as
bold, italic, underline etc., while the Insert tab includes commands for adding objects like
tables, pictures and charts - Some tabs, known as ‘contextual tabs’, are shown only when
they are needed. This feature helps reduce screen clutter.

Groups
The commands on each tab are ordered into groups to further organize the available
features or example, the Home tab in Word includes groups of commands called
‘Clipboard’, ‘Font, ‘Paragraph’, ‘Sty-les' and ‘Editing’.

Commands
Commands allow you to complete specific tasks - For example, the ‘Bold’ command in
the ‘Font’ group, under the ‘Home’ tab helps you to bold the selected text.

In – Ribbon Galleries
These are lists of commands or options presented graphically A results-based gallery
illustrates the effect of the commands or options instead of the commands themselves. An
in-ribbon gallery is displayed within a ribbon, as opposed to a pop-up window.

47
Dialog Box Launcher
These buttons at the bottom of some groups open dialog boxes containing features related
to the group.

File Tab
The File tab replaces the Microsoft Office Button from Word 2007? When you click the
File tab you can see the Microsoft Office Backstage view The Office Backstage view
contains commands used to manage Word and Word documents as a whole such as Save,
Save As, Open, Close, Print Help and so on.

Minimize the Ribbon

You can click this toggle arrow to minimize the Ribbon. When the Ribbon is minimized
only the names of the tab are visible Clicking the arrow again will restore the Ribbon.

You can also minimize the Ribbon by double-clicking on the active tab.

Help Icon
You can click the Help icon to get help using Microsoft Word.

Vertical Scroll Bar

The vertical scroll bar is used to move up and down in a document.

48
Horizontal Scroll Bar
The horizontal scroll bar is used to move left and right in a document. This scroll bar is
only visible when the document is zoomed to a larger size or if the window size is
reduced.

Status Bar
The Status bar displays information such as the page and line number at which the cursor
is positioned in the document.

Document Workspace
The workspace or document pane is the area where you enter text.

49
Document views buttons
The Document Views buttons allow you to change the view of the document for example
Print layout Outline, Full Screen Reading view and so on.

Zoom Buttons and Slider

The Zoom slider allows you to magnify the current document and enlarge or reduce its
view.

On a desk, things that are used often, such as pens or a notepad, are often kept on the
desktop for easy access. In Windows, often - used items are also stored on the desktop for
easy access. The items on the Windows desktop are programs or files represented in the
form of small pictures called icons. Double-clicking on an icon opens the file or program
it represents - Computer, the Recycle Bin, and Network are examples of programs on the
desktop.

THE DESKTOP

50
Desktop Icons

When you double-click an icon, the program associated with it gets started. Icons are
often called shortcuts (also sometimes called ‘aliases') because they start a program
without having to locate where the program is stored on the hard drive. The common
icons on the Windows desktop are displayed in the screenshot- Click each tab to learn
more about them.

Computer Icon
The computer icon can be used to view the contents of the devices such as the hard disk
and the CD – ROM Drive.

51
Network Icon
The network icon can be used to view the computers on a network and allows you to
access the data.

Recycle Bin Icon

When you delete a file from your computer, it is not permanently deleted - It is moved
into the Recycle Bin- The Recycle Bin is a temporary storage place for the files that you
delete from your computer - You can view the files you have deleted by opening the
Recycle Bin - If you deleted a file by mistake. You can restore it to its original location. If
you’re sure that you no longer want a file you can delete it permanently.

Devices and Printers Icon

It is used to access the printer settings for a stand – alone computer e.g. you can install a
printer, set an installed printer as your default printer or view the status of the installed
printers.

In Windows, an icon is used to display every file that's stored on your computer -
Windows Explorer is a program that you can use to view these files.
Computer Icon
From the Computer icon, you can access locations such as hard disks, CD or DVD drives,
and removable disks.

Folder Icon
This icon represents a folder on the hard disk- Folders help you organize files.

52
Files Icon

These icons represent files. Different icons are used to represent different types Windows
Explorer of files - For example, an icon used to represent a file created using Word will
be different from the one representing a file created using Excel.
We are familiar that in Windows, each application opens in its own window - The best
part about Windows is that you can work with multiple applications at the same time -
This means that multiple application windows can remain open at the same time - There
are some basic operations, such as resizing and moving windows, which you need to
learn so that you are able to work with multiple application windows - In this topic, you
will learn to perform these basic operations on a window and work with multiple
windows.

Maximize, Minimize etc.

53
When fully visible the appearance of the Maximize button has changed - When the
window is maximized, the button changes to become a Restore Down button. You can
restore the maximized window to its original size by clicking the Restore Down button.
Because Windows 7 allows you to work with multiple application windows open at the
same time often one window blocks the view of another if you want to get to a window
that is not visible what would you do instead of closing the window on the top, you can
minimize it. In Windows minimizing a window removes the window and places a button
representing it on the taskbar This allows you to view the other window which was being
blocked in the next exercise you will learn to minimize a window get it back to its
original size and then close it.
We can close a window by clicking the Close button. In the case of an Explorer window
it will simply close the window in the case of an application window (like the WordPad
window shown above) it will close the window and close the application.
You can resize (expand or minimize) a window by clicking anywhere on its edges or
corners and dragging it until it is a convenient size- Application windows, like a Word
document or a Notepad document, can also be scaled in the same manner - Once the
button is released, the application may rearrange its contents to use the new space most
effectively.

You can also set windows to take up exactly half of the computer screen- if you wish to
position a window such that it occupies the right half of the screen, click the Title Bar of
the window and drag it to the extreme right of the screen – The window will
automatically take up the right half of the screen.
Consider an example where you have many windows open on the screen at once and you
want to bring a particular window to the forefront- Minimizing each window, one at a
time, can be time – consuming - There's a simpler way to view the required window - All
the application windows are listed on the taskbar in the form of buttons - All you have to
do is to click the button representing the application you want- You will now learn how
to switch to a different application when multiple application windows are open.

54
There will be times when you would want more than one window to be visible on the
screen Suppose you have a report in WordPad containing numbers You want use the
Calculator program to perform some calculations on these numbers opening the
Calculator window might block your view of WordPad To be able to view the numbers in
WordPad while performing the calculations you must move the Calculator window to one
side Let s move the Calculator window on the screen.

55
 Previously, you learnt to close an application by clicking the Close button in the top -
right corner - Occasionally you might find that an application won't close; it remains in a
frozen state on the screen even after clicking the Close button or selecting the Exit option
in the Fife menu- This can happen when a fault occurs with the application.

We can force Windows to close an application that is not responding by pressing the Ctrl,
Alt and Delete buttons simultaneously to bring up the Windows Security window - From
here we can select ‘Start Task Manager'.

Folder Hierarchy

When you visit a library,

you find books of each
subject arranged together,
in separate shelves - This
makes it easier for you to
locate a specific book-
Similar to shelves, you
can create folders in a
computer to organize your
Files.
In this topic, you will
learn how to create
folders and how to view
information about the files
they contain.
When you store data on a
computer, it is stored in
the form of a file.
Whether it's a picture,
report, or student mark
sheet they are all stored in
the form of files - On your
computer, you can store a
set of files in a Folder-
You can further organize
files by keeping related
files together - For
example, you can store
your expense-related files
in one folder and your
personal letters in another
folder - This makes it

56
easy for you to locate them.
Shelves in a library are named appropriately so that you can easily identify them- In the
same manner, to identify your folders easily you must give meaningful names to your
folders - For example, Expenses would be an appropriate name for the folder with any
expense - related files.
In a library, you may find that books on English literature are further categorized as
fiction and non-fiction. You can also further organize your files by using Subfolders. For
example, you can have folders for each month within the Expenses folder - You can use
these subfolders to store expense files for each month- It will be easy for you to locate the
file for a particular month if the Expenses folder contains subfolders named January,
February and so on.
It's good practice to use meaningful names for folders and files - This will help you find
your files and folders quicker and, keep them organised. It will also help others, if you
need them to access files and folders on your computer - lf you have a folder named
'Personal', which contains lots of photos of family and friends stored on your computer,
organizing them into separate subfolders and giving them relevant names will help you
immensely- A good idea would be to create two separate subfolders, one called ‘Family’
and one called 'Friends'- ‘Within these, you can create further subfolders named after the
family member or friend whose photos are stored in it- This method will help you easily
find the photo you are looking for, no matter how many you may have stored on your
computer.
We have seen what files and folders are and how they are displayed by an operating
system such as Windows 7 – To organize your folders further, you can create additional
folders within a folder- These are called subfolders - The creation of folders, subfolders
and files, forms a hierarchy.
The structure of folders and Subfolders is called a Folder structure - You can create a
folder structure, using Windows Explorer. This image is how a folder structure within the
Windows Explorer.

57
Here's a screen shot of the Windows Explorer. There are two main parts of the Explorer
screen- These are called panes. In the left pane, also called the navigation pane, you can
see the folders present in the Hard disk or local disk C, Rewritable compact discs [CD-
RW], Rewritable digital video discs (DVD-HW), USE flash drives and any Network
drives that are present- When connected, all storage devices, whether internal or external,
can be seen in the left pane or the navigation pane of your Windows Explorer- The right
pane displays the contents of the folder selected in the left pane.
To view the contents of a folder, you can click the folder in the left pane. The files and
subfolders within this folder will then be displayed in the right pane.
Now, let's take a closer look at the left pane of the Windows Explorer. The left pane of
the Windows Explorer is also called the navigation pane - As you can see, the left pane
contains right arrows and downward arrows against the folders – What are these? To find
out, click the tabs. It's important to note that the right arrow or downward arrow, will
only display when the Navigation Pane is selected- In the next exercise, you will learn
how to use these arrows to expand and collapse views of drives and folders.

58
59
Right Arrow

A right arrow beside a folder indicates that the folder contains

subfolders – When you click the right arrow, the subfolders will
be displayed and the right arrow will turn into a downward
arrow.

Downward Arrow
A downward arrow beside a folder indicates that the folder is
fully expanded and all its contents are displayed. When you click
the downward arrow again, the folder structure is condensed and
the downward arrow changes to a right arrow.

Folder
A folder without a right arrow or a downward arrow indicates
that the folder contains only files and no subfolders.

60
CHAPTER 3

TOPIC SKILL TASK ITEM

SET
Word Working Open, close word processing application, open, close document
processing with
documents
Create a new document based on default template, other available
template like: memo, fax, agenda
Save a document to a location on a drive. Save a document under
another name to a location on a drive.
Save a document as another file type like: text file, Rich Text
format, template, software specific file extension, version number
Switch between open documents
Enter text Enter text into a document. Insert symbols or special characters
Select, edit Display, hide non-printing formatting marks like: spaces, paragraph
marks, manual line break marks, tab characters.
Select character, word, line, sentence, paragraph, entire body text
Edit content by entering, removing characters, words within
existing text, by overtyping to replace existing text
Use a simple search command for a specific word, phrase
Use a simple replace command for a specific word, phrase
Copy, move text within a document, between open documents.
Delete text.
Change text formatting: font sizes, font types
Apply text formatting: bold, italic, underline
Apply text formatting: subscript, superscript
Apply different colours to text
Apply case changes to text
Apply automatic hyphenation
Paragraphs Create, merge paragraph(s)
Insert, remove soft carriage return (line break)
Recognize good practice in aligning text: use align, indent, tab
tools rather than inserting spaces
Align text left, centre, right, justified
Indent paragraphs: left, right, first line
Set, remove and use tabs: left, centre, right, decimal
Recognise good practice in paragraph spacing: apply spacing
between paragraphs rather than use the Return key

61
 Apply spacing above, below paragraphs. Apply single, 1.5 lines,
double line spacing within paragraphs
Add, remove bullets, numbers in a single level list. Switch between
standard bullet, number styles in a single level list
Add a box border and shading/background colour to a paragraph
Apply an existing character style to selected text
Apply an existing paragraph style to one or more paragraphs
Use copy format tool
Table Create a table ready for data insertion
creation
Insert, edit data in a table
Select rows, columns, cells, entire table
Insert, delete, rows and columns
Table Modify column width, row height
formatting
Modify cell border line style, width, colour
Add shading/background shading to cells
Graphical Insert an object (picture, image, chart, drawn object) to a specified
objects location in a document
Select an object
Mail merge Open; prepare a document, as a main document for a mail merge.
Merge a mailing list with a letter.
Prepare Change document orientation, paper size.
outputs
Change margins.
Insert and delete page breaks.
Add, edit text in headers and footers

62
MICROSOFT WORD
What is Microsoft Word?

Word is a program you use to create letters, reports, memos and minutes and more
 You can print documents out and store them for future use
 You will never have to re-write a page if you make a mistake - just correct the
mistake and carry on
 It will recognize typing errors and can correct them for you
 You can dramatically improve the presentation of your documents
 You can send the same letter to a number of different people by merging the letter
with a list of different names and addresses
 Templates can be created and used for common types of documents such as fax
header sheets, memos and minutes and Forms used for data entry

Starting Word

The most basic way to start any Windows application, including Word, is from the Start menu:
1. Click the Start button at the left end of the taskbar to display the Start menu.
2. See if Microsoft Word appears in the main Start menu. If it does, click it to start the
program.
Figure 4 Starting Word from the main Start menu

.
If it doesn't, point to All Programs in the Start menu, point to Microsoft Office, and then click
Microsoft Office Word.

63
64
Figure 5: Starting Word from the Start, All Programs
menu.

If you have a shortcut icon for Word on your Windows

desktop, double-click it to start Word. If your system is
set up with a Word icon in the Quick Launch toolbar to
the right of the Start button, you can click it to start the
program. You can start Word by clicking its icon in the
Quick Launch toolbar.

65
Elements of the Word Window

 Title bar. The title bar of any Windows application lists the name of the application.
Word's title bar also contains the name of the open document.
 Menu bar. The menu bar contains a set of pull-down menus that you use to issue
commands
 Toolbars. The toolbars contain buttons that you can click to issue commands.
 Rulers. The vertical and horizontal rulers show you where your text is on the page. The
shaded sections at the ends of the rulers indicate the margin areas. You can use the rulers
to change some formatting,
 Text area. This is the area in which you can type text.
 View buttons. You can use these buttons to switch views
 Status bar. The status bar tells you about the current status of your document. The left
section tells you the current page number and the total number of pages. The middle
section tells you the location of the insertion point (the cursor), and the right section tells
you whether some special features are turned on.
 Scrollbars. The horizontal and vertical scrollbars let you bring different parts of a
document into view.
 Control buttons. These buttons let you control the Word window.
 Browse buttons. You can use these buttons to navigate sequentially through your
document in various ways

66
Using the Control Buttons

The Control buttons appear in the upper-right corner of the Word window. The function of these
buttons is the same for all Windows applications.
Click the Minimize button to temporarily hide the Word window, leaving only its taskbar button.
To redisplay the Word window, click its taskbar button. If you want to make the Word window
cover the entire desktop, click the Maximize button

File menu

New:
This command is use to create a new document.
Step: - File menu  new  then select blank document  create

Open:
This is command is use to open document.
Step: - File menu  Open  select document from specific location  open.

67
How to open Multiple Documents at Once

If you want to open several files in the same folder at once, you can select all of them in the
Open dialog box before clicking the Open button. To select several files, use these techniques:
 If the files are adjacent to one another, click the first file, and then Shift+click (hold down
your Shift key as you click) the last file.
 If the files are not adjacent, click the first file, and then Ctrl+click (hold down the Ctrl
key as you click) the additional files.
Step: - First  file menu then  open then select file then  open

Close:

This command is use to close the page of ms word it can’t close the complete document of ms
word.
Step: - File menu  close  if you want to save your document select yes if you don’t want to
save your document then click No if you don’t want to close or save the document then select
cancel.

68
Save:

When you are typing a new document, it exists only in your computer's memory. Memory (or
RAM) is a temporary storage area. In other words, it is dependent on electricity. As soon as you
turn off your computer, memory is wiped clean and everything in it is lost. For this reason, you
need to save your documents to a permanent storage medium, such as your hard disk, a
removable disk such as a floppy disk, zip disk, CD-R/CD-RW (a writeable CD-ROM), or a
network drive (if you're on a network). These storage devices are not dependent on electricity, so
the files stored on them remain there whether your computer is turned on or off.

Saving a Document for the First Time

Before you save a document for the first time, it has a temporary name such as Document1,
Document2, or Document3. When you save the file, you replace this name with one of your
choosing. Here are the rules for filenames:
 They can contain up to 256 characters.
 They can include spaces.
 They cannot include these characters: / \ > < *. ? " | : ;
 They are not case sensitive; as far as your computer is concerned, the filenames Letter to
mom and letter to Mom are the same.

Saving as You Work

After you've saved your document for the first time, you need to continue to save it every few
minutes as you work on it. Each time you save, Word updates the copy of the file on your hard
disk with the copy on your screen (in memory). If you save religiously, then in the event of a
crash or power outage, you lose, at most, a few minutes' worth of work.

69
Step: - File menu  save  Select location  Write file name  save

Save as:

Saving a Document with a New Name or Location

If you want to create a document that is very similar to one you have already saved, you don't
need to type the new document from scratch. Rather, you can open the first document; make
changes to it, and then save the new document under a different name. Because you're giving the
document a new name, it won't overwrite the original file. For example, you can create monthly
invoices for a particular company by opening the previous month's invoice, changing the invoice
number and other details, and then saving the revised invoice under a new name.

70
Step: - File menu  save as  select location  type file name  save

Page setup: -

This option makes the page size

Step: - First click file menu then click page setup under print.

Margins

The default margins are a perfectly good starting point, but you frequently encounter situations
in which you need to change them. For example, you might want to narrow the margins to fit
more text on the page, increase the top or left margin to make room for a preprinted letterhead, or
widen the inner margins for a document that will be bound.

71
 1. The value in the Top text box is highlighted. If you want to change the top margin, type a
new value in inches to replace the selected value (you don't have to type the inch mark).
Press the Tab key to move to the Bottom, Left, or Right text box, and type new values for
any of these margins. (You can also use the spinner arrows to the right of any of these
text boxes to increment the margins 1/10 inch at a time.)
2. Click the OK button.
You can see your new margins in Print Layout view (change the Zoom setting to Page Width or
Whole Page) or in Print Preview.
If you are going to bind your document, you probably want to increase the margins that are to be
bound. If the document will be bound on the top edge of the pages, display the Gutter Position
drop-down list and choose Top. Otherwise, leave it set to Left. Type the amount by which you
want to increase the bound margins in the Gutter text box. (For example, type .5 to increase the
margins by one-half inch.) If you are binding the document on the left side of the pages and
printing single-sided pages, leave the Multiple Pages drop-down list set to Normal. Word adds
the amount of space you specify in the Gutter text box to the left margin of all of the pages. If
you are printing double-sided pages, choose Mirror Margins in the Multiple Pages list. Word
adds Inside and Outside text boxes at the top of the Margin tab to enable you to specify the
margin width for the bound (inside) and outside edges of each page.

72
  Word assumes that you want to use portrait orientation, which means that the top of the
document prints across the short edge of the paper. Occasionally, you may need to
change to landscape orientation, so that the top of the document prints across the long
edge of the paper
Paper:-

Word assumes that you want to print on 8 1/2x11-inch paper, but it can adjust to most other
standard sizes, and you can even set a custom size if you like.
To print on a different paper size, follow these steps:
1. Choose File, Page Setup to display the Page Setup dialog box.
2. Click the Paper tab if it isn't already in front.
3. Display the Paper Size drop-down list and choose the desired size. (If you are printing on
a nonstandard paper size, choose the last option, Custom Size, and then type the width
and height of your paper in the Width and Height text boxes.)
4. Click OK.
Just as when you change margins or paper orientation, the rulers change to reflect the new paper
size. Depending on the size, you may need to change the Zoom setting to avoid having to scroll
horizontally

73
Print preview:

Word's Print Preview feature enables you to see what a document looks like before you send it to
the printer. Using Print Preview is a great way of saving paper because you can catch things that
you'd like to change before you print. To use Print Preview,
Step: - File menu  print preview  if you want to close print preview  close.

To scroll through the document page by page, press the Page Down and Page Up keys. If you
want to view several pages at once, click the Multiple Pages toolbar button and drag through the
desired number of squares in the grid that drops down (each square represents a page). To go
back to viewing one page, click the One Page toolbar button. If you want to print your document
directly from Print Preview, click the Print toolbar button.
Another handy feature in Print Preview is Shrink to Fit. To make your document fit on one page
(or you if want it to fit onto two pages and it's spilling onto three, and so on), click the Shrink to
Fit toolbar button to make it fit on one less page than it currently does. Word accomplishes this
by making small adjustments to your document's formatting (reducing the font size, decreasing
the amount of white space, and so on).

Print: -

This command is use to print document.

Step: - File menu  Print  Select printing types  print

74
After you've made your selections in a dialog box, click the OK button to tell Word to carry out
the command. (If a dialog box doesn't have an OK button, look for another likely candidate, such
as a button labeled Close or Insert.) If you decide not to go ahead with a command, you can back
out of the dialog box by clicking the Cancel button. Clicking the Close button (the X) in the
upper-right corner of a dialog box is the same as clicking the Cancel button.
You can also use the keyboard to make selections in a dialog box. To do so, first press the Tab
key to move to the option that you want to change. (To move in the reverse direction, press Shift
Tab.) When the option is selected, it will be highlighted or have a dotted box around it. Then
make your choice by using one of these methods:
 To choose an item in a drop-down list, press the down-arrow key to display the list, use
the up- and down-arrow keys to select the desired item, and then press Enter.
 To mark an option button, use the up- and down-arrow keys to mark the button.
 To mark or clear a check box, press the Spacebar.
 To type in a text box, move to it using the Tab key (if the text box is currently empty, an
insertion point appears in the box; if it contains text, the text will be selected), and then
type your text.
 To choose a button in a dialog box, move to it using the Tab key and then press Enter. If
the button name has an underlined letter (or hot key), you can press the Alt key plus that
letter to choose the button. For example, to choose the properties button in the Print
dialog box, you can press (Alt + P).
Steps
1. Under Page Range, the all option button is marked by default. This option prints your
entire document. You can select other options to tell Word which pages to print, for
example
o To print only the page containing the insertion point, mark the Current Page
option button.
o To print more than one page but not the entire document, type the page numbers
you want to print in the Pages text box.
o Use commas to separate non sequential pages and dashes to indicate a range of
pages. For example, you would type 1,3-6,8 to print pages 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 8.
o If you want to print only one block of text in your document, select the text before
displaying the Print dialog box, and then mark the Selection option button.
2. If you want to print more than one copy of your document, enter the number in the
Number of Copies text box by typing it or clicking the spinner arrows.
3. Under Zoom, click the desired number of pages in the Pages per Sheet drop-down list if
you want to print more than one document page on a sheet of paper. (You might do this
to conserve paper.) Select a paper size in the Scale to Paper Size drop-down list to print
on a different paper size than the one that's set for the document.
4. Click the OK button to send the document to the printer. (If you decide not to print, click
the Cancel button.)

75
Send to: -
This command is use to create and send an e-mail message from Word.
Step: - File menu  share  mail recipient  enter email address to who you send your
document  send.

Exit: -
This command is use to close the document.
Undo: -
This command is use to when you delete it accidentally. Word's Undo feature enables you to
bring back deleted text as well as undoing many other actions. You are not limited to undoing the
most recent action you performed; Undo enables you to undo multiple actions. For example, if
you delete a paragraph by mistake and then go on to issue a few more commands before
realizing that the paragraph was gone, you can undo all of your actions back to, and including,
restoring the deleted text.
Step: - Toolbars  undo
Cutting, Copying, and Pasting

76
This command is use to when you move text; you remove (cut) it from one location in your
document and paste it in another. When you copy text, you leave the text in its original location
and paste a duplicate of it somewhere else.
Techniques for Deleting Text

Technique Result

Delete key Deletes character to the right of the insertion point

Backspace key Deletes character to the left of the insertion point

Ctrl+Delete Deletes word to the right of the insertion point

Ctrl+Backspace Deletes word to the left of the insertion point

Select text and press the Deletes selected text (can be any amount)
Delete key

Select text and Deletes selected text (can be any amount)

Start typing And replaces it with the text you type

Selection Shortcuts

One word Double-click the word

One sentence Ctrl+click the sentence. (This only works if nothing else
is currently selected.)

One line Click in the selection bar to the left of the line

One paragraph Double-click in the selection bar to the left of the

paragraph. (You can also triple-click directly on the
paragraph.)

Entire document Triple-click or Ctrl+click anywhere in the selection bar.

(Ctrl+click only works if nothing else is currently
selected.)

Any amount of text Click at the beginning of the text you want to select, and
then Shift+click at the end of the text

77
Find:

If you frequently type long documents, you have probably had the experience of scrolling
through each page trying to find all of the places where you used a particular word or phrase.
Word can help you with this process, searching for text much more quickly and accurately than
we humans can. Follow these steps:
Step: - Editing group of the home menu  find  enter word  find next

Find and replace

1. Type the text that you want to find in the Find What text box.
2. Click the Find Next button. Word highlights the first occurrence of the word.
3. Continue to click the Find Next button to look for more matches.
4. Click OK when Word informs you that it has found all the matches.
5. Click the Cancel button in the Find and Replace dialog box to return to editing your
document.

Replace:

Sometimes you not only need to find text, but you also have to replace it with something else.
Word's Replace feature takes the medium out of making the same change in several places.
Step: Editing group of the home menu  replace  enter word which you want to replace
it on another word Replace  enter word in which you want to change it  replace

78
Go to:

This command is use to show in which page you want to go enter page or in which line you want
to go enter line no or you want to go comment, bookmark, footnote, and etc.
Step: - Editing group of the home menu  Go to  enter page no you want to go or
something else  go to

View menu

Draft:
Draft view is useful for documents in which you just want to type and format text. The simple,
uncluttered layout makes it easy to quickly scroll through the document and edit your text. To
switch to Draft view, choose View, Draft or click the Draft View button in the lower-left corner
of the Word window.
Draft view displays only the horizontal ruler, not the vertical ruler. And it doesn't display the
margin areas of the page, so you can't see headers and footers

79
Web layout:
In Web layout view, you can see backgrounds, text is wrapped to fit the window, and graphics
are positioned just as they are in a Web browser.
Print Layout:
Print Layout view gives you the sense that you're typing directly onto a piece of paper. It
includes horizontal and vertical rulers so that you always know where your text appears on the
page, and it shows you the top, bottom, left, and right margin areas. If you have typed text in the
headers and footers it will be visible in the top and bottom margins. All page breaks (regardless
of type) appear as a gap between the bottom edge of one page and the top edge of the next.
You don't have to use Print Layout view if you're typing documents with simple formatting.
However, you do need to use it if you're working with more complex formatting such as
columns, tables, and graphics. (These features do not display correctly in Normal view.)
Outline:
In outline view, you can collapse a document to see only the main headings, or you can expand it
to see all headings and even body text.

Toolbars:

These options increase the toolbars and decrease the toolbars.

Ruler:

This Command is use to increase the ruler when the ruler is checked when the ruler is unchked
then the ruler is decrease.

80
Header and Footer:

Headers and footers are areas in the top and bottom Margins of each page in a document.
You can insert text or graphics in headers and footers — for example, page numbers, the date, a
company logo, the document's title or file name, or the author's name — that are printed at the
top or bottom of each page in a document.
You can work in the header and footer areas by clicking Header and Footer on the View menu.
Full Screen:
In this mode, Word removes distracting screen elements, such as toolbars and scroll bars. If you
want to choose menu commands in full-screen mode, rest the pointer at the top of the screen, and
the menu bar appears.
To switch to full-screen mode, click Full Screen on the View menu.
To turn off full-screen mode and switch to the previous view, click Close Full Screen on the
Full Screen toolbar, or press ESC.
Zoom:
You can "zoom in" to get a close-up view of your document or "zoom out" to see more of the
page at a reduced size.
1) Click the arrow next to the Zoom box
2) Click the zoom setting you want.

81
Insert Menu

Page Break:
As you know, Word inserts automatic page breaks when your pages are full of text. If you want
to break a page that isn't full, you have to insert a manual (or hard) page break. You might want
to insert a manual page break to end a section of a report or to separate a title page from the rest
of the document.

Column break:
Column break the column e.g. if you have more than two or three column and you have text in
column one you want to move text to column four or any another column means you want to
break column.
Text wrapping break:
Text wrapping break the paragraph or word or line.
Next page:
Inserts a section break and starts the new section on the next page.

82
Continuous:
Inserts a section break and starts the new section on the same page.
Even page:
Type of section break is most useful for longer document that are divided into multiple parts,
especially those that are bound it forces the text in the new section to begin on the next even
page.
Odd page:
This is the same as an even page section break but it forces the text in the new section to begin
on the next odd page.

Page number:

This command is use to adding Page numbers to your document. First, you can use the Insert,
Page Numbers command, as described here, to tell Word what type of Page number you want
and where it should appear.
Step: - Insert menu page number  select type of page number and where you want to create
page number at top or bottom or left or right select it  ok
1. If you want the number at the bottom of the Page, skip to the next step. To place the
number at the top of the Page, display the Position drop-down list and choose Top of
Page (Header).
2. Display the Alignment drop-down list and choose the alignment you prefer for your Page
numbers.
3. Clear the Show Number on First Page check box if you don't want the Page number to
print on the first of your document

Date and Time:

This command is use to create date and time.
Step: - Insert menu  date and time  select format of date and time  ok
1. Mark the Update Automatically check box.
2. Click the date format that you want to use.
3. If you want to use this format all of the time, click the Default button and then click yes
in the message box that appears.
4. Click OK in the date and time dialog box.

Symbol:
This command is use to everyday documents, such as letters and memos, require special
characters here and there. For example, you might need to use the trademark Symbol (™), a long

83
dash (—), or the ellipsis (…). Word inserts many of these Symbol for you automatically as you
type. If it doesn't insert the one you need, you can probably find it in the Symbol dialog box
Step: - Insert menu  symbol  select symbol  insert

Format Menu

Font:
In the world of personal computers, the term font is used to refer to the typeface of your text,
which is basically the "look" of each character you type. Each computer has a different set of
fonts, depending on what software is installed and what printer you're using. Office detects
which fonts you have available and enables you to select them in Word.
Step:-
1. Select the text you want to change.
2. Choose Format, font or press Ctrl+D to display the font dialog box

84
Page number:
Word offers two methods for adding page numbers to your document. First, you can use the
Insert, page numbers command, as described here, to tell Word what type of page number you
want and where it should appear. Word then adds the page number field to the header or footer
for you. Second, you can enter the page number field by inserting it directly in the header or
footer.
Step:
1. If you want the number at the bottom of the page, skip to the next step. To place the
number at the top of the page, display the Position drop-down list and choose Top of
page (Header).
2. Display the Alignment drop-down list and choose the alignment you prefer for your Page
numbers.
3. Clear the Show number on First page check box if you don't want the page numbers to
print on the first page of your document.
4. Click the OK button.

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Bullets and numbering:-

1. Click where you want the Bulleted list to start (or, if you've already typed your list, select
the entire list).
2. Choose Format, bullets and numbering to display the bullets and numbering dialog box.
3. Click the bulleted tab. This tab contains a gallery of different bullets. The one you are
currently using has a box around it. If you see a bullets that you want to use here, click it,
and then click OK.

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Border and shading: -

Borders, shading, and graphic fills can add interest and emphasis to various parts of your
document.
You can add borders to pages, text, tables and table cells, graphic objects, pictures, and Web
frames. You can shade paragraphs and text. You can apply colored or textured fills to your
graphic objects.
Page Border:
You can add a border to any or all sides of each page in a document, to pages in a Section, to the
first page only, or to all pages except the first. You can add page borders in many line styles and
colors, as well as a variety of graphical borders.

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Column:

If you plan to produce newsletters, bulletins, journal articles, and so on with relatively simple
formatting, you'll appreciate Word's capability to format text in multiple Columns.
Step: -
1. If you see a format under Presets at the top of the dialog box that matches what you want,
click it.
2. If you have specific requirements for column widths, first clear the Equal columns Width
check box. Then enter the desired settings for each column under Width and Spacing.
(Spacing refers to the amount of space between columns).
3. To add vertical lines between your columns, mark the Line Between check box.
4. When you have made all your selections, click OK.

Tabs:

Word's default Tabs are left tabs, meaning that they left-align text at the Tab stops. The default
tab stops are positioned every half-inch across the horizontal ruler. You can see them on the
bottom edge of the ruler—they look like faint gray tick marks. Each time you press the Tab key,
your insertion point moves to the next default Tab stop, pushing over any text to the right of the
insertion point.

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Step:
1. Choose Format, Tabs to display the Tabs dialog box or click the dialogue box launcher at
the bottom right corner of the paragraph group to open paragraph settings.

Click tabs at the bottom left corner of the paragraph settings.

2. In the tab Stop Position list, click the tab to which you want to add the leader (all of the
custom tabs in the paragraph containing the insertion point or the selected paragraphs are
listed). Mark the option button for the type of leader you want under Leader, and click the
Set button. In, a dot leader is added to the right tab at the 5-inch mark.

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Drop cap:
The paragraph that you want to begin with a "drop cap," a large dropped initial capital letter.

H
ere is an example.

Text Direction:
You can change the text orientation in drawing objects, such as text boxes, shapes, and callouts,
or in table cells so that the text is displayed vertically or horizontally.
Step: -
1. On the Format menu, click Text Direction.
2. Click the orientation you want.

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Change case: -
If you realize after you type some text that you want to change its case, you don't have to retype
it. Instead, just select the text, choose Format, change case to display the change case dialog box,
choose the option you want, and click OK.

Review menu

Spell and grammar: -

A spell checker is a feature designed to locate misspelled words and notify the user of the
misspellings. Depending on the spell checker, the feature may either auto correct the word or
allow the user to select from potential corrections on the misspelled word. When running a spell
check on a document with red underlines, Word gives suggestions for each misspelled word. The
red wavy underline can also be right-clicked to display corrections on the misspelled word.
The spell checker works by comparing every word typed with a list of thousands of correctly
spelled, words and then uses algorithms to determine the correct spellings. If a word, such as a
name is correctly spelled you have the option of adding the word to the list of correctly spelled
words.

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Language
This command is use to change language of ms word into another language in which language
you want to change.
Step:
First click tools menu then click set language then select language.
Word count:
If you need to know how many words are in your document, Microsoft Word can count them for
you. Word can also tell you how many pages, paragraphs, and lines are in your document, as
well as the number of characters, either including or not including spaces.

Mail merge:

A mail merge is used to create form letters, mailing labels, envelopes, directories, and mass e-
mail and fax distributions. There are three documents involved in the mail merge process: the
main document, the data source, and the merged document. To complete the basic process, you
do the following:
 Open or create a main document.
Main document: In a mail-merge operation in Word, the document that contains the text
and graphics that are the same for each version of the merged document, for example, the
return address or salutation in a form letter.
 Open or create a data source with individual recipient information.

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 Data source: A file that contains the information to be merged into a document. For
example, the list of names and addresses you want to use in a mail merge. You must
connect to the data source before you can use the information in it.
 Add or customize merge fields in the main document.
Merge field: A placeholder that you insert in the main document. For example, insert the
merge field <<City>> to have Word insert a city name, such as "Paris," that's stored in
the City data field.
 Merge data from the data source into the main document to create a new, merged
document.

Merged document:
Resulting document from merging your mail-merge main document with your address list. The
resulting document can be the printed result or a new Word document containing the merge
results.
Microsoft Word makes mail merge easy by using a wizard that guides you through all of the
steps. If you prefer to work outside the wizard, you can use the Mail Merge toolbar. Either way,
the end result is that each row (or record) in the data source produces an individual form letter,
mailing label, envelope, or directory item.
You can also use mail merge to create any type of document that maps fields to data, not just
mailings or directories. For example, if your videotape collection is listed in a spreadsheet, you
can use the Labels option to create videotape labels.

Insert Table:

Word's table feature gives you a wonderfully flexible way of aligning text in a grid of rows and
columns. You enter text into the individual boxes in the grid, which are referred to as cells. The
text in each cell wraps independently of the text in neighboring cells. This makes it possible to
format and edit documents in which certain blocks of text have to be aligned alongside one
another. You can create a table that looks table-ish, like the one shown below.

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You specify the number of columns and rows you'd like to start with under table Size at the top
of the dialog box. Under AutoFit Behavior, select one of these options:
 Fixed Column Width— When this option is set to Auto (the default choice), the table
starts with columns of equal width, and it fills the space between the left and right
margins. If you know the exact width you'd like your columns to be (in inches), enter that
amount in the text box.
 AutoFit to Contents— The column widths automatically expand to fit the text you type.
Word does not permit the overall table width to exceed the left and right margins of the
page, so it wraps text within columns and narrows columns as necessary to prevent this
from happening. (Even if you use this option, however, you can still widen a table to the
point that it does not fit on the page if you widen the columns manually. You'll learn how
to adjust column width later in this hour.)
 AutoFit to Window— This option is only useful if you're creating a document (either a
Word document or a Web page) that will be displayed in a browser window. Choosing
this option will permit the table to resize so that as the user resizes the browser window,
the full width of the table is always visible.
Adding and Deleting Rows and Columns
You can add or delete rows and columns in a table using the following steps:
1. If you want to add a row at the end of the table, click anywhere in the lower-right cell in
the table, and press the Tab key.
2. To add a row in the middle of the table, select the row below the desired location of the
new one, and click the Insert Rows button on the Standard toolbar. (The Insert Table
button turns into Insert Rows when a row is selected.) If you want to add two or more
rows, select that number of rows before clicking the Insert Rows button.
3. To insert a column, select the column to the right of where the new one will go, and click
the Insert Columns button on the Standard toolbar. (The Insert Table button turns into
Insert Columns when a column is selected.) Again, you can add two or more columns at
once by selecting that number before clicking the Insert Columns button.
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 4. If you want to delete a row or column, select it first, and then choose Table, Delete, Rows
or Table, Delete, Columns (or right-click the selected row or column and choose Delete
Rows or Delete Columns).
Merge Cells:
When you merge cells, they become one larger cell. You might, for example, merge all the cells
in the top row of a table to create a large cell in which to type a centered title. You can merge
cells that are horizontally or vertically adjacent to one another. To merge cells, first select them,
and then click the merge cells.
Split Table:
This command is used to separate rows from table.

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CHAPTER 4

TOPIC SUB CONTENT

TOPIC
Spreadsheets Spreadsheet Open and close spreadsheets. Creating, saving spreadsheets
basics
Cells Insert, select, sort and edit cell contents.
Copy, move, delete.
Rows and Select, insert, delete rows and columns. Adjust column width, row
columns height.
Worksheets Switch between worksheets. Copy, move, rename a worksheet
within a spreadsheet.
Formulae Create formulae, identify and understand standard error values:
and #NAME?, #DIV/0!, #REF!
functions
Absolute and relative cell referencing
Use sum, average, minimum, maximum, count, IF
Formatting Numbers, dates,
Alignment Text wrapping, merging cells, alignment, border effects
and border
effects
Charts Create different types of charts, move, resize, delete chart.
Edit chart Add, remove, edit chart title, add data labels.
Change font size, and colour of chart title,
Prepare Change margins, page orientation, paper size, preview worksheet,
outputs print a selected range of cells, selected chart.

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SPREADSHEETS

Microsoft Excel is an electronic spreadsheet program used for calculations. It is a part of the
Microsoft Office suite. Spreadsheets can be described as a grid of columns and rows used for
calculations. You can use Excel to organize, calculate, and analyze data. The tasks that you can
perform with it range from preparing a simple invoice to creating elaborate charts of any kind, to
managing on accounting ledger for a company.

In Excel, you work with worksheets, which consist of columns and row that interest to form
cells. Cells contain various kinds of data that can be formatted, sorted, analyzed and made into
charts. An Excel file is called a work book, which by default comprises three worksheets.

Components of spreadsheet

All spreadsheets, whether they are on ledger paper or in an electronic spreadsheet program, have
certain components in common. The following list explains part of the components.

Row: A horizontal group of cells in a worksheet. There are 65,536 rows in an Excel
2000 worksheet. Each row is identified by its row number.

Columns: A vertical group of cells in a worksheet. There are about 256 columns in an Excel
2000 worksheet. Each column is identified by a letter ranging from
A……………..

Cell: The intersection of a row and a column. A cell is identified by its column letter
followed by its row number. The cell address can appear as A1, B1, and Z1……..

Starting excel

You can start excel in a number of ways; the simplest is probably to click the start menu, and
then choose ALL programs, Microsoft office, Microsoft Excel. When you start Excel, a new
workbook called Book 1 will appear in the Excel window.

The Office Assistant

This is an animated character that helps you interact with the Excel helping system. The
Assistant lets you type questions in plain language, and then points you to appropriate help
information. To show the Office Assistant, choose help, show the Office Assistant. To hide it,
choose Help, Hide the Office Assistant.

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Components of the excel window

The Excel window has many components through which you can interact with or get information
about what you are working on. The following list explains the components of the Excel window
in more detail.

Title Bar The Title bar displays the name of the workbook. The default name of
the first workbook you open is “Book1”

Menu Bar The Menu Bar displays all the menus available in Excel. Each menu
consists of a set of commands of a certain type for example; the format
menu contains all the commands that enable you to format text.

Formatting Bar The Formatting Bar contains buttons you can use to format text (for
example, to change the font size or style of text).

Standard Tool Bar The buttons on the toolbar are short cuts to the commands available in the
menus.

Formula Bar The Formula bar displays the constant value, formula, name, or contents
of the active cell. You can use the formula bar to edit values, labels and
formulas.

Status Bar The status bar displays the current status of the work book. It can also
display information about a selected command or an operation in
progress.

Functions and formulas

It must be born in mind that every time you are creating a formulae or a function an equal sign
must be used first (=). A function is a pre-defined formula that performs a particular type of
calculation. You provide th
e function with values on which you want to calculate. Examples of functions and how they
work are as follows;

Sum (A1: A6), which be can used to add a range of values hence full colonies being used.
This means individuals from A1 to A6, it should also be noted that, no
spaces are required, during construction of a formula and a function.
Whenever a formula or functions is construction, it is very important to
press the Enter key (on the keyboard) in order to view the results.

Product (A1: C1), This can be used to multiply a range of values. It should also be noted that
no space& punctuation marks are allowed in the values to be calculated by
either a Formular or a function.

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Max (A1: A15), Used for calculating the maximum values.

Min (A1: A15), For calculating minimum values.

Average (A1: A15) For calculating the average among a range of values.

If, used to calculate arguments such as, If (A1< 20, under,” “over”). The expression can be
explained as follows, if the individual value is less than 20 they will be regarded as under age.
While when individuals will be found with more than value 20, they will be regarded as over
age.

A Formular is an equation that performs calculation on existing values to result in a new value.
The following are the examples of Formulas used;

A1+B1+C1, then press Enter key on the keyboard. the illustration is used to add values.
A1*B1, for multiplication
A1*10%, for finding the percentage for a particular value

Working with sheets

In most circumstances when you open Ms-Excel, it will automatically bring three sheets. Sheets
can be given names according to the information entered and saved on them e.g. we can name
sheets 1 Home inventory, sheet 2 ‘payroll,’ etc. All you need do if you want to name a sheet is
to either Double click on sheet 1, and type the text you want or you right click sheet 1, from the
pop-up menu, click Rename and type the text you would like to have for your sheet.

Inserting sheets
Load a spreadsheet program (Ms-Excel)
 Click on the insert menu.
 Click on work sheet

Deleting a worksheet
-Right click on the sheet to be deleted.
-click delete.

Deleting cells, rows & columns in worksheet

Select the cells, rows, or columns you want to delete.
On the Edit menu, click Delete.
If you are deleting a range of cells, click shift cells left, shift cells up, Entire row, or Enter
column in the Delete dialog box.

Inserting cells, rows & column in a worksheet

Click where to put a new cell, row or column within a worksheet

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Click insert menu
Select cell, row or column
Entering labels & values
- Click the cell in which you want to type your data. Clicking a cell activates the cell and
ready for data entry. It is also important to observe the cell address e.g. B1,A2, C1, etc.
- Type the data you will need to type. You may also observe that the data entered expands to
other cells if the cell size is smaller than the data. However, Ms- Excel considers the data as
the content of only the cell where you started entering data, such as A1though it may go up
to B1. When such an occasion occurs, Click the Enter box on the formula bar complete the
entry and remain in one cell e.g.A1.
- Click in the other cell to make ready to receive data.

Use the Keyboard Arrows to move through the worksheet .e g.

The Left: move to the cells on the left.
The Right: move to right cells
Up Arrow: move to upper cells
Down Arrow (Enter Key): move to down cells

- The details in a worksheet can be aligned into the desired alignment (Center, Left, Right, and
Justified).

Editing labels and values

If you make an error while entering data in a cell, you can easily correct it at any point. To make
corrections, you do the following:

 Double-click the cell, use the backspace button or delete key to make the corrections, and
then press enter.
 Click the formula bar, use the backspace or delete key to make corrections and then press
enter.
 Choose edit, clear, all. Then type the correct data and press enter. (you can also clear the
contents of a cell by selecting the contents of a cell by selecting the data you want to delete
and then delete key).

Entering and editing formulas

You use formulas to perform numeric calculations such as adding, multiplying and averaging.
All excel formulas begin with an equal sign (=). A formula can be referred to a value, a cell
address, another formula, or range names. You can also use special formulas called functions to
perform calculations. Functions are predefined formulas that perform simple to complex
calculations.

An integral part of formulas are operators. Operators indicate the type of operation that the
formula will perform.

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The following table shows the types of arithmetic operators that you can use.

OPERATOR DESCRIPT
+ To add numbers. For example, = A7+ A9
- To subtract numbers. For example, = A7 – A9
* To multiply numbers. For example, = A7 * A9
/ To divide numbers. For example, A7 / A9
% To specify percentage of a number. For example, = 50%
^ To specify the exponent. For example, 5^3 means 5 raised to the third power,
or 5 * 5 * 5.

Entering formulas

To enter a formula, you first select the cell where you want the result to appear. Then you type
the formula in the selected cell. For example, if there are numbers in cells A2 and A3, and you
want to add them and show the result in cell A4, you would:

 Type = A2 + A3 in the cell A4.

 Press Enter.

The result will appear in the cell A4. If the cell is active, the formula will appear in the formula
bar. It is important to note that formulas are based on the values contained in cells in your
worksheet. If the cells referred to in a formula are changed or deleted, the result of the formula
will change or might make no sense at all.

Using the mouse to enter cell references in formulas

You can use the mouse to enter cell references while you are creating formulas to do so:
 Select the cell in which you want to enter the formula.
 Type = [to begin a formula].
 Click the cell for which you to enter a reference.
 Type the operator you want.
 Repeat steps 3 and 4 until you’ve created the formula you want.
 Press enter.

Editing formulas
You can edit formulas as you would edit any other data. Select the cell, click the formula, edit
the formula, and then enter the edited formula.

Using the edit button

To edit a formula by using the edit formula button of the formula bar.
 Select the cell containing the formula you want to edit.
 Click the edit formula button on the formula bar [exhibit 2 – 5 shows what this might look
like].
 Edit the formula.
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 Press enter or click OK.

Undo and Redo

Excel provides an easy way to undo, or reserve, many of the actions you take when entering or
editing formulas or values in a spreadsheet. It also provides an easy way to redo an action or
actions you’ve recently undone.

The Undo Command

The redo command reverses one or more of the recent actions you’ve performed. You can undo
an action in one of three ways: You can redo an action in one of three ways.
 Choose edit, undo.
 Click the undo button on the standard tool bar or
 Press Ctrl +Z

The Redo Command

The redo command reverses one or more of the actions you’ve recently undone. You can redo
an action in one of three ways.
 Choose edit, redo.
 Click the redo button on the standard toolbar.
 Press Ctrl + Y.

Find and Replace

Excel provides you with an easy way to search for and replace values and text through the find
command and the replace command.

The Find Command

 The find command enables you to search for text or for a specific value. You can search
rows, columns, or the entire worksheet for formulas, values, or comments. To use the find
command to

Saving and updating a workbook

Saving a workbook
You need to save workbooks to prevent loss of data. The first time you same a workbook, you
need to assign a file name and a location to store a file. To save a workbook for the first time.
 Choose file, on the menu bar, then save as to display the save as dialog box.
 Use the same inbox to specify the drive and folder where you want to save the workbook.
 In the file name box, type a name for the workbook.

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 Click save.

Creating a new folder

If you do not want to save your work book in an existing folder you can create a new folder from
the save as dialog box. To create a new folder.
 Specify the location where you want to create the new folder.
 Click the create new folder button (on the toolbar in the save as dialog box) to open the new
folder dialog box.
 In the name box of the new folder dialog box, type a name for the folder.
 Click Ok. The new folder is created and displayed in the same in box.

Updating a workbook

Each time you save the work book, Microsoft Excel updates the work book file with latest
changes. To save the file, you can use the same button or the shortcut key Ctrl + S. to save a
copy of the work book with a different name or on a different location, you would use the save as
command.

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Opening and navigating a workbook

Opening a workbook
You can create work books from scratch, but one of the great benefits of using electronic
spreadsheets like Excel is that you can open and continue working on existing work books. To
open a work book.

 Click the open button (or choose file, Open) to display the open dialog box.
 Using the look in box to specify the folder in which the work book you want to open is
stored.
 Select the work book you want to open and click open (or double-click the work book name).

Navigating a worksheet
There are many techniques for moving around in a worksheet. At any given time, one cell in the
worksheet is the active cell. The active cell is where you enter data. The address of the active
cell will appear in the name box, which is on the left side of the formula. Some navigating
techniques move the active cell, while others move only your view of the worksheet (without
moving the active cell). The following list summarises various work sheets navigation
techniques and their effects.
 Click cell – makes the cell active
 Arrow keys – moves the active cell
 Enter, Shift + Enter – moves the active cell one row down or up
 Tab, Shift + Tab – moves the active cell one column to the right of left
 Click Scroll Arrow – scrolls view of the work sheet one row or column. Does not move the
active cell.
 Click in Scroll Bar – Scrolls view of the worksheet one screen up down, left or right,
depending on which side of the scroll box you click. Does not move the active cell.
 Drag Scroll Box – Scrolls view of the work sheet quickly without moving the active cell.

Closing a workbook
There are several ways to close a work book in Excel.
 Choose file, close.
 Click the close box on the far right of the menu bar or
 Choose close on the title bar.

Moving and copying data

You can modify an existing work sheet by moving or copying data to the desired cell or range of
cells. You can move and copy data between work sheets within the same work book or from one
work book to another.

When you select the data you want to move or copy from a cell or from a range of cells, Excel
places that data on the clipboard. The clipboard is a special file or memory area where data is

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stored temporarily before being copied to another location. When you specify a new location of
data, Excel copy it from the clipboard and places it on the new location.

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Paste vs paste special
Normally, when you move or copy data you us the paste command to insert the data in its new
location. Default, the paste command inserts all of the information, including formulas, formats,
and comments, from the cell or range from which you copied or cut the data. However, when
you want to specify what you paste into the new location, you use the paste special command.
The paste special command allows you to choose what part of the data from a cell or range if
copied or moved to the new location. To use paste special:
 Select the data you want to move or copy.
 Choose edit menu, cut or edit menu, copy.
 Select the upper cell of the range into which you want to copy or move the data.
 Choose edit menu, paste special.
 Select the options you want to use from the paste special dialog box.
 Click Ok.

The office clipboard

The clipboard differs from the windows clipboard because it is integrated across all office
applications and holds multiple items instead of a single item. You can use information from
existing files from Word, PowerPoint, Internet Explorer, and other applications by using the new
office clipboard feature, collect and paste them one at a time or all together. To use the office
clipboard, you must display the office clipboard toolbar by choosing view, toolbars, clipboard.

The collect and paste feature

You can copy items from any program that has the cut and copy feature. You can paste multiple
items into Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Access, and outlook (the five core programs of office) by
using the office clipboard. For example, you can copy a graphic in PowerPoint, switch to Word
and copy from the webpage, and then switch to Excel and paste the collection of copied items
into an Excel worksheet. To copy an item to the office clipboard, select the item and click copy
on the clipboard toolbar.

Moving data in a worksheet

You can move data from one location to another. When you move data to another location, the
data is removed from its original location and placed at the location you specify. You can move
data using the edit menu or the standard toolbar.

Moving data using the clipboard

You can move entire cell or a part of the cell’s content into another cell. To move the entire
content of a cell using the edit menu.

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 Open the worksheet you want to modify
 Select the cell you want to move
 Choose edit, cut.
 Select the cell you want to move the data to. This cell is called the destination cell.
 Choose edit, paste.

Moving data using the standard toolbar

You can also move data by using the standard toolbar buttons. As in the edit menu, you can use
the standard toolbar buttons to move an entire cell or part of cell’s content to another cell.

To move a part of the cell’s contents to another cell.

 Double-click the cell containing the data you want to move
 Use the mouse to select the data you want to move
 Click the cut button on the standard toolbar
 Select the destination cell
 Click the paste button on the standard toolbar

Copying data in a worksheet

When you want the same data to be present at a several locations it is best to copy this data rather
than typing it at each location. You can copy this data within a worksheet, across worksheets,
across workbooks, or even to and from other applications. You can copy a part of the cell’s
content or entire cell. There are several methods of copying data.

Copying data using the clipboard

You can use the copy command in the edit menu to copy data.
To copy data to another location:
 Select the data you want to copy.
 Choose edit, copy.
 Select the destination for the data.
 Choose edit, paste.

Copying data using the standard toolbar

To use the toolbar to copy data:

 Select the data you want to copy.
 Click the copy icon (on the standard toolbar).
 Select the destination for the data.
 Click the paste icon.

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Using drag-and-drop

Drag-and-drop is the fastest method of moving and copying data in a worksheet. Dragging refers
to the action of pressing the left mouse button on a cell and moving the mouse pointer without
releasing the let mouse button. Dropping refers to the action of releasing the left mouse pointer
to the desired location.

Moving data using the drag-and drop method

To move a cell using the drag-and drop-method:

 Select the cell that contains the data you want to move.
 Point to the edge of the cell. The pointer will take the shape of an arrow.
 Drag the cell where you want to move the data. As you drag a cell outline will show where
the data will go when you release the button.
 Release the button when the pointer reaches the destination cell.

Copying data using drag-and drop

You also can use drag-and-drop to copy the contents of a cell. To copy a cell’s content to
another cell:
 Select the cell whose contents you want to copy.
 Point to the edge of cell. The mouse pointer will take the shape of an arrow.
 Press and hold the Ctrl key. The pointer will now include a plus sign (+).
 While holding Ctrl, drag to the destination cell.
 Release the mouse and the Ctrl key when the pointer reaches the destination cell.

Moving and copying formulas

A formula as defined earlier is an equation that performs calculations on existing values to result
in a new value. When you want to use the same formula in several places, you can save time and
effort by copying the formula where you want it.

Moving formulas

If you move a formula from one location to another, the calculation that was performed at the
first location is now performed at the new location. Any references you used in the formula will
remain the same. You move formulas exactly as you do any other data.

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Using shortcut menus

For many of the elements of the screen, you can use the right mouse button to display a shortcut
menu. Shout cut menus provide a short list of commands that are appropriate for the object or
screen element at which you’re pointing. For example, when you point to a selected cell and
click the right mouse button, you will see a shortcut containing the cut and copy commands
(among others).

Copying formulas

When you want to use a formula that you’ve already created in another part of a worksheet, you
can copy the formula to the new location. You copy formulas the same way you copy other data.

Relative cell references

The reason that copying of formulas from one place to another works is that Excel adjusts cell
references in formulas when you paste the formula in a new location. By default, Excel uses
relative cell references. Relative cell references mean that when Excel looks at the references in
a formula you write, it sees those references in relation to the location of the formula.

Using the fill handle to copy formulas

At the right bottom corner of a selected cell or range, you will see a small square called the fill
handle, the pointer changes to a plus sign (+). You can use the fill handle to copy data to the
adjacent cells.
 To copy the formula using the fill handle.
 Select the cell containing the formula, you want to copy.
 Point to the fill handle until the mouse pointer takes the shape of + symbol.
 Drag the fill handle over the adjacent cells to which you want to copy the formula.

Using absolute references

Relative references are default in Excel, and they make it easy for you to create most formulas
once and then copy them to many places. There are situations, however, in which you will not
want Excel to adjust a reference relative to the location of a copied formula, for these situation,
Excel provides for absolute references and mixed references.

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Limited of relative reference.

Usually, relative references work very well when you copy a formula. But if the formular refers
to specific cell that should not change when you copy the a formula. This can happen when you
refer to multipliers such as commission or discount rates.
Using Undo
If you make a mistake in Excel, you can usually reserve it. Simply choose edit, Undo or click the
undo button on the standard toolbar.

ABSOLUTE REFERENCES

When you don’t want a reference. To make a reference absolute, you place a dollar sign in front
of the column letter and the row number for the reference. For example, to create an absolute
reference to cell A1, you would enter $ A$ 1. When you copy an absolute reference to another
location, Excel will not adjust the reference.

Mixed references

You also can create mixed references by placing a dollar sign in front of only the column letter
or the row number. When copied, the relative part of the reference will adjust relative to the new
location, while the absolute part will not. You can cycle through the reference possibilities as
soon as you type a reference by pressing F4.

Entering functions

A function is a pre-defined formula that performs a particular type of calculation. You provide
the function with values on which to calculate. Functions have the following structure.

Function name (argument1, argument2…..)

As with all formulas, you begin a function with an equal sign. Next, you enter the name of the
function, followed by a set a parentheses; you lift the input values for the function. A function’s
input values are called arguments. Arguments can be numbers, text, cell addresses, ranges, or
many other types of data.

Entering range references

To enter a range reference in a formula or function, you type the first cell in the range, then colon
(:), then the last cell in the rage.

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Using the mouse to enter range references

You can use the mouse to enter a range reference in a formula or functions. To do so.
Enter the equal sign, function name and opening parenthesis for the function.
Drag over the range for which you want enter a reference.
Type the closing parenthesis and enter the function. Or, you can enter more arguments by typing
a comma (,) and continuing

Pasting functions

Excels paste function feature can help you enter functions.

To paste a function:
Select the cell in which you want to enter the function
Click the paste function button (or choose insert, function). Excel displays the paste function
dialog box
Select a function category, select a function, and click OK. Excel displays a dialog box specific
to the function you are entering.
Enter arguments for the function in the argument boxes. You can use collapse buttons to
minimize the dialog box temporarily, which will allow you to use the mouse to select cells and
ranges
Click OK.

Using autosum

The Auto sum button enters sum functions automatically for you. When you click the button,
Excel will guess at the range of values you want to use as the argument. If you use the button of
a column of numbers, for example, Excel will can either accept Excel’s guess, or enter your own
arguments.

Using Auto sum to enter several sum functions at once

Auto sum also can enter several sum functions simultaneously. For example, if you want to enter
totals at the buttons of several columns of values, you can select all the cells that should contain
the sum functions and click Auto sum. Although this process is simple and quick, your data must
be arranged correctly for it to work.

Using average, min, max, and count

Excel provides many functions that can calculate everything from a sum to a waybill
distribution. Four functions that are useful, and that are required for Microsoft Office user
Specialists (MOUS) certification, are AVERAGE, MIN, MAX AND COUNT

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Using average

You use the AVERAGE function to calculate the average of a list of values. The function has the
following syntax:
AVERAGE (Number1, Number2…..) or= AVERAGE (A1:A9). If the range you use in
argument has no values in it, AVERAGE will return an error values. Blank cells are not included
in the average Excel calculations.

Using min

The min function returns the smallest number from a list of values. The function has the
following syntax.

MIN ( number 1, Number 2,….) or

10)
MIN (A1:A
USING MAX

The MAX function returns largest number from a list of the following syntax:
MAX ( number1, number2,…..) or
MAX ( A1: A10)

Using count

The COUNT function returns a count of the number of cells that contain numeric values in a list
of arguments. You can use it to determine the number of entries in a specific number field of a
range or array of numbers. Count returns information on only numbers which must be in
numeric, data, or text representation format. The function has the following syntax .
COUNT ( value1, value2,…..) or
COUNT(A1: A8)

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Formatting text

Text formatting using the toolbar

Excel makes it is to format text so that it is either more clear or stands out from the rest of the
worksheet. While there are many ways to accomplish any formatting you might want to do, the
formatting bar provides buttons and drop- down lists that will handle much common formatting.

To format text using the toolbar.

 Select the cell or range you want to format.
 Click the desired formatting button ( or select a font or size from a drop-down list)

Using the format cells dialog box

The format cells dialog box provides on enormous variety of formatting options. You can use its
font tab to format text. To use the format cells dialog box to format text.
 Select the cell or range to format.
 Choose format, cells (or choose format cells from the shortcut menu for the selection).
 Click the font tab.
 Select the designed formatting and click OK. You can see what the formatted text will look
like in the preview box.

Formatting rows and columns changing column widths and row heights

Row heights will change automatically to accommodate the size of the data in a row, In some
cases, column widths will adjust automatically but in most cases you will need to adjust column
widths manually to make the columns fit the data you put in them. here are some methods fro
changing column widths;

 Drag the column border. When you point to the border between two column heading, the
pointer takes the shape of a two- headed arrow. You can then drag the border to the left or
right to decrease or increase the size of the column.
 Double-click the column border. This automatically sizes the column to fit the widest data it
contains. OR
 Set a specific column size in characters. To do this, choose the same methods work for
changing row height.
Setting alignment
Alignment refers to the place in a c ell you data appears. for example, the data you type could
appear to the left, right or center of the cell. To contents a cell or range.

 Select the cell or range.

 Click the alignment button.

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The merge and center button
The merge and center button is used to center data over range of cells (rather than within a single
column). To use this button.
 Select the cell containing the data you want to merge and center, as well as the rest of the
cells over which you want to center the data for example, to center the text in cell B1 over
column A:F, you would select A1: F1.

 Click the merge and center button.

Applying borders
You can use Borders button on the formatting bar to apply borders around cells or ranges. When
you click the borders button, you will see a palette of border choices from which you can
choose.

Applying borders using the format cells dialog box

The format cells dialog box has a tab for applying borders. Using this tab, you have many more
options than you do when you use the borders button on the toolbar.

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Number formatting

Using the toolbar to apply number formats

Dollar signs( $ ) percent signs( % ), and the number of decimal places are all examples of
number formatting. By careful use of number formats, you can not only make your worksheets
easier to understand, but also call attention to or away from particular data. The formatting bar
provides several tools number formatting.
Sometimes number formatting will cause the data in a cell to be to wide to displayed. When this
is the case, Excel will display pound signs ( #) instead of a truncated number ( because a
truncated number could be misleading). If this happens to adjust the column width accordingly.

Using the format cells dialog box format numbers

You also can use the number tab of the format cells dialog box to apply a wide variety of number
formats, including dates, times, fractions, and scientific notation.

Other formatting features copying and clearing formatting

Just as you can copy data from one place to another, you can copy formats. Also, if you decide
that a format you’ve applied isn’t what you want, it’s simple to clear formats.

Copying formats
To copy formats:
 Select the cell or range from which you want to copy the formatting.
 Click the format painter button. This button copies the formatting of the selection.
 Select the cell or range to which you want to copy the formatting.

Clearing formats
To clear formatting:
 Select the or range from which you want to clear the formatting
 Choose Edit, Formats.

Using auto formats

Auto formats are pre- defined combinations of text formatting, number formatting, borders,
colors, and shading that you can apply in a single step. Auto format is an automatic method of
formatting data. Generally, Auto formats work well on the data that is logically arranged in a
table. After you enter data on a worksheet, you should try a couple of Auto formats to see if they
are appropriate before you go to the trouble of applying all your formatting manually.
To apply an Auto format
 Select the range to which you want to apply the Auto format.
 Choose format, Auto format to display the Auto format dialog box.
 Select the desired Auto format and Click OK.

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Using auto filter
Auto filter is a way by which individuals choose desired data within the worksheet. To apply
Auto filter.
 Select the data to be filtered.
 Choose data menu filter, then Auto filter.
 Click any filter to open the list of data.
 Click the desired data.

Creating a chart

A Chart is simply a picture of your data. Often a chart can communicate much more effectively
than a table full of numbers. for example, it takes a minute to spot a trend in a table of data, but
an upward- sloping line communicates the trend in a glance. Excel makes it easy to create
charts. You can create charts either as objects embedded in a worksheet or as separate chart
sheets within a workbook. You can create them manually, but the easiest way to create a chart is
to use the chart Wizard.

Using the chart wizard to create a chart

 To create a chart using the chat Wizard
 Select the data you want to include in the chart. The data should include all the values you
want included in the chart as well as any labels that identify those values.
 Click insert menu, chart
 Select the chart of your desire and click next. you can view a sample of what your chart will
look like by pressing and holding the view sample button.
 Click next. Type the chart title, place the legend & data labels including the categories
required.
 Click Next. Then finish.

Modifying charts

Chart types
Excel provides 12 standard chart types, most of which include several sub- types. To change the
chart type, you can choose chart, chart type, then select a type and sub-type of the chart. To
change the chart type quickly, you use the chart toolbar.

Formatting chart objects

The various part of a chart are called objects. You can control many aspects of almost every
objects you can control only the color of the fill and the line around it, for other objects, you
have many formatting choices. There are three general methods for formatting a chart object.
 Select the object, then choose format, Selected object ( the name of the command will vary
depending on which object you selected).

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 Select the object, then click the format object button on the chart toolbar. ( You can use the
select object list on the toolbar to select chart objects that are difficult select with the mouse).
 Double –click the object,
 All three methods display a format object dialog box that is specific to the object you
selected.

Adding a title and axis labels

To add a title or axis labels to your chart:
 Choose chart, chart options to display the chart options dialog box.
 Click the title tab.
 Enter the desired labels, then click OK.

Applying the background to the worksheet

 Click on format menu

 Click sheet, back ground.
 Choose the desired picture

Preparing to print

Before you print you should take the time to preview the worksheet and check the errors.
Completing these tasks before you actually print can save you time and paper.

Print preview
The print preview command makes it possible for you to see how a worksheet will appear when
printed without actually printing it. Previewing your worksheets can save paper and help you see
how your set up choice will affect a print out. You can preview a worksheet either by choosing
file, print preview, or by clicking the print preview button on the standard toolbar, when you
point to the previewed worksheet, the mouse pointer takes the shape of a magnifying glass. You
can then click to Zoom in on the preview, and then adjust those margins by using the mouse to
exit the print preview screen, simply click the close button.

Controlling page setup options

You have control over many aspects of how your worksheet will print. For the most part, you
use the page setup dialog box for this purpose. You can use the page tab of the page setup dialog
box to change the orientation of your worksheets and several other options. Your dialog box may
look different depending on the printer you are using. For worksheets that take up more than a
page of space, the fit to option can be useful. This option will condense the data on the worksheet
to fit within the number of pages you specify.

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Controlling margins

You’ve already seen that you can use the print preview screen to adjust margins visually. The
margins tab of the page setup dialog box makes it possible for you to control page margins more
precisely. You can also center on page options to center the data either horizontally or vertically,
which can make your worksheets look more attractive. Depending on your printer, you might
have slightly different options available.

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Controlling sheet options

The sheet tab of the page setup dialog box is especially important for multi-page worksheets you
can use the print area to specify that Excel print only a certain range of the worksheet. If you
want a row or column headings to respect on every page of the printout, you can use the print
titles section to section to specify those headings. You also can use this tab to specify whether or
not gridlines will show on the print out.

Printing the print dialog box

When you choose file, print, Excel displays the print dialog box. Here, you can choose the
printer to which you want to send the worksheet (if you are connected to more than one ), specify
an range of pages to print, a number of copies, and that Excel print a selection, an active
worksheet, or the entire workbook. You also can access the print preview screen via the preview
button.

Printing multiple worksheets.

You can print multiple worksheets at one time if you choose. To do so, select the worksheets
you want to print by pressing Ctrl and clicking on the sheet tab for each worksheet you want to
include in the print job. Then choose file print, specify any options you want to use in the print
dialog box, and click OK.

Using the print button

You can use the print button to print a worksheet without going through the print dialog box.
When you do so, Excel prints the active worksheet to the current printer using all default settings

Setting and clearing a print area

There will be times when only part of a worksheet, but you want to insure that you’ll always
print that part of the worksheet. To do this, you can define a print area. A print area allows you to
specify what part of the work sheet will be printed when you see the print command. By default,
only that part of the worksheet will print until you clear the print or define a different print area.

Setting a print area

You can set a default print area for a worksheet. To do so, select the range you want to include in
the print output and choose file, Print area, set print area. you’ll see a dotted line around the area
you set.

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Clearing a print area

When you no longer want to use a print area you’ve set, you need to clear it. To clear a print
area, choose file, print area, clear print area. The dotted line that appeared around the print area
will no longer be displayed and the default print setting will be the active sheet.

Printing a selection

When you don’t want to clear a print area but you want to print a range of cells within the
defined print area, you can print a selection instead. To print a selection:
 Select the range of cells you want to print.
 Choose file, print to open the print dialog box.
 Under print what, click selection.
 Choose any other options you want to use from the dialog box.
 Click OK.

Printing charts

You print charts the same way you print worksheets. For the charts, the page set up dialog box
has a chart tab instead of a sheet tab. To do this:
 Choose file, page setup
 Click the chart tab
 Click print preview
 Click print to print the chart.

Wrapping text and merging cells

Wrapping text
Wrapping text is the way of over lapping words in a cell. Two or more words in a cell, make the
cell so big. To wrap text:
 Select the text to be wrapped
 Click format on the menu bar, then cells.
 Click the Alignment tab, Under text control, click wrap text
 Click OK
Immediately the texts will overlap each other. If it doesn’t then reduce the size of the column
where the wrapped text appears.

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Merging cells
Merging cells is described as the compressing of many cells in order to make one. To merge
cells;
 Select the cells to be merged
 Choose format on the menu bar.
 Choose cells.
 Click the Alignment tab
 Using text control, click merge cells
 Click OK.

You can also change direction of the text. To change the direction of the text.
 Select the text you want to add direction
 Choose format, on the menu bar
 Click cells.
 Click Alignment tab
 Using text control increase or reduce the indents.

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CHAPTER 5

TOPIC SUB CONTENT

TOPIC
Presentations Presentations Create a new presentation using PowerPoint’s design templates.
basics
Navigate around a presentation.
Add slides to a presentation
Add text and clip art to a slide
Edit a presentation. ƒ Add predesigned transitions and effects. ƒ
View, Print, and Save a presentation. ƒ Open an existing
presentation.

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 CHAPTER 6

TOPIC SUB CONTENT

TOPIC
Networks, Key Understand the terms: Internet, WWW, URL, hyperlink
Web concepts
browsing
concepts
and
Security
Define web browser and identify examples
Outline different Internet activities like information searching,
shopping, learning, publishing, entertainment, communication etc
Security Recognise ways to protect yourself when online; purchase from
and safety secure, reputable sites, avoid unnecessary disclosure of personal
and financial information
Using the Open, close browser, enter URL, refresh page, stop web page from
web downloading, view history, navigate between pages.
browser
Tools and Set home page, dealing with cookies and pop ups (allow, block).
settings
Delete history, temporary Internet files
Bookmarks Add and delete bookmarks.
Search Identify common search engines and their function.
Carry out a search using a key word, phrase.
Refine a search using advanced search features.
Critical Outline factors that determine credibility of a website like author,
evaluation referencing,
Recognise the appropriateness of online information for a
particular audience.
Copyright Define copyright and intellectual property. Recognise the need to
acknowledge sources and/or seek permission as appropriate.

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COMPUTER NETWORKS, SECURITYAND WEB BROWSING
CONCEPTS

DEFINITION OF TERMS
Network: A connection of computers for them to share data and resources like a printer.
Data communication: The process of transferring data through networked computers

ADVANTAGES OF NETWORKING
Expensive peripherals like printers and scanners can be shared between users. Messages can be
sent easily and faster between users whether on WAN or LAN. Avoids duplication of
information as users can access the same file on the network. Network software can be purchased
cheaply than buying individual packages for each computer. It is possible to access data or
programs from any terminal or workstation. Data and programs can be stored centrally making it
easier to maintain and backup. Users can be easily prevented from accessing files not intended
for them. Allows sharing of files, software and data held in computers. Allows emails to be send
between users.
DISADVANTAGES OF NETWORKING
Sophisticated equipment is needed, which may be expensive to buy. Security of data can be a
problem due to hacking. Wiring can be expensive both to buy and to install; wiring can be sunk
on the ground to avoid trailing cables. If a server breaks down, the whole network becomes
unusable. Networks need experienced network managers, who will be highly paid to keep the
network running.

SERVERS
Most networks are controlled by the use of servers. There are different types of servers, for
example:
 File Servers, which allow users to save and load data/files
 Applications Servers, which deal with the distribution of applications software to each
computer
 Printer Servers, which ensure printing from devices on the network is done in a queue, for
example
 Proxy Servers, which are used as a buffer between WANs (discussed at the end of this
section) and LANs

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TYPES OF NETWORKS
Computer networks are grouped into Personal Area Networks (PAN), Local Area Networks
(LAN), Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) and Wide Area Networks (WAN) and these are
described below.

1. LOCAL AREA NETWORKS (LAN)

This is the connection of computers over a very small geographical area, like in a single room.
Other LANs can link different departments (e.g. Sales, Accounts, Warehousing, Despatch, etc)
within an organisation‘s complex. However, if an organisation uses internet service within its
restricted private Local Area Network, such a network is called an Intranet (private network).
NB: Intranet is a private organisation‘s network that uses internet technologies for the benefits
of such an organisation.
Extranet: an extension of the intranet giving authorized outsiders controlled access to the
intranet.

REQUIREMENTS FOR A LAN CONNECTION

Hardware Requirements
1. Host computer / Server: This is the main computer that control and manage other
computers on the network.
2. Terminals: These are computers that are on the network and are linked to the host computer.
If the terminal has its own processing and storage capabilities, it is called an intelligent
terminal. However, if the terminal does not have its own processing and storage facilities and
relies on the host computer for it to work, it is called a dump terminal.
3. Network cables: These act as pathway for data from one computer to another. Cables can be
coaxial, fibre optics, twisted pair, etc. However, some networks are now using wireless
technology and these are called Wireless Local Area Networks (WLAN). WLAN uses
radio signals and therefore no cabling is required.
4. Hub: a device used as a connection point for devices and computers on a Local Area
Network.
5. Network cards for each computer/terminal: - a device that identifies computers to the
network, where network cables are plugged on the computer
6. A bridge can also be connected to link your network to another network and is an optional
requirement.

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 The diagram below shows the
structure of a LAN that can be
connected to another network.

SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS FOR A LAN CONNECTION

1. Communication software like TCP/IP – Transmission Control Protocol Internet Protocol. A
protocol is a set of rules followed by devices when they are communicating.
2. Network operating system:
manages the network and network devices

LAN NETWORK TOPOLOGY (LAN CONFIGURATION)

This refers to the shape of the network. The common network topologies are:
1. Ring Network:
Computers are connected together to form a circle and uses a token when transferring data.
Information travels in one direction only. Information moves around the ring in sequence from
its source to its destination.
The diagram below illustrates the physical
configuration of a ring network:
Advantages of Ring Network
- If one computer breaks down, others will
remain working as they have their own
processors and storage facilities.
- Data processing is faster as each computer
processes its own processor.
- Has very high data transfer rates.

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- Uses a token to avoid data collision or loss

Disadvantages of Ring Network

- If one computer breaks down, the whole network is disrupted.
- Its requirements are expensive, that is buying several computers with processors and storage
facilities.
- It is difficult to link the computers together.
- Difficult to add another computer without disrupting the networking.
- One may not send data when another node
(computer) is still sending its own data.

2. Star Network:
Computers form a star shape with host computer
at the centre, as shown below:
Advantages of Star Network
- If one terminal breaks down, the network is not
affected.
- If one terminal breaks down, others will remain
working.
- It is cheap in terms of requirements since only the
host computer can have a processor and storage
facility.
- It is very easy to install.
- Management of data is easier as this is done
centrally.
- It is very fast to process data.
- Easier to add new workstation without disrupting the network.
- No problem of collision of data since each terminal has its own cable to the host computer.
- Gives consistent performance even when the network is heavily utilised.
- More secure than other network topologies
Disadvantages of a Star Network
If the host computer breaks down, the whole network will be affected. If the host computer is
down, all the terminals will not work as they depend on the host for processing and storage. It
requires a lot of cabling, which might be expensive.

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3. Mesh Network
A network in which each computer serves as a relay point for directly sending information to any
other computer on the network. No central device oversees a mesh network, and no set route is
used to pass data back and forth between computers. Thus, if any one computer is damaged or
temporarily unavailable, information is dynamically rerouted to other computers—a process
known as self-healing

Advantages of Mesh Network

- If one computer breaks down, others will remain
functional.
- If one computer breaks down, the network is not
disturbed.
- Computers have their own storage and processing
capabilities.

Disadvantages of Mesh Network

- Expensive to buy computers with their storage and
processing facilities.
- Too much cabling is involved, which may be
expensive.

4. Bus (Linear/Multi-drop) Network:

Computers are connected together through one main cable and all computers all signals
transmitted by any computer
connected to the network
(a) Bus: the dedicated
and main cable that
connects all workstations
and other computer
devices like
printers.
(b)Nodes: these
are connection
points for
workstations and the bus.
(c) Terminator: devices
that prevent data in the bus
from bouncing back, causing noise and prevents data from getting lost.

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Advantages of Bus network
If one workstation breaks down, others will remain functional. If one workstation breaks down,
the network remains working. All computers have processing and storage capabilities. It is cheap
to install due to less cabling. Easy to add workstation without disrupting the network.
Disadvantages of Bus Network
Computers cannot send data at the same time or while there is data being transferred in the bus.
Can cause collision of data during transmission. It is slow in transferring data. Its requirements
are expensive, that is computers with their own processors and storage facilities. The system will
be down if the main cable (bus) is disrupted at any point. Less secure

Wireless LANs (WLANs)

WLANs are similar to LANs but there are no wires or cables. In other words, they provide
wireless network communications over fairly short distances (a few metres) using radio or
infrared signals instead of cables.
Devices, known as access points (APs), are connected into the wired network at fixed locations
(see below). Because of the limited range, most commercial WLANs (e.g. on a college campus
or at an airport) need several APs to permit uninterrupted wireless communications. The APs use
either spread spectrum technology (which is a wideband radio frequency with a range of about
30 to 50 metres) or infrared but this has a very short range (i.e. about 1 to 2 metres) and is easily
blocked, so is of limited use.

A network connecting WLANs

The AP receives and transmits data between the WLAN and the wired network structure. End
users access the WLAN through WLAN adapters, which are built into the devices or are plug-in
modules.
Advantages
 All computers can access the same services and resources (e.g. printers, scanners, internet
access from anywhere within range of the APs).
 There is no cabling to individual computers and devices so safety is improved.
 The system is more flexible, since users can move their laptops from their desks.

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 Adding new computers and devices is very easy (all that is required is a WLAN adapter,
provided the device is within range of an AP) and costs are reduced since no extra cabling is
needed.
Disadvantages
 Security is a big issue since anyone with a WLAN-enabled laptop computer can access a
network if it can pick up a signal. It is therefore necessary to adopt complex data encryption
techniques.
 There may be problems of interference which can affect the signal.
 The data transfer rate is slower than in a wired LAN.
WiFi
WiFi refers to any system where it is possible to connect to a network or to a single computer
through wireless communications, for example:
 on the WLAN described earlier
 PDAs and other handheld devices
 laptop computers which are WiFi enabled peripheral devices such as printers, keyboards and
mouse which can interface with the single computer when fitted with WiFi adapters.
WiFi systems rely on some form of AP, which uses radio frequency technology to enable the
device to receive and send signals.
Note that WiFi is not short for wireless fidelity (a common misconception!). Rather, it is the
trademark name for any product which is based on the IEEE 802.11 standard.
WiFi hotspots are places where you can access WiFi (free or paid). They exist in public places
such as airports, hotels and internet cafés. It is possible to logon to free WiFi hotspots unless they
are protected by passwords. Software exists which can be loaded onto a laptop computer which
then searches for non-protected WiFi systems. The practice of driving around in a car looking for
these unsecured WiFi hotspots is known as war driving and poses a security risk to any
unsecured WiFi system.
Bluetooth
Bluetooth is an example of wireless personal area networking (WPAN) technology. Spread
spectrum transmission (radio waves) is used to provide wireless links between mobile phones,
computers and other handheld devices and allow connection to the internet.
With this system, it is possible to create a small home network, for example, to allow
communication between any PDA, mobile phone, computer, media player and printer. The range
is, however, quite small (about 10 metres). Examples of its use include the transfer of
photographs from a digital camera to a mobile phone or the transfer of phone details to a
computer. It behaves like a mini-LAN.
Network devices

Modems
Modem means modulator demodulator and is a device which converts a
computer’s digital signal (i.e. modulates it) into an analogue signal for
transmission over an existing telephone line. It also does the reverse process,
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in that it converts analogue signals from a telephone line into digital signals (demodulates) to
enable the computer to process the data.
Modems are used to allow computers to connect to networks (e.g the internet) over long
distances using existing telephone networks.
Dial-up modems operate at transmission speeds of about 60 kilobits per second, which is quite
slow by today’s standards. However, modern broadband or asymmetric digital subscriber line
(ADSL) modems operate at 11,000 kilobits per second (or higher). The term ‘asymmetric’
means that the modem is faster at downloading (getting) data than it is uploading (sending)
data.
Although the ADSL modems still use the existing telephone network, unlike dial-up modems
they do not tie up the line while accessing the internet, so the land-line telephone can still be
used at the same time. Furthermore, they can always be ‘on’ so internet access can be available
24 hours a day. ADSL modems can allow telephone conversations and internet traffic to occur at
the same time because of the wide bandwidth signal used: the higher frequencies are used to
carry the internet signals, so they do not interfere with normal telephone traffic. Cable modems
also exist which allow cable television providers to offer internet access as well as receiving
television signals.
Network hubs
Network hubs are hardware devices that can have a number of
devices/computers connected to them. Its main task is to take any data
received via one of the ports and then send out this data from all of the
ports. Each computer/device will receive the data, whether it is relevant or
not.
Switches
Switches are similar to hubs but are more efficient in the way they
distribute data. A hub learns which devices are connected to which ports.
Each device has a media access control (MAC) address which
identifies it uniquely. Data packets sent to the switch will have a mac
address giving the source and receiving device. If a device X is always
sending the switch data via port 4 then it learns that X must be connected
to that port; any data packet which is intended for X only is then sent
through port 4 and not through any of the others. This means that the network traffic only goes to
where it is needed and so a switch is more efficient than a hub, especially when the network is
very busy.
Bridges
Bridges are devices that connect one LAN to another LAN that uses the same protocol (the rules
that determine the format and transmission of data). They decide whether a message from a user
is going to another user on the same LAN or to a user on a different LAN. The bridge examines
each message and passes on those known to be on the same LAN and forwards messages meant
for a user on a different LAN.
In networks that use bridges, workstation addresses are not specific to their location and
therefore messages are actually sent out to every workstation on the network. However, only the

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target workstation accepts this message. Networks using bridges are interconnected LANs since
sending out every message to every workstation would flood a large network with unnecessary
traffic.
Routers
Since large companies often have more than one network there are
occasions when the computers in one network want to communicate with
the computers in one of the other networks. Routers are often used to
connect the LANs together and also connect them to the internet.
Routers inspect the data packages sent to it from any computer on any of
the networks connected to it. Since every computer on the same network
has the same first part of an internet protocol (IP) address, the router is able to send the data
package to the appropriate switch and it will then be delivered using the mac destination address
in the data packet. If this mac address doesn’t match any device on the network it passes on to
another switch on the same network until the device is found.
HTTP proxy servers
This is a special type of server that acts as a buffer between a WAN (usually the internet) and a
LAN. The server passes on the service requests to the internet and then passes back the requested
pages. It therefore retrieves web pages and passes them on to the computer that made the request.
Any page retrieved from the internet is stored on the server, which means that when a different
computer requests the same page it is available immediately thus considerably speeding up the
browsing process.

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2. WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN)
Refers to the connection of computers over a large geographical area, often over 1 km, e.g.
covering the whole district or province. Internet is also part of WAN. WANs can also be
wireless.

Hardware Requirements for a WAN

1. Modem (Modulator Demodulator): - a device that converts analogue data to digital
form and vice versa, often for internet connection using a telephone line.
2. Communication link: Acts as a transmission media for data, e.g. telephone line, satellite
transmission, etc.
3. Network cards for each computer: - a device that identifies computers to the network,
where network cables are plugged on the computer

Software Requirements for a WAN

i. Communication Software like TCP/IP – Transmission Control Protocol Internet Protocol.
ii. Web Browser: refers to software used for opening web pages on the internet, for
example Microsoft Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator, Mozilla Firefox, etc.
iii. Search Engine: Software used for searching data and websites with needed data from the
internet as per user request. Examples of search engines includes Yahoo, Google, etc
iv. Network operating system: manages the network and network devices.

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THE INTERNET
It is a global connection of computer networks.

Hardware Requirements for an Internet Connection

1. Modem (Modulator Demodulator): - a device that converts analogue data to digital form
and vice versa, often for internet connection using a telephone line. Alternatively, one may
acquire a GPRS (general packet radio service) modem
2. Communication link: Acts as a transmission media for data, e.g. telephone line, satellite
transmission, etc.
3. Network cards for each computer: - a device that identifies computers to the network, where
network cables are plugged on the computer

Software Requirements for an Internet Connection

1. Communication Software like TCP/IP – Transmission Control Protocol Internet Protocol.
2. Web Browser: refers to software used for opening web pages on the internet, for example
Microsoft Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator, Mozilla Firefox, etc.
3. Network operating system: manages the network.

Other requirements
1. An internet account: a unique personal identifier given by the Internet Service Provider
(ISP). An ISP is an organisation that links users to the internet, for example, Mweb, Ecoweb,
Africaonline, Yahoo and Google Inc. The internet has become a source of a wide range of
information globally.

Advantages of the Internet as a Source of Information

Can be accessed from anywhere in the world. Information on the internet is up-to-date.
Multimedia can be used. Huge amounts of information can be accessed; e.g., magazines,
encyclopedia, dictionaries, newspapers, textbooks, etc. Search engines are available to assist in
finding information. Using emails, you can access experts from all over the world on certain
subjects.
Disadvantages of the Internet as a Source of Information
Equipment and connections needed are very expensive (computers, modems (ISDN adapters)
ISP, telephone). One needs knowledge to perform searches effectively. Problem of hackers.
Breaches of copyrights are very common. Rampant spread of rumors on the internet. Spread of
pornography to young people. Leads to loss of privacy. Some people become internet addicted
and tend to interact with computers more than with human beings. Credit card fraud is rampant.

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Information from the internet

The social and general impact of using the internet or devices which rely on microprocessors
have been discussed in earlier sections. This section will now look at the quality of information
found on the internet when using a search engine. There are four main aspects to consider:
reliability of information, undesirability of certain websites security issues other internet issues.

Reliability of information
1. Information is more likely to be up to date than in books, since websites can be updated
very quickly.
2. It is much easier to get information from websites, as search engines quickly link key
words together and find information that matches the criteria.
3. There is a vast amount of information on the internet, which is easier to locate than using
the indices in several books.
4. However, information on the internet may be incorrect, inaccurate or even biased since it
does not go through any checking process.
5. There is a risk of information overload even if search engines are used properly. It is
possible to get thousands of hits, which may make it difficult to find the information relevant to
the user’s search.
Undesirability of certain websites
1. There is always the risk of finding undesirable websites (as discussed in Section 6.4).
2. There is also a risk of doubtful websites which are not genuine and could lead to a
number of problems such as undesirable web links, security risks, etc.
3. Security risks are a very large problem and are discussed in the following section.

Security issues

The risk of viruses and hacking has already been discussed in Section 6.3. The use of passwords,
user IDs, encryption, firewalls and other software protection was also discussed in Section 6.3.
However, there are other security risks (not necessarily as a result of viruses or hacking)
associated with connecting to the internet. These security risks are now discussed in some depth.
Phishing
Phishing is a fraudulent operation involving the use of emails. The creator sends out a
legitimate-looking email, hoping to gather personal and financial information from the recipient
of the email. To make it more realistic (and therefore even more dangerous!) the message will
appear to have come from some legitimate source (such as a famous bank). As soon as an
unsuspecting user clicks on the link they are sent to a spoof website where they will be asked for
personal information including credit card details, PINs, etc. which could lead to identity theft.
Many ISPs now attempt to filter out phishing emails, but users should always be aware that a risk
still exists and should be suspicious of any emails requesting unsolicited personal details.

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Pharming
Pharming is a scam in which malicious code is installed on a computer hard disk or a server.
This code has the ability to misdirect users to fraudulent websites, usually without their
knowledge or consent.
Whereas phishing requires an email to be sent out to every person who has been targeted,
pharming does not require emails to be sent out to everybody and can therefore target a much
larger group of people much more easily. Also, no conscious action needs to necessarily be made
by the user (such as opening an email), which means the user will probably have no idea at all
that have been targeted. Basically, pharming works like this:
A hacker/pharmer will first infect the user’s computer with a virus, either by sending an email or
by installing software on their computer when they first visit their website. It could also be
installed as part of something the user chooses to install from a website (so the user doesn’t
necessarily have to open an email to become infected). Once infected, the virus would send the
user to a fake website that looks almost identical to the one they really wanted to visit.
Consequently, personal information from the user’s computer can picked up by the
pharmer/hacker.
Certain anti-spyware, anti-virus software or anti-pharming software can be used to identify this
code and correct the corruption.
Spam
Spam is electronic junk mail and is a type of advertising from a company sent out to a target
mailing list. It is usually harmless but it can clog up the networks, slowing them down, or fill up
a user’s mail box. It is therefore more of a nuisance than a security risk.
Many ISPs are good at filtering out spam. In fact, some are so efficient that it is often necessary
to put legitimate email addresses into a contacts list/address book to ensure that wanted emails
are not filtered out by mistake.
Spyware
Spyware is software that gathers user information through their network connections without
them being aware that this is happening. Once spyware is installed, it monitors all key presses
and transmits the information back to the person who sent out the spyware. This software also
has the ability to install other spyware software, read cookies and even change the default home
page or web browser. Anti-spyware can be used to search out this software and correct the
corruption.
Other internet issues
Although the following item is not regarded as a security threat, it can be a considerable nuisance
to an internet user and is included here for completeness.
Cookies
Cookies are small files sent to a user’s computer via their web browser when they visit certain
websites. They store information about the users and this data is accessed each time they visit the
website. For example:

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  they remember who the user is and send messages such as ‘Welcome Daniel’ each time
they log onto the website
 they recognise a user’s buying preferences; e.g. if a user buys CDs, pop ups (adverts)
related to their buying habits will appear on the user’s screen each time they visit the
website.
Without cookies, the web server would have no way of knowing that the user had visited the
website before.

INTERNET TERMS
The internet as mentioned earlier is a worldwide collection of networks which allows a
subscriber to send and receive emails, chat (using text or voice) or browse the world wide web.
The world wide web (WWW or web) is the part of the internet which the user can access by
way of a web browser (e.g. Microsoft Internet Explorer). A web browser is software that allows
the user to display and interact with pages and files from the web.

Websites
The web is made up of millions of these websites (e.g. www.hoddereducation.com) and millions
of web pages (e.g. Hodder Education front page, shown in Figure below). Web pages are
documents on a computer screen which may consist of text, pictures, sounds, animation or video
(i.e. multimedia). A website consists of many of these pages linked together.

Example of a web page

The website shows these hyperlinks to allow users to navigate between web pages. These
hyperlinks are often shown as blue underlined text or sometimes a small hand appears under a
picture or under some text indicating the link to another page or website. The user clicks on these
hyperlinks using a mouse (or another pointing device) to move to another page.
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Web browsers use uniform resource locations (URLs) to retrieve files. URLs are a standard way
of locating a resource on the internet; they are usually a set of four numbers, e.g. 194.106.220.19.
However, as this can be difficult to remember, an alphanumeric form is usually used which has
the format:
protocol://site address/path/filename
where:
 protocol is usually http
 site address consists of: host computer name, domain name, domain type and (very often)
the country code:
 computer name is usually www
 domain name is the name of the website
 domain type is commonly one of the following: .com, .org, .co, .net, .gov
 examples of country code include .uk, .us, .de, .cy
 path is the web page
 filename is the item on the webpage.
Thus, a full URL could be http://www.urlexamples.co.cy/pages/example1

Accessing the internet

An ISP is a company that provides users with access to the internet, usually
for a fee. When a user registers with an ISP, an account is set up and they are
given login details, which include a username and a password. The user
connects to the internet via the user account which also allows the provider
to monitor usage. Most ISPs also provide an email account (see Figure 4.7
for an example of an email page).
Emails are an electronic way of sending documents (etc.) from one computer
to another. They allow attachments, which can be word-processed
documents, spreadsheets, data files, music files, movie Figure 4.7 Example
of an email files, etc. An email address contains two parts: page example1@yahoo.co.uk OR
example2@yahoo.com
The first part is the user name e.g. example1 or example2 and the second part is @ followed by
host name e.g. @yahoo.co.uk or @yahoo.com.
Emails are discussed in more depth in later.
There are three common ways of accessing the internet offered by service providers:
 dial-up internet access
 cable internet access
 digital subscriber line (DSL) (broadband) internet access.

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Summarized in Table below.

Type of access Description

Dial-up internet access This is the slowest type of connection (about 60kbps).
(dial-up modem) The user connects to the internet via the telephone line
by dialling one of the numbers supplied by the ISP.
They are therefore not on all the time; ISP contracts
are usually for a number of hours per month of
internet access time and additional charges are
incurred if this is exceeded.
A big disadvantage is that the telephone line is tied up
while a dial up modem is in operation.

Cable internet access Local cable television operators give a user access to
(cable the internet through their own cable networks using a
cable network modem.
modem)

Internet access via DSL The fastest download speeds can be obtained by using
(broadband modem) DSL broadband connections (at least 11,000kbps).
This is often offered with wireless interface which
requires an AP and a router. ISPs usually have a
download/upload limit (e.g. 20 Gbyte of data) as part
of the contact. This is not a problem unless the user is
often downloading music or movie files which can
quickly use up the memory allocation.
Broadband has the advantage of always being on,
since it doesn’t tie up the telephone line.
The fast transfer rate allows systems such as voice
over IP (VOIP) and online chat rooms to be used
effectively.

Methods of accessing the internet

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Intranets

Many companies use an intranet as well as the internet. The simple definition of an intranet is ‘a
computer network based on internet technology that is designed to meet the internal needs for
sharing information within a single organisation/company’. There are number of reasons for
doing this.
 It is safer since there is less chance of external hacking or viruses.
 It is possible to prevent employees from accessing unwanted websites.
 Companies can ensure that the information available is specific to their needs.
 It is easier to send out sensitive messages that will remain only within the company.
It is now worth comparing the internet with intranets:
 The term ‘internet’ comes from the phrase international network.
 The term ‘intranet’ comes from the phrase internal restricted access network.
An intranet is used to give local information relevant to the company whereas the internet covers
topics of global interest.
It is possible to block out certain internet sites using an intranet. This is much more difficult to
do from the internet.
An intranet requires password entry and can only be accessed from agreed points, whereas the
internet can be accessed from anywhere provided the user has an ISP account.
An intranet is behind a firewall, which gives some protection against hackers (unauthorized
users), viruses and so on. This is much more difficult to do with internet access since it is more
open on an international scale.
Information used in intranets is usually stored on local servers, which makes it more secure from
outside agencies.

Extranet

An intranet that has extended access to authorized users outside the premises via internet.

COMMUNICATION METHODS
Many methods of communication using networks exist. These include fax, email, video
conferencing and VOIP.
Services Provided by the Internet
1. Electronic Mail (E-Mail):
These are written messages send electronically over networked computers. Inorder to send and
receive e-mails, the following is needed.
(a) An internet connection
(b) An E-mail Address: This is a unique identifier of the storage location of a person ‘s
mailbox. An e-mail address is made up of two parts that are separated by the ―@‖ symbol, for
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example, kapondenit@gmail.com. The first part (kapondenit) is the username and is used to
identify the name of the person or organisation that has the mailbox. The username is unique.
The second part (gmail) is the domain name and is used to identify the server where the person
has a mailbox. The other part (the one after the dot (.) indicates the domain type e. g
. com – commercial organisation
. edu – educational organisation
. org – non-profit making organisation, etc
An e-mail address should be known by many people so that they will know the address where to
send the emails. Every mailbox is protected from illegal access by use of password. A password
is a secret group of alphanumeric characters used to protect a document from unauthorised
access.
NB. When creating an e-mail, one is requested to enter the password twice in order to verify if it
is the one you intend to use.
Mailbox: - An electronic folder used to store electronic mails. It contains the inbox which
contains incoming mails and the outbox, which is used to save outgoing messages.
When sending an email, the user first logs on to email address, compose the message and then
send it by clicking on the send button. The computer processes involved after the user presses the
send button are as follows:
The message is transmitted to the sender ‘s ISP/central host computer. The message is stored on
a central host computer. The message is transmitted to intermediate computers. The message is
stored on the intermediate computers. The message is received by the addressee ‘s host
computer/ISP.
The addressee logs in to a local computer and receives the mail
Advantages of e-mails as compared to ordinary mails
It is very fast in sending messages (can be delivered promptly while ordinary mails can take days
to reach their destination). It is very cheap to send e-mails since there is no need for envelopes,
stamps, paper and pen, which are needed in conventional mail. They are reliable since e-mails
rarely get lost. E-mails are time independent as they can be send any time of the day other than
conventional mails which can be send during the normal working hours. E-mails allow multiple
addressing, that is, one e-mail message can be send to several recipients simultaneously without
having to retype it. E-mails can be saved for future use or reference. E-mails are more
convenient to use as there is no need to travel to the post office or to shops to buy stamps and
envelopes. In e-mails, attachments in form of reports, scanned documents, pictures and
curriculum vitae can easily be attached to the e-mail.
Disadvantages of e-mail
Not everyone has equipment to send e-mails. Junk mail (spam) is a problem. You waste a lot of
time looking through mails that are just adverts. E-mails are not as secure as traditional mails.
The system relies on people checking their mails regularly. Old people feel left out as they
consider themselves too old to learn. Equipment used to send and receive e-mails is very
expensive as compared to traditional methods.

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However, despite the increase in the use of e-mail, there has been a sharp increase in the amount
of paper used. This is because: People print copies for meetings and then destroy them
afterwards, but if needed again, print out another copy. Some people find it difficult reading
large amounts of text on the screen. People often e-mail colleagues rather than use the phone
who then print out the document.

2. Teleconferencing:
Voice over internet protocol (VOIP) is a method used to talk to people using the internet. VOIP
converts sound (picked up by the computer microphone or special VOIP telephone plugged into
the USB port of the computer) into discrete digital packets which can be sent to their destination
via the internet. One of the big advantages is that it is either free (if the talking is done computer
to computer, i.e. both computers have VOIP telephones or use their built-in/plugged-in
microphones and speakers) or at a local rate to anywhere in the world (when VOIP is used to
communicate with a mobile or land line telephone rather than another computer).
To work in real time this system requires a broadband ISP. The main problems are usually sound
quality (echo and ‘weird sounds’ are both common faults).
Security is also a main concern with VOIP, as it is with other internet technologies.
The most prominent security issues over VOIP are:
 identity and service theft
 viruses and malware (malicious software)
 spamming (sending junk mail)
 phishing attacks (the act of sending an email to a user falsely claiming to be an
established legitimate enterprise in an attempt to scam the user into surrendering private
information that will be used for identity theft).

A method of conducting discussion with several people in different locations using the
telephone.

3. Video conferencing:
Conducting meetings with several people in different locations and seeing each other on the
screen of networked computers. Delegates do not need to leave their homes or work places.
Video conferencing requires the following:
A computer with a codec. Video cameras. Microphone. Speakers. Large and high-resolution
monitor. An integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) line with a high bandwidth to transmit
video data at fast speed. Sound card. Video card
This is a method of communication between people at two separate locations (e.g. in different
countries). This is done in real time and makes use of a LAN, if internal, or through a WAN,
e.g. the internet, if national or international. The system works in real time and uses additional
hardware such as webcams, large monitors/television screens, microphones and speakers.

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The system also uses special software such as:
CODEC, which converts and compresses analogue data into digital data to send down digital
lines echo cancellation software, which allows talking in real time and synchronises
communications.
Delegates at one end speak into a microphone and look at a webcam. The other delegates can see
them and hear them using large monitors and speakers.
There are potential problems with these systems such as time lag (the time it takes for the signal
to reach its destination, which can be difficult when trying to have a conversation since there
seems to be a delay). Also, sound quality and picture quality can be poor unless expensive
hardware and software is used.
However, these systems are becoming increasingly popular as the cost of travelling increases and
the risk of terrorist attacks becomes higher. One large company, which reduced travelling from
Europe to USA and used video conferencing wherever possible to discuss product development,
claims to have saved several million US dollars over a 12-month period. The savings were due to
reduced travelling (mostly air fares) and to reduced overnight accommodation. Since little or no
travelling is involved meetings can be held at short notice, but time differences between
countries can become an issue.

Advantages of tele and video conferencing

It cuts transport cost incurred in travelling to the venue of the meeting. Reduces costs involving
paying hotel bills and meals for the delegates. Saves time spend in travelling to the venue of the
meeting. It becomes safer for employees since no travelling is done (no travelling accidents).
There is no need for delegates to leave home/office. It becomes easier for several delegates to
take part simultaneously.
Disadvantages of video and tele-conferencing
Communication expenses are very high. Hardware and software requirements are expensive.
People will lack personal contact and will socialize less.

4. View data (videotext) systems:

These are interactive systems on which users view data when they access specialized databases
like Prestel. The requirements include the telephone line or cable TV, specialized keyboard and a
Television set. Information on the database is provided by companies that advertise their
products like news, weather reports, and so on. View data systems have the advantage that they
are interactive and the service is provided for free to the public. However, its requirements are
expensive.

5. Teletext:
It is a broadcast service that comes as a television transmission. It is cheaper than the internet
service. However, it is non-interactive.

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6. Facsimile (Fax):
A method whereby output from a scanned document is send over telephone line and reproduce
on a fax machine on the receiving end. Fax method has the following advantages:
It is very cheap to send messages. It is very easy to use. It is a very fast method of sending
messages.
The term fax is short for the word ‘facsimile’. With this system, documents are scanned
electronically and converted into a bit map image (a bit is a binary digit and is a 1 or a 0). This
is then transmitted as a series of electrical signals through the telephone network. The receiving
fax machine converts this electronic image and prints it out on paper.
It is also possible to generate fax signals from a computer to allow files and documents to be sent
to a fax machine – this saves printing out the document first and then passing it through a fax
machine. Fax/modem software in the computer converts the image into a form recognised by a
fax machine. However, this is not as efficient as the email system where the electronic copy is
sent and is then stored electronically thus permitting the document to be edited, for example.

However, it has the following disadvantages:

Its requirements are expensive (fax machine). There must be a person at the receiving end to
attend to the fax when receiving messages.
The use of fax, e-mail, view data, teletext, teleconferencing and video conferencing in an office
brings about an electronic (paperless) office. An electronic office is an office in which the
storage and processing of data as well as communication are done electronically. An electronic
office is efficient because: Communication is easier and faster. Less paperwork is involved.
Current and up-to-date information is provided. Ensures a clean office environment.
However, it is very expensive to setup and maintain an electronic office.
*NB- The use of computers to perform all clerical and office duties is called Office Automation.
Tele and video conferencing as well as networking bring about tele-commuting (tele-working).
Telecommuting is carrying out work without leaving home. Communication is done through
networked computers. Requirements for telecommuting includes: modem, very fast
communication links (for example telephone line), computers, internet services, etc.

Benefits of telecommuting
Easier to concentrate on work in a quiet environment than in a noisy office. It saves time spent in
travelling to the work place thereby increasing productivity. It cut costs involved in travelling to
work place. The employer saves costs of office space and overheads like water and electricity.
People can be recruited from a wide geographical area. People with disabilities like the
handicapped can be employed. People in different locations can work as a team.
Disadvantages of tele-commuting
Workforce not in office is difficult to control. Workers would not understand corporate goals and
will not be loyal to the organisation. Employees feel isolated and miss the environment of an
office full of colleagues. People may find it difficult to work in teams. It is difficult to separate
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work from home duties while at home. Unions find it difficult to mobilise workers for
demonstrations and strike.

INTERNET DEVELOPMENTS
The internet has changed out of all recognition since it first started, and continues to develop.
This section considers some of the most recent developments in the way the internet is used.
Web 2.0 refers to a second generation of internet development and design. This has led to a
development of new web-based communication, applications and hosted servers. For example,
the following will be considered in more detail in this section:
 blogs
 wikis
 digital media sharing websites
 social networking sites
 folksonomies.

Blogs

Blogs (which is an abbreviation for web logs) are personal internet journals where the writer (or
blogger) will type in their observations on some topic (e.g. a political view) or even provide
links to certain relevant websites. No training is needed to do this.
Blogs tend to range from minor projects where people just gossip about some topic (such as
the performance of an actor in a recent film) through to important subjects such as politics,
advertising products or raising awareness of a certain key event taking place. However,
comments made are not immune from the law and bloggers can still be prosecuted for making
offensive statements about people!

Wikis

The word ‘wiki’ comes from a Hawaiian word meaning ‘fast’. Wikis are software allowing users
to easily create and edit web pages using any web browser. A wiki will support hyperlinks and
has very simple syntax (language rules) for creating pages. They have often been described as
‘web pages with an edit button’. Anyone can use wikis, which means that the content should
always be treated with some caution. One of the most common examples of a wiki is the online
encyclopedia Wikipedia.

Digital media sharing websites

Digital media sharing websites allow users to upload video clips and other media to an internet
website. The video host, for example, will then store the video on a server and show the user the
different types of code which can be used to enable them to view the video clip.
This development is becoming increasingly popular since most users don’t have unlimited web
space. One of the most common examples of this is YouTube.

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Social networking sites

Social networking sites focus on building online communities of users who share the same
interests and activities. They enable young people, in particular, to share photos of themselves,
show people their favourite videos and music, what they like to do in their spare time, what they
like to eat, etc.
Common examples include Facebook and Myspace, where users can join free of charge and
interact with other people. It is possible to add friends and post messages on a bulletin/message
board and update personal profiles to notify friends about themselves.
These are rapidly becoming the modern way of interacting socially and they allow young people,
in particular, to communicate across the world and share their interests and views with many
people.

Folksonomies

Folksonomies are closely related to tagging and literally mean ‘management of people’.
Tagging is a type of social bookmarking where a user can tag any web page with words that
describe its contents. Anyone can view web pages corresponding to a specific tag. In
folksonomies, the visual representation is a tag cloud – this is a sequence of words of different
sizes that represent popular tags by showing them in a larger font size. One of the most common
examples is Flickr.

OTHER INTERNET ACCESS SOFTWARE AND SERVICES

1. Web browser – software used to download and view web pages from the World Wide
Web (www). A web page is a site on the internet that provides information about an
organisation. The World Wide Web (www) is a group of websites on the internet. Web pages can
be created using any of the following software: HTML (editor), word processing, desktop
publishing software, web publishing software, presentation software. The web developing
software should have the following features:
Feature for changing the background colour or background image on a page. Feature for
formatting text (size, font, colour, bold, italic, underline etc.) or frames. Able to work with
tables. Features for inserting graphics/pictures/sound clip/video clip/animations. Features for
working with links/creating buttons/list box. Features for switching to a browser to check the
appearance of a page. Use templates. Use auto tags.

NB. Hyperlink: - an HTML page on the World Wide Web. The websites must be stored on a
server provided by the Internet Service Provider (ISP)

2. File Transfer Protocol (FTP): program that allows users to transfer files from host
computers on the internet to their personal computers.

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3. News groups: a global electronic bulletin board system in which users exchange
information on different topics.

4. Entertainment: the internet provides an option for users to download and listen to music,
newspapers, radio stations, etc.

5. Internet Shopping: (Internet buying, electronic commerce, online shopping): The

internet provides a facility for customers to purchase products from the internet without visiting
shops. Credit cards are used in internet buying.

Advantages of buying from the internet to the customers

Programs are available to search for the cheapest products on offer. Customers have more time to
choose.
Shopping is done any time of the day, thus providing a 24-hour service. A wide choice of
products is available. Shopping can be done by setting up a file. It is very convenient to use as
customers do not leave their homes for shopping. It cut travelling costs to the shops. Customers
do shopping without being jostled by crowds. There are less cases of impulse buying. Product
reviews are obtainable before purchase. Goods and services usually cheaper on the internet.
Customer need not to go to shop and therefore save travelling time.
To businesses/shop managers
Business is carried out any time of the day (provides a 24-hour shopping service). Increases sales
due to greater number of customers from all over the world. No wastage space for goods is
involved. Ensures huge saving on overheads like rent, warehousing, employee facilities. More
goods can be made available. It is cheaper to use as there are no leaflets, pamphlets, etc. Can
reduce the number of shops on the streets. Organizations can employ fewer workers thereby
cutting labour costs. No need to travel to the shop as business can be run from home.

Disadvantages of buying from the internet

To customers
There are chances of losing money through credit card fraud and hacking. Customers lack
interaction with others. Customers fear of rogue companies (customers may not receive the
goods). Customers cannot physically see the goods before purchasing. Not everyone has a
computer and is connected to the internet. Not everyone has credit cards. Problem of spam
(Unwanted e-mail, usually of a commercial nature sent out in bulk). Customers cannot have the
goods immediately.

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To businesses
Increase in cases of industrial espionage. Industrial espionage involves selling of company
secrets by employees to rival companies and the use of destructive methods by competitors to
destroy other organisations.

EFFECTS OF E-COMMERCE TO THE COMMUNITY

Loss of jobs as some traditional shops and banks close. Lower profits for companies that do not
engage in ecommerce. Decline in leisure shopping as goods are bought on-line. City centers
become deserted as shops and banks close down. The gap between the rich and the poor widens
as the rich get savings from shopping on-line. More people choose to interact with computers
rather than with other people. Increase in small businesses. Less pollution. Less travelling

THE CASHLESS SOCIETY

This refers to the use of electronic commerce thereby reducing handling of hard cash amongst
individuals. However, it seems impossible to completely have a complete cashless society. A
cashless society has the following benefits:
More convenient to pay bills, mortgage loans, gas, phone and electricity bills since these are paid
automatically. Customers no longer need to carry large sums of money thereby reducing cases of
robbery. Customers no longer need to queue on banks to get cash.

However, a cashless society will have the following problems:

Credit is normally given only to those who are working and have a steady source of income.
People will spend more than they can afford thereby getting into debt. Wrong information about
individuals is kept as more information about people is kept in computers for their credit rating.
It is difficult for individuals to track how much they spent.

DATA COMMUNICATION
Bandwidth
Refers to the caring capacity of a transmission channel (measured in bits per second: bps). It
determines the amount of data a channel can transmit at a given period of time.

GUIDED MEDIA

Transmission Media
Refers to forms of media through which data is transferred from one point to another. These
include:

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1. Twisted Pair: These are cables with two copper wires of about 1 millimetre thick. The
wires are twisted to avoid crosstalk. Twisted pair is very cheap to buy and offer good
performance over short distances. Disadvantages of twisted pair: Twisted pair is very cheap to
buy. Has big attenuation. Has low bandwidth

2. Coaxial cable: It is a stiff copper wire surrounded by an insulating material. It has less
attenuation than twisted pair, has high bandwidth and has low error rates. However, coaxial cable
is expensive to buy and is stiff, making it difficult to handle.

3. Fibre optics: A media that uses light to transmit data. It has less attenuation, has very
high bandwidth and cannot corrode (not affected by corrosion), it is thin and therefore has less
weight. However, fibre optics is very expensive to buy and is uni-directional (travels in one
direction only)

UNGUIDED MEDIA

1. Infra-red waves: Refers to data transmission in form of waves as through some remote
controls of televisions. It has enormous bandwidth. However, infrared waves do not travel
through obstacles like buildings, they only work for very short distances, affect eyes and
consume a lot of power.

2. Satellite transmission: These include earth stations which communicate with

geostationary satellites (36 000 to 80 000 km above the earth. These have high bandwidth and
support very long-distance communication. However, they have big attenuation and are slow in
sending messages.

WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
This is a method of networking computers and computer devices without the use of cabling, e.g.
using blue tooth, radio, optical, satellite, infra-red, microwave, etc. The devices that are used in
wireless technology include: 3G (Wireless Application Protocol (WAP)) mobile phones /cell
phone/remote key pad/remote control/ remote keyboard. infra-red mouse. Multimedia mobile
handsets and notebooks. GPRS (general packet radio service) modems. Wireless LAN (or Wi-Fi
–Wireless Fidelity: A local area network that uses high frequency radio signals to transmit and
receive data over distances of a few hundred feet; uses Ethernet protocol). PDAs (personal
digital assistants).
GPS - A navigational system involving satellites and computers that can determine the latitude
and longitude of a receiver on earth by computing the time difference for signals from different
satellites to reach the receiver

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Advantages of wireless communication include:
Cheaper as no wires are needed for networking. Ensures fast wireless Internet access. Wireless
LAN is faster than a modem or mobile. Wireless LAN enables working at home. Users can
create and send multimedia messages to mobiles or e-mail while in transit. Users can send
greetings from mobiles to mobiles/PCs. Ensures instant transmission. Users can download e-mail
and file attachments while on mobile. Users can watch live web cast on mobile. Users can listen
to streaming video on mobile. Users can watch news, weather, sport, games while on the move.
Users can access information from mobile anytime. Users can send, receive, delete e-mail while
on the move. Users can view business appointments while out of office on mobile. Users can
send corporate e-mail while out of office - even behind a firewall on mobile. Users can use
wireless internet connection from chat rooms for discussions with colleagues while on the move.
Disadvantages of Wireless Technology:
Wireless LAN speeds are slower than Net access at work due to narrow bandwidth. Anyone
within the Wireless LAN nodes range with an appropriate device can use your Wireless LAN
and broad band link. Anyone who walks past your house or WLAN linked into a corporate
system can access sensitive information like credit card details. 3G phones are not compatible
with 2G phones. Blue tooth has limited range. Signals can be blocked, distorted or will be weak.
Can lead to health problems from microwaves

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 SECURITY
NETWORK SECURITY
The security problems when using networks such as the internet are well documented. There are
various security threats to networks and there are many equally varied ways of combating the
threat. Many of these issues are discussed in Chapter 6 but this section will concentrate on four
areas:
 user ID
 password
 encryption
 authentication techniques.

User IDs

When logging on to any network system, a user will be asked to type in a user ID. This assigns
the user privileges once the logon procedure is successful. For example, on a network, top level
privilege would be for an administrator, who is able to set passwords, delete files from the
server, etc., whilst a user privilege may only allow access to their own work area.

Passwords

After keying in the user ID, the user will then be requested to type in their password. This
should be a combination of letters and numbers which would be difficult for somebody else to
guess. When the password is typed in it often shows on the screen as ******** so nobody
overlooking can see what the user has typed in. If the user’s password doesn’t match up with the
user ID then access will be denied. Many systems ask for the password to be typed in twice as a
verification check (check on input errors). To help protect the system, users are only allowed to
type in their password a finite number of times – three times is usually the maximum number of
tries allowed before the system locks the user out. After that, the user will be unable to logon
until the system administrator has re-set their password.
When using some internet websites, if a user forgets their password, they can request the
password to be sent to their email address. The password is never shown on the computer screen
for reasons of security.

Encryption

Encryption is the converting of data into a code by scrambling it or encoding it. This is done by
employing encryption software (or an encryption key). Since the data is all jumbled up it appears
meaningless to a hacker or anyone who illegally accesses the data. It should be stressed that this
technique does not prevent illegal access, it only makes the data useless to somebody if they
don’t have the necessary decryption software (or decryption key). It is used to protect sensitive
data (such as a person’s banking details).
The system works like this:

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 A user writes a message and the computer sending this message uses an encryption key to
encode the data. For example, the message ‘THIS IS AN EXAMPLE’ (sent on 15 April) is
encoded to ‘43Kr Kr T7 W04887W’.
At the other end, the receiving computer has a decryption key which it uses to decode the
message. Note that the date when the message was sent is important since this formed part of the
encryption algorithm.
Encryption keys are much more complex than the one above, in order to prevent computers
being used to crack the code. Very sophisticated algorithms are used which make the codes
almost unbreakable.

Authentication techniques

As shown above, there are many ways in which a computer user can prove who they are. This is
called authentication, and a type of authentication is used in the banking example that follows.
Most systems adopt the following authentication logic:
something you know – e.g. PIN/password something belonging to you – e.g. your bank card
something unique to you – e.g. your fingerprints.
At least two of these are needed at the moment when a user has to prove who they are. For
example, the following banking example uses:
something you know – surname, reference number, PIN, date last logged on something
belonging to you – card put into card reader to produce the 8-digit code.
In future, the third feature will be introduced (such as a fingerprint scanner attached to a
computer to uniquely identify the user).
Banking example
A user belongs to H&S Bank. He wants to
check the status of his account online. He
logs onto the H&S Bank website using his
ISP. Figure illustrates a sophisticated set of
steps taken to prevent unauthorised access.
Only once each page has been successfully
navigated will the user have access to his
bank account. The last stage is a final check
to see if the customer’s account has been
illegally accessed – if they hadn’t logged into
the website on 15 April at 17:45 then this
would trigger a security check into the
customer’s account. Note that the last web
page makes use of what are called radio
button

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COMPUTER VIRUSES
A computer virus is a program which replicates itself, damages or corrupts files and memory of
the computer, for example, a Trojan horse. By replication, it means that the virus can multiply
itself (produces several similar copies of itself) when it enters the computer system.

Signs and symptoms of virus attack on a computer:

Reduced system performance (reduced speed of operation). The computer displays nasty
messages on the screen. The computer displays a blank screen. The computer system produces
wrong results of a process. Unexplained and frequent loss of data held in the computer. The hard
disk becomes inaccessible (the user cannot access data held in the computer). The computer fails
to boot.

Effects of computer viruses:

Memory of a computer will be used up, slows down computer. Alters system settings. Erases and
corrupts files and data on the computer. Infects other computers on network. Leads to production
loss. Leads to financial loss. The hard disk becomes inaccessible (the user cannot access data
held in the computer). The computer fails to boot. The computer system produces wrong results
of a process.

Methods by which viruses spread from one computer to another

By sharing diskettes, compact disks, hard disks, memory sticks, memory cards, Video compact
disks, Digital
Versatile Disks, etc, with external users. Through networked computers, that is on a LAN, WAN
or the internet.
Can come as e-mail attachments. Can come with downloads from bulletin boards

Methods of preventing virus attack on the computer

Avoiding sharing external diskettes, compact disks, hard disks, memory sticks, memory cards,
Video compact disks, Digital Versatile Disk. Stay offline (not connected to any computer or the
internet). Install the latest antivirus program on the computer and upgrade it frequently. Scan the
computer with the latest antivirus frequently. Avoid software distributed as shareware (freeware)
(software produced for distribution free of charge and can be distributed to others free of
charge, e.g. computer games). Avoiding downloading software from bulletin boards. Installing
firewall (software used to protect networked private computer systems from unauthorised
access.). Use disk free work stations. Do not open file attachments from unknown sources or
download doubtful software from the Internet. Do not use files that come from unknown sources.

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Buy original software and do not buy pirated software. Disable able compact disk drives, diskette
drives and USB ports of the computer.

Antivirus programs

These are programs that detect computer viruses and reduce the risk of computers being attacked
by viruses for example Norton Antivirus, MacAfee, Avira, Avast, AVG, etc.

TYPES OF COMPUTER VIRUSES

1. Boot sector Viruses

These viruses affect the booting sector on the hard disk so that the computer fails to boot.
2. Time bomb
Virus attack and destroys computer files at a specific date and time
3. Logic bombs
A type of virus that attacks the computer when a specific event occurs and destroys everything
on the computer disk like the Friday the 13th
4. Trojan Horse virus
These are viruses that appears as programs useful to the user with the intention of soliciting
information like user accounts and passwords or damaging computer system files.
5. WORM viruses
A program capable of reproducing itself and spread from one computer to the next over a
network and damage computer files.
6. File sector Viruses
These viruses destroy files that are created by users on the computer.

HEALTH AND SAFETY ISSUES

There are many health and safety problems associated with regular use of computer systems.
Health and safety regulations advise that all computer systems have a minimum of tiltable and
anti-glare screens, adjustable chairs and foot supports, suitable lighting, uncluttered work
stations, and recommend frequent breaks and eye tests.
Although health and safety are closely related, they are very different subjects. Health issues are
related to how to stop people becoming ill or affected by daily contact with computers. Safety is
more concerned with the dangers which could lead to serious injury or even loss of life. They are
discussed in separate sections below to help clarify the main differences.

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Health aspects

Table highlights a number of health issues, together with possible solutions to either minimise
the risk or eliminate it altogether.

Health risk Solution

Back and neck use fully adjustable chairs to give the correct posture
problems/strain use foot rests to reduce posture problems
use screens that can be tilted to ensure the neck is at the correct
angle

Repetitive strain injury ensure correct posture is maintained (i.e. correct angle of arms
(RSI) – damage to to the keyboard and mouse, for example)
fingers and wrists make proper use of a wrist rest when using a mouse or a
keyboard
take regular breaks and do some exercise
use ergonomic keyboards
use voice-activated software if the user is prone to problems
when using mouse and keyboard

Eyestrain (caused by ensure that there is no screen flicker, since this can lead to eye
staring at a computer problems
screen too long or bad change to LCD screens where flicker is less of a problem than
lighting in the room)
with CRT screens
take regular breaks and try focusing on a point which is some
distance away
make use of anti-glare screens if lighting in the room is a
problem or use window blinds to reduce strong sunlight
have eyes tested regularly – middle-vision glasses should be
prescribed if the user has a persistent problem such as eye
strain, dry eyes, headaches, etc.)

Headaches use an anti-glare screen or use window blinds to cut out light
reflections – bad lighting can cause squinting and lead to
headaches, etc.
take regular breaks and do some exercise
have eyes tested regularly and use middle-vision glasses if
necessary

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 ensure proper ventilation to remove the ozone gas as quickly as
Ozone irritation (dry
possible
skin, respiratory
problems, etc.) – this is house laser printers in a designated printer room
caused by laser printers change to other types of printer if necessary (e.g. inkjet
in an office area printers)

Health risks and proposed solutions

Safety aspects

Table gives a number of safety issues, together with possible solutions to eliminate or minimise
the risk.

Safety hazard Ways of eliminating or minimising hazard

Electrocution use of a residual circuit breaker (RCB)

check insulation on wires regularly
do not allow drinks near computers
check equipment regularly

Trailing wires (trip use cable ducts to make the wires safe
hazard) cover wires and/or have them neatly tucked away
(under desks, etc.)
try and use wireless connections wherever possible,
thus eliminating cables altogether

Heavy equipment use strong desk and tables to support heavy hardware
falling
use large desks and tables so that hardware isn’t too
close to the edge where it can fall off

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 Fire risk have a fully tested CO2/dry fire extinguisher nearby
(not water extinguishers!)
don’t cover equipment vents, which can cause
equipment to overheat
make sure hardware is fully maintained
ensure good ventilation in the room, again to stop
overheating of hardware
do not overload sockets with too many items
change to low voltage hardware wherever possible
(e.g. replace CRT monitors with LCD monitors)

Safety hazards and proposed solutions

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 CHAPTER 7

TOPIC SUB CONTENT

TOPIC
Communication Online Understand concept of an online community. Identify examples
concepts communities like social networking sites,
Outline ways that users can publish and share content online:
blogs, microblogs, podcasts, audio and video clips.
Email Identify the structure of an email address.
concepts
Outline differences between the To, Copy Cc, Bcc fields and
recognise their appropriate use.
Be aware of possibility of receiving fraudulent email and spam,
and infected attachments.
Phishing Recognise potential phishing scams.
Using Email Create an email. Outline the main purpose of standard folders:
Inbox, outbox, sent, Deleted/Trash items, Draft, Spam/Junk

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APPENDIX
ASSIGNMENT COVER PAGE

TRUST ACADEMY
In Collaboration With
MIDLANDS STATE UNIVERSITY

NAME: M
SURNAME: N
PROGRAMME: D
LECTURER: M. NDLOVU
EMAIL: n
TEL: +263 77
COURSE: MIS 114 ICT APPLICATION SYSTEMS

ASSIGNMENT:

COMMENTS:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

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ASSIGNMENT ONE
Scan with CAMSCANNER and mail solutions including cover page to:
(nmjabulisi@gmail.com)
Due:

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ASSIGNMENT TWO
Scan with CAMSCANNER and mail solutions including cover page to:
(nmjabulisi@gmail.com)

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ASSIGNMENT THREE
Scan with CAMSCANNER and mail solutions including cover page to:
(nmjabulisi@gmail.com)

162