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Chapter

Main Pests and Diseases in Tropical

Forest Species in Nursery
Ángel Sol Sánchez, Gloria Isela Hernández Melchor
and Facundo Sánchez Gutiérrez

Abstract

This paper presents the monitoring of pests and diseases in nurseries of 10 tropical
forest species used in the reforestation of disturbed areas. The work was carried out in a
rustic nursery established in Cardenas, Tabasco, under cocoa shade. The objective was
to evaluate the presence of pests or diseases in the nursery under natural conditions.
Pests and diseases appeared from the seedling stage in germination beds to the adult
stage. The fungus Fusarium was the most aggressive causal agent that caused the death
of seedling in the germination beds, as well as Curvularia lanata that massively affected
Tabebuia rosea plants. Likewise, T. rosea is one of the species with the most reported
pests, as well as Lantana camara. On the contrary, Hamelia patens Jacq (Coralillo) did
not registered important pests during the monitoring in the nursery.

Keywords: tropical foest species, pests, diseases, nursery, plants

1. Introduction

In the tropics, the diversity of plant species is very high, although the species
richness is not so great because they share the habitat with the other biological forms
of that environment, such as shrubs, vines, lianas, parasitic epiphytes and palms.
In Mexico, for a long time precious woods such as cedar (Cedrela odorala L.),
mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King.), spring (Cybistab Donnell-Smith) and red
(Haematoxylum campechianum L.) were exploited to take them to other continents for
various cabinetry work, to the extent that the ecosystems of the Mexican tropics were
impoverished by an extraction of eugenic type, that is, taking advantage of the best
quality trees with straight stems and larger diameters.
This extraction in some cases has caused the disappearance of habitats due to
extractive recurrence, thus favoring that the trees do not reach their physiological
maturity, although their reproductive maturity does.
On the other hand, the establishment of exotic forest plantations such as teak
(Tectona grandis L.f.), rubber (Hevea brasiliensis [Willd. ex A. Juss.] Müll. Arg.),
melina (Gmelina arborea Roxb), pine (Pinus caribaea Var. Hondurensis [Sénécl]
W.H.G.) or eucalyptus (Eucalyptus sp), Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) by large
corporations, has caused the reduction of the surface of the original vegetation,

1
Current and Emerging Challenges in the Diseases of Trees

because when establishing these plantations all the vegetation present is eliminate,
and far from supporting the local population, it exterminates the environments of the
area, leaving only pockets of impoverished land to restore part of the lost biological
diversity.
In this sense, forest nurseries of local species are created in order to provide
seedlings to recover the strongholds of impoverished areas, potential environments or
even include other environments for conservation.
For this purpose, the availability of germplasm is an activity of transcendental
importance in which the possible progenitors are located, the period of flowering and
fruiting is expected and later the seed is collected. This seed is taken to the nursery,
processed, sown and the emergence of the seedlings is expected. At this stage, the
management and care of the seedlings is of utmost importance because they are more
susceptible to attack by pests and/or disease of any pest or illness.
Under this concept, in order to generate information about the main pests of
some forest species used in reforestation in a mixed way, ten germination and
growth beds of various local forest species were established. It is possible that due
to the difference in habitat conditions between the site where they grow naturally
and the nursery conditions where they were produced, some pests and diseases were
present both in germination beds and growth beds and that are reported in this
work.
Currently, it is a common practice to produce forest plants in a nursery and when
the seed does not come from certified seed banks, these generally already bring
the pest from the harvest field in a certain percentage, which are not suitable for
cultivation.
When the percentage of impurities has been eliminated, the resulting seed is sown
in bags, tubes, trays or germination beds depending on the size of the seed and wait
for them to germinate. During the process of germination and growth of seedlings
some diseases occur.

1.1 Damping off Rizotocnia

This is a type of opportunistic fungus that occurs when excess moisture in the site
is above what the plant can dispose of. This excess moisture ends up rotting the stem
of the seedling. They generally call it a dryer and it is common in various species of
plants in the region such as cocoite, cedar, bojon, guanacaste, to name a few species
and generally what is presented is the mycelium since they rarely form structures of
sexual reproduction.
This fungus is very damaging as it forms resistant structures called interconnected
Sclerotia that infect the roots of newly emerging plants and can rapidly spread over
much of the germination bed.
Its presence is greater in alkaline soils with poor drainage, so generally the sub-
strate must be fumigated with methyl bromide before sowing, covered with plastic
and uncovered after two days so that there is aeration, and the seed is sown after
72 hours of aeration.
Another very common fungus is Fusarium sp., and it occurs when the seed
generally does not go through an antifungal treatment before sowing, so the fungus
Fusarium oxysporum attacks the external and even internal structures of the seeds.
The newly emerged seedlings are covered with a white mycelium that affects the new
organs of the plant, which is controlled using thiabenzadol at a dose of 1 g per l of
water.
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Main Pests and Diseases in Tropical Forest Species in Nursery
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107028

2. Germoplasm collection

During the year 2020, germplasm of various forest species or species of interest for
biological diversity was collected, this in order to produce plants in germination beds,
these species were: Cedrela odorata L., Bursera simaruba (L.) Sarg, Cordia megalantha
S. F. Blake, Hamelia patens Jacq., Pimenta dioica L. (Merr), Tabebuia rosea (Bertol) Dc,
Lantana camara L., Sterculia apetala (Jacq.) H. Karsten, Roystonea regia (Kunth.) O. F.
Cook, and Chrysobalanus icaco (L.) L.
The collection of fruits was carried out by various methods such as collection from
the ground, collection with a pole and hand scissors, manual selection of the fruits
in the branches, specifically for the fruits of the royal palm, it was necessary to climb
the palm using a team of ropes to electricians. These fruits were transported in jute
sacks to the nursery and the benefit was made there.
Since the palm fruits have a very hard test, they were kept in the sack for a week,
then they were washed and then physical scarification was carried out to accelerate
the germination.
The seeds of all species were scarified to ensure germination. Specifically, for H.
patens Jacq (Coralillo), because seeds were collected twice and germination did not
occur, cuttings of approximately 20 cm in length were collected. These were placed
in a bucket with a prepared solution of rootstock in a proportion of 15 g per 5 l of
water. Here the basal part of the cutting was submerged for 5 minutes and then it was
planted in the bags of soil.
The substrate used for the germination beds was grit enriched with filter cake,
which is a residue obtained in the cane juice clarification process, which includes
earthy materials and organic impurities [1].

2.1 Cedrela odorata L., (red cedar)

The planted cedar germplasm was quality seed, selected and of regular size, and
reached its total germination at 18 days, this presented some problems in the germina-
tion beds, mainly due to excess water and lack of drainage, which generated problems
of germination and presence of Fusarium and Pythium.
In the already bagged plants, the Meliaceae borer Hypsiphylla grandella was pres-
ent, and caused problems in 6% of the plants, which were lost due to the bored stem
[2]. To avoid greater severity of the damage, sprays were applied both to the plants in
bags and to the adjacent beds that were in the process of growth.
Worldwide the main pests of cedar are insects of the genera Anacrusis sp.
(Tortricidae), Antaeotricha ribbel (Stenomidae), Hypsyphylla grandella, as well as
ants of the Atta genus. For Costa Rica, the presence of 15 pests in cedar and two
diseases caused by Fusarium Sp and Phyllachora balansae, in addition to the species
Orthogeomys heterodus was reported [3].
The presence of a cedar leaf-roller worm was also recorded, the presence of
this pest was recurrent at least four times in six months while the plants were
in the nursery. In the substrate, a large number of blind chicken caterpillars
(Phyllopaga sp), which are beetle larvae, were recorded, but they did not cause
any damage to the cedar plants.
In some plants the mealybug (Mastigimas sp) appeared, covering the entire plant,
which caused its weakening and death due to the overpopulation of the mealybug, these
plants were eliminated. For Mexico also was reported nine species of pests for cedar [4].
The insects reported for Costa Rica and México are listed in Tables 1 and 2 [3, 4].
3
Current and Emerging Challenges in the Diseases of Trees

Insect Family Affected part

Anacrusis sp Tortricidae Foliage

Antaeotricha ribbel Stenomidae Foliage
Apatelodes sp Apatelodidae Foliage
Atta sp Formicidae Foliage
Hypsypylla grandella Pyralidae Shoots, seeds

Mastigimas sp Psillidae Foliage

Natad sp Limacodide Foliage
Phyllocnistes meliacella Gracilariidae Foliage
Sematoneura atrovenosella Piralidae Seeds
Sematoneura grijmani Piralidae Seeds
Taeniopoda sp Romaleidae Foliage

Thecla cupentus Lycaenidae Foliage

Table 1.
Insects reported for red cedar in Costa Rica [3].

Specie Common name Distribution in Mexico

Cicadellidae sharpshooter Wide distribution

mealy louse Campeche, Jalisco, Oaxaca, Puebla Quintana Roo,

Tabasco, Tamaulipas, Veracruz and Yucatán

Atta cephalotes leafcutter ant Campeche, Chiapas, Oaxaca, Quintana Roo,

Tabasco and Veracruz
Atta mexicana leafcutter ant Guerrero, Jalisco, Nayarit Tamaulipas and Veracruz

Hypsypylla grandella borer Wide distribution

Chrysobothris borer Wide distribution
Nasutitemis termites Wide distribution
Phyllophaga blind chicken Wide distribution
Tetranychis red spider Hidalgo, Oaxaca, Puebla and Veracruz

Table 2.
Cedar pest insects reported for México [4].

2.2 T. rosea Bertol dc. (Macuilis)

Despite the fact that macuilis is one of the hardest species in the state and, in turn,
one of the hardest woods, it presents a great diversity of pests and diseases in the
nursery. One of the main ones that appeared was the Curvularia lanata fungus, which
quickly withered a large number of plants, for which it was necessary to remove the
burned leaves, apply fungicide and promote ventilation to the growth beds.
Likewise, the so-called spring rust of Prospodium perornatum appeared sporadi-
cally on some of the approximately five-month-old Tabebuia rosea Plants.
The affected part showed its spermogonia as reddish dots on deep green swollen
areas; especially in the upper part of the pedicel of the leaf forming an arch. This situ-
ation caused the infected leaves to break, for this reason the plant was eliminated.
4
Main Pests and Diseases in Tropical Forest Species in Nursery
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107028

A recurring pest was the Eulepte gastralis worm, which was present at differ-
ent stages and which caused damage to the leaves causing their skeletonization,
whose protection is a mesh of silk and excrement. A large population of blind hen
(Phyllophaga sp) was recorded in the substrate, however, since its presence was in the
rainy season, it did not cause damage to the macuilis plants.
For macuilis, it has been reported that it is susceptible to attack by nematodes
of the genus Meloidogyne incognita, which directly attack the root part [5]. Eulepe
Gastralis (Lepidoptera: Pyralidade) in the nursery presents a relationship between
density and stratum so that the plant is affected. Other authors report a wide diversity
of pests for Mexico and the Roca coast Table 3 [3, 4].

Pest Family Stage Type of affectation

Modoryx oielus Clarke Lepidoptera: Sphingidae cobra worm eats leaves
a
Megalostis anacoreta L. Coleoptera. Chysomelidae greater hog gnaws buds
Megistops sp Coleoptera. Chysomelidae Oak gnaws buds
manakin
Oiketicus kirbyi Lepidoptera: Psychidae básquet eats leaves
(Lands-Guilding) worm
Oncideres teddellata (Thoms) Coleoptera:cerambycidae spotted pierces stems
harlequin
Phobetron hipparchia Cramer Lepidoptera Limacodidae spider worm eats leaves

Prosarthia teretrirostris Brunn Ortopthera: proscopidae flat shackle eats leaves

Protaleura tabebuiae Dozier Homoptera cicadellidae leafhoppers sucks sap
Rabdotalebra sp Homoptera cicadellidae leafhoppers Sucks sap
Steirastoma hishistrionicum Coleoptera:cerambycidae harlequin Pierce stems
thams engrabado
Tenuipalpus sp Acari: Tenuipalpidae Flat mite Sucks sap
Urodera sp Coleoptera. Chysomelidae humpbacked Gnaws leaves
beetle
Zygogramma cognata Stal Coleoptera. Chysomelidae Engraved Punches sheets
morrocoyita
Amphicerus cornutos (Pallas) Coleoptera: Bostrichidae Capuccino Pierce stems
Archegozetes sp. Oribatida: epilohmanidae painted mite Terminals

Atta sp Hymenoptera:Formycidae leafcutter cut leaves

ant
Automeris junonia Lepidoptera. Saturniidae spiny worm eat leaves

Automeris sp Lepidoptera. Saturniidae spiny worm eat leaves

Compsus sp Coleoptera: Curculionidae Little eat leaves
Cryptotermes brevis (W.) Isoptera: Kalotermitidae termite Pierce the base of
the stem
Diabrotica sp Coleoptera:Chrysomelydae Morrocoyita Log leavess
Dikraneura sp Homoptera:Cicadelidae leafhoppers Sucks sap, hojas
Edessa leucogramma Perty Hemiptera:Pentatomidae Guayacan Sucks sap
jackdaw

5
Current and Emerging Challenges in the Diseases of Trees

Pest Family Stage Type of affectation

Eriophyes sp. Acarina:Eriophydae roller gills leaves

Eulepte gastralis guanee Lepidotera:Pyralidae sheet gluer eat leaves
Gastrotrips sp. Thysanoptera:Phlaeotripidae black trips Micetophage
Halisidota sp Lepidoptera:Arctiidae silly chapola eats leaves
Hemeroplanes Parce F. Lepidoptera:Sphingidae cobra worm eats leaves

Hyphotenemus sp Coleptera: Solytinae scolithid Pierce stems

Lagochirurs araneiformis LInn Coleoptera Cerambicidae painted Pierce stems and
Brown brances ramas
harlequin
Lepydomys sp Lepidoptera: Pyralidae oak borer pierces terminals

Table 3.
Pests reported for Tabebuia rosea [3, 4].

2.3 R. regia (Kunth) O.F. Cook (Royal Palm)

This palm was very susceptible to the Fusarium fungus during the nursery stage,
mainly in the pinnae of the fronds. This fungus was present after the rainy season.
Causing necrosis on the sides of the pinnae and in the terminal part of the frond,
which caused dieback of an entire batch of these palms in the nursery. The fungicide
Captan was applied repeatedly with few positive results, although depending on the
severity of the damage, the application response could be any other fungicide [6].

2.4 L. camara L.

Being a fast-growing species, it is offered as an attraction for various nursery

pests. During the evaluation period in the nursery, this plant grew and flourished and
in turn attracted pests such as Tetranychus urticae (red spider), some type of aphid
and some unidentified caterpillar. Disorganized plant growth provided safe haven
for these pests, however, they were not considered severe pests as they did not cause
problems to the plants.
This species as an aggressive weed for livestock capable of invading agricultural
areas if it is not managed properly [7]. In this regard, were reported the presence of 118
pest species, some in all stages of development [8]. In the state of Tabasco, this species
is found in abandoned agricultural areas or is part of the ruderal areas, but because the
agricultural surface per producer is not very extensive, every two years the land for
crops is cleared, for this reason it does not extend aggressively. Some authors delimit
a wide diversity of 29 species of common pests for this species, some of the most
frequent are Tetranychus urticae spider or red spider: this spider weaves its web on the
underside of the leaves, so it cannot be seen with the naked eye and feeds on the sap of
the leaves [9]. This species of pest was very common in the six months of the nursery
and its presence was frequent, its elimination was with chemical products.
Cochineal: The presence of this pest in Lantana plants is common [10], however;
in the nursery during the evaluation period it did not appear because the cochineal
occurs mostly in sunny areas and the nursery maintains an average of 80% shade.
Bemicia tabaci (whitefly) appeared as a recurring pest in the nursery, its pres-
ence was manifested since the seedlings were small; This species lays its eggs on the
6
Main Pests and Diseases in Tropical Forest Species in Nursery
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107028

underside of the leaves, so the larvae feed on the sap when they emerge. The occasions
that arose caused the deaths of secondary branches of the lantana plants, most of the
time the plants were pruned.
Hemiptera (aphids) were present during the entire evaluation period that
they were monitored. This pest is detected in the mornings on sunny days. These
feed on the plants by sucking the sap, the highest concentration of aphids were
located in the tender shoots or apical buds. Among the main symptoms are very
sticky leaves due to the molasses excreted by these insects. His treatment was with
chemicals.
Moths, a type of grayish brown moth called Neogalea sunia was present, it also lays
its eggs on the plant and when they hatch and grow, they feed on the foliage of the
plant and then become its pollinator. It is recognized because the larvae when feeding
leave evidence of eating in the form of circles, their eradication is at that stage, as they
are very voracious due to their color, they are easily confused with the stem or leaves
of the plant and are easily lost.
Some of the diseases reported for Lantana are Alternaria, which manifests itself
with brown spots on the leaves, in addition to Fusarium, which was very aggressive
in the nursery, since it caused the decay of the plant, since it was necessary to apply
antifungals, avoid irrigation and encourage the entry of sunlight.

2.5 B. simaruba (L.) Sarg

This species, despite being a rough species and well adapted to tropical conditions,
presented some species of pest insects; however, the damages were not severe and did
not represent damage per se to the plants in the nursery.
It was detected that the insects do not use the mulatto plants as a habitat, rather
as occasional visitors, that when the plant is monitored, they quickly disappear by
flying.
Some especies of pests for palo mulato, such as the beetles Xyleborus spp. and
Platypus spp., as pests of green wood, Lagochirus araneiformis L. and other insects
bore into the bark and wood, they also feed on wood and living seedling trees and
Lyctus spp. attacks dry wood like termites [11].
On the other hand, despite the toughness of the plant, the Fusarium fungus caused
serious problems in entire batches of plants because the substrate used retained a lot
of moisture, also when the plant was transplanted from the germination bed to plastic
containers., there was high mortality caused by Fusarium. This species tolerates
abundant irrigation well, but with good filtration and 60% on shade.

2.6 Cordia megalantha S. F. Blake (Candelestick)

This species, at the level of plants in germination beds and bagged, did not present
serious problems, occasionally some circular insect bites were observed in the dry
season of the year.
However, in sowing the germination bed in the bag, mortality was very high due to
the presence of Fusarium, which also occurred in royal palm and other species, due to
stem, rot.
It was observed that its growth is limited when shade exceeds 65% and in turn
favors the arrival of occasional insects that feed on new shoots. Likewise, when the
incidence of sunlight exceeds 60%, the leaves turn yellowish and slow down their
growth.
7
Current and Emerging Challenges in the Diseases of Trees

2.7 S. apetala (Jacq.) H. Karsten

In the nursery stage, important pests were observed, except that the lack of irriga-
tion caused the plants to decay and lose their turgor. The larval phase of Micromartinia
mnemusalis has been reported as a pest of S. apetala for Costa Rica [10].
The adult stage corresponds to various moths considered as pests for various spe-
cies of commercial interest, however, during the monitoring phase in the nursery it
was not present. This plant species was one of the least affected by pests or diseases.

2.8 Pimienta dioica L.

Pepper is a species of great interest in food and for the extraction of various oils.
In some states of the republic it is not cultivated in plantations, but as shade species of
other crops, such is the case of cocoa in Tabasco, or borders in pastures. Although it
does not receive management, its production is considered good.
Pepper seedling age, it generally does not present pests or diseases, but it is very
demanding in relation to well-drained soils and sufficient humidity, it grows well in
any type of soil, from very fertile to very poor such as arenosols and savannah soils.
In the nursery and in newly established plantations, this fungus has the greatest
impact. Infections present as isolated necrotic lesions that vary in size from light
brown to almost black in color and may cause plant death. When the damage is severe,
a yellow powder is generated on the underside of the leaf and when the inflorescences
are affected, they turn black and finally die. Control could be carried out by spraying
an antifungal [12].

2.9 H. patens Jacq (Coralillo)

It is a bushy species, abundant in the region, with a wide distribution from Florida
to Argentina, and it is difficult to propagate by seeds. In the nursery, the seeds take up
to eight months to germinate and their initial growth is too slow, so it was decided to
reproduce them by cuttings. The most appropriate thickness for reproduction was one
cm in diameter on average.
The cut to chop the stakes must be clean and each stake must not exceed 20 cm
in length. When the cut is not clean, the bark is mistreated and that is where the rot
caused by Fusarium begins.
This species is not of commercial importance, but it is of local use. In cultivated
areas, its growth is allowed, as it attracts pests in agricultural crops. It is attracting
pollinating bees, hummingbirds and butterflies. There were no pests in the nursery
during the evaluation period.

2.10 C. icaco (L.) L. (Icaco)

For the establishment of the germination beds of Icaco, the seeds were first col-
lected from the ground and later the fruits of the tree were collected.
The seeds collected from the ground were perforated by some unidentified insect,
therefore, there was no germination.
Subsequently, ripe fruits were collected and put to ferment for three days in a plas-
tic bag with the mouth closed, then the pulp was removed, the seed was washed and a
physical scarification was performed, under this method germination was obtained at
28 days.
8
Main Pests and Diseases in Tropical Forest Species in Nursery
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107028

During the germination phase, there were problems with fungi that caused the
death of some plants. After transplanting to the bags, the Fusarium fungus was also
present, causing the death of some plants, and the Curvularia sp. fungus was fre-
quent, causing the death of some of the terminal leaves of the plants. For this species
it was reported the presence of the diptera Anastrepha (flies), as well as Ceratitis
capitata and thephytophagous mite and Oligonychus bagdasariani [13].
Other authors report the presence of the Red Spider Tetranychus urticae, which
causes yellowing of the leaves at the site of the bites and when it comes to attacking
fruits, they acquire a dirty color due to the dark spots of the bites.

3. Conclusion

The presence of pests and diseases in the seedling stage was common. In the
germination beds, Fusarium behaved recurrently in most of the germination beds,
mainly in C. odorata and R. regia. The most specific pests were Hypsiphylla grandella
for cedrela odorata, the fungus Curvularia lanata for T. rosea, as well as Prospodium
perornatum for the same species.
Excess shade, continuous irrigation, residual moisture and evapotranspiration
were key factors of importance for the development of fungi almost during the six
months of monitoring of the plants in the nursery, although shade was removed from
the nursery trees twice this year. it reappeared in a short time.
The pests entered the nursery in the area where the nursery adjoins herbaceous
and shrubby vegetation, that is, the natural habitat of these organisms is that type of
environment. It was recorded that the more the plants grow, the greater the possibility
of shelter for pests.
The reason for including shrubby species such as Icaco, or herbaceous species such
as lantana and Hamelia, is that in disturbed areas, herbaceous plants are the pioneers
of secondary succession, and when reforestation or restoration areas are established,
herbaceous species are very important for maintaining soil cover and protection. In
addition, they are very important in attracting beneficial insects for Pollination.
Due to the abuse of agrochemicals for various uses, biological diversity (Flora and
fauna) has been greatly reduced, so it is necessary to restore ecological conditions and
habitats to generate a status of ecological balance at various scales in time. Hence, it
is very important to know the pests or diseases that could affect the species used in
habitat restoration.
In any environment that has been altered, pests settle in the islands of vegetation
present, so their eradication is almost impossible due to their qualities of adaptation
to the changing environment.
In this way, the species that are planted will have different functions over time in
which the ecosystem normalizes and the insect pests adapt to that environment.

9
Current and Emerging Challenges in the Diseases of Trees

Author details

Ángel Sol Sánchez1, Gloria Isela Hernández Melchor2*

and Facundo Sánchez Gutiérrez2

1 Postgraduate College, Tabasco Campus, Tabasco, México

2 Mayan College of Higher Studies, Catazaja Campus, Autonomous University of

Chiapas, Catazaja Chis, México

*Address all correspondence to: isela7827@gmail.com

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0),
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided
the original work is properly cited.
10
Main Pests and Diseases in Tropical Forest Species in Nursery
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107028

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