Common Errors/Spotting the Errors

Rules and Examples

1. Some nouns always take a singular verb.

Scenery, advice, information, machinery, stationery, furniture, abuse, fuel, rice, gram, issue, bedding,
repair, news, mischief, poetry, business, economics, physics, mathematics, classic, ethics, athletics,
innings, gallows.

(A) The scenery of Kashmir are enchanting. (Incorrect)

(B) The scenery of Kashmir is enchanting. (Correct)

(A) He has given advices. (Incorrect)

(B) He has given advice. (Correct)

(A) The Indian team defeated the English by innings. (Incorrect)

(B) The Indian team defeated the English by an innings. (Correct)

(A) Mathematics are a difficult subject. (Incorrect)

(B) Mathematics is a good / difficult subject. (Correct)

Note: if you have to indicate that the number of news, advice, information or furniture is more than one,
the examples listed below can be followed:
(A) I have a lot of news to tell you.
(B) He has sold many pieces of his furniture.
2. Some nouns are singular in form, but they are used as plural nouns and always take a plural
verb.
Cattle, gentry, vermin, peasantry, artillery, people, clergy, company, police.
(A) The cattle is grazing in the ground. (Incorrect)
(B) The cattle are grazing in the ground. (Correct)
(A) The clergy is in the church. (Incorrect)
(B) The clergy are in the church. (Correct)
3. Some nouns are always used in a plural form and always take a plural verb.
Trousers, scissors, spectacles, stockings, shorts, measles, goods, alms, premises, thanks, tidings, annals,
chattels, etc.
(A) Where is my trousers?(Incorrect )
(B) Where are my trousers? (Correct)
(A) Spectacles is now a costly item. (Incorrect)
(B) Spectacles are now a costly item. (Correct)

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4. There are some nouns that indicate length, measure, money, weight or number. When they are
preceded by a numeral, they remain unchanged in form.
Foot, meter, pair, score, dozen, head, year, hundred, thousand, million.
(A) It is a three – years degree course. (Incorrect)
(B) It is a three – year degree course. (Correct)
(A) I have ten dozens of shoes. (Incorrect)
(B) I have ten dozen of shoes. (Correct)
5. Collective nouns such a jury, public, team, committee, government, audience, orchestra,
company, etc. are used both as singular; otherwise the verb will be plural:
(A) The jury was divided in this case. (Incorrect)
(B) The jury were divided in this case. (Correct)
(A) The team have not come as yet. (Incorrect)
(B) The team has not come as yet. (Correct)
6. Some nouns have one meaning in the singular and another in the plural:
Advice = counsel advices = information
Air = atmosphere airs = proud
Authority = command authorities = persons in power
Good = wise goods = property
Iron = metal irons = fetters, chains
Force = strength forces = army
Content = satisfaction, contents = things contained
Physic = medicine physics = physical sciences,
Respect = regards respects = compliments
Work = job works compositions, factories,.
Earning = income earnings = profits
Quarter = one fourth quarters = houses
Examples :
(A) Air is necessary for human life.
(B) It is bad to put on airs.
(A) I have eaten one quarter of the cake.
(B) I live in the government quarters.
7. People are often confused or they commit mistake in the use of certain nouns.
(A) Lecturership is wrong: lectureship is correct.
(a) There are twenty candidates for lecturership.( Incorrect)
(b) There are twenty candidates for lectureship.( Correct)
(B) Freeship is wrong; free – studentship is correct.
(a) Ramesh has applied for freeship. (Incorrect)
(b) Ramesh has applied for free – studentship. (Correct)
(C) Boarding is wrong; boarding house is correct.

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(a) Mohan lives in a boarding. (Incorrect)
(b) Mohan lives in a boarding house. (Correct)
(D) Family members is wrong; members of the family is correct.
(a) Vivek and Ramesh are my family members. (Incorrect)
(b) Vivek and Ramesh are the members of my family. (Correct)
(E) English teacher is wrong; the teacher of English is correct.
(a) Dr. Raina is our English teacher. (Incorrect)
(b) Dr. Raina is our teacher of English. (Correct)
(F) Cousin – brother or sister is wrong; only cousin is correct.
(a) Geeta is my cousin sister. (Incorrect)
(b) Geeta is my cousin. (Correct)
(G) Room in a compartment or a bench means unoccupied set.
(a) There is no room on this bench. (Correct)
(H) Our, yours, hers, theirs are correct.
(a) This house is our’s. (Incorrect)
(b) This house is ours. (Correct)
Note: The same principle applies to ‘yours ‘, ‘hers’ and ‘theirs’.
(I) Wages means punishments when used in singular.
(a) The wages of sin is death.
(J) It also means charges for the labour when used in plural sense.
(b) The wages of daily workers have been raised.
8. Also remember the subtle difference in the usage of these pairs of nouns
(A) The noun ‘habit’ applies only to an individual whereas ‘custom’ applies to a society or country.
(a) Poor children often become a victim of bad habits.
(b) Tribals in India have many interesting customs.
(B) ‘Cause’ product a result, while ‘reason’ explains or justifies a cause.
(a) Scientists try to find out the cause of a phenomenon.
(b) You have a good reason to be pleased with your students.
(C) ‘Man’ is used in ordinary sense while ‘gentleman’ is a man of character.
(a) Man is mortal.
(b) He is a gentleman at large.
(D) ‘Men’ – plural of man: ‘people’ is used for persons.
(a) There are five men in the room.
(b) The people of Bihar are simple.
(E) ‘Shade’ – a place sheltered from the sun; ‘shadow’ – the shade of a distinct form or object.
(a) The villagers sat under the shade of trees.
(b) He is even afraid of his own shadow.
(F) ‘Cost’ – amount paid by the shopkeeper; ‘price’ – amount paid by the customer.
(a) The cost of production of automobile items has gone up.
(b) Sometimes the buyers have to pay higher price for necessary items.

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(G) ‘House’ – a building to live in: ‘Home’ – one’s native place.
(a) Quarters area houses allotted to us for a definite period.
(b) My home town is Muzaffapur.
(h) ‘Customer’—a buyer good; ‘Client’—one who avails oneself of a service.
(a) The shopkeepers welcome customer with smiles.
(b) The lawyer discusses the cases of his clients.
9. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in person, number and gender.
For example:
Every man must bring his luggage.
All students must do their homework.
Each of the girls must carry her own bag.
Each student must bring their books. (Incorrect)
Each student must bring his books. (Correct)
10. While using ‘everybody’ ‘everyone’, ‘anybody’, and ‘each’ the pronoun of the masculine or the
feminine gender is used according to the content.
I shall be happy to help each of the boys in this practice.
But when the sex is not mentioned, we use the pronoun of the masculine gender.
Anyone can do this job if he tries.
Each of the six boys in the class has finished their tasks. (Incorrect)
Each of the six boys in the class has finished his task. (Correct)
11. The pronoun ‘one’ must be followed by ‘one’s’.
One must finish his task in time. (Incorrect)
One must finish one’s task in time. (Correct)
12. Enjoy, apply, resign, acquit, drive, exert, avail, pride, absent, etc., when used as transitive verbs,
always take a reflexive pronoun after them. When ‘self’ is added to ‘my’, ‘your’, ‘him’, ‘her’, and
‘it’, and ‘selves’ to our and them – they are known as reflexive pronouns.
He absented from the class. (Incorrect)
He absented himself from the class. (Correct)
13. ‘Who’ denotes the subject and ‘whom’ is used for the object?
Whom do you think won the award? (Incorrect)
Who do you think won the award? (Correct)
Who are you talking to? (Incorrect)
Whom are your talking to? (Correct)
14. When two or more singular nouns are joined together by ‘either or’; ‘neither nor’, and ‘or’, the
pronoun is singular.
Either Ram or Shyam will give their book. (Incorrect)
Either Ram or shyam will give his book. (Correct)

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15. When a singular and a plural noun are joined by ‘or’, ‘nor’, the pronoun must be plural.
Either the engineer or his mechanics failed in his duty. Incorrect
Either the engineer or his mechanics failed in their duty. Correct
16. ‘Whose’ is used for living persons and ‘which’ for lifeless objects:
Which photograph is lying there (Incorrect)
Whose photograph is lying there? (Correct)
What book do you read? (Incorrect)
Which book do you read? (Correct)
17. ‘Each other’ is used when there are two subjects or objects and ‘one another’ when there are
more than two.
Rameo and Juliet loved each other
Those five friends, who are sitting there, love one another.
All the students of the class are friendly; they love each other. (Incorrect)
All the students of the class are friendly. (Correct)
18. When a pronoun stands for a collective noun, it must be in the singular number and in the
neuter gender if the collective noun is viewed as a whole.
The jury gave ‘its’ verdict.
Here the ‘jury’ gives the idea of one whole.
If the collective noun conveys the idea of separate individuals comprising the whole, the pronoun standing
for it must be plural.
If the Collective Noun conveys the idea of separate individuals comprising the whole, the Pronoun
standing for it must be of the Plural Number; as,
The jury were divided in their opinions.
The committee decided the matter without leaving their seats.
Here, the ‘jury’ gives the idea of several individuals.
The team are divided in this opinion about playing on Sunday. (Incorrect)
The team are divided in their opinion about playing on Sunday. (Correct)
19. If pronouns of different persons are to be used together in a sentence, the serial order of persons
should be as follows; second person + third + first person in a good normal sentences. But in fault is
to be confessed, the order will be; first person + second person + third person.
You, he and I have finished the work. (Normal sentences)
I, you and he are to blame. (Confession) [Memory tool-Put yourself first in bad sense/bad works]
Ram, I and you have finished our studies. (Incorrect)
You, Ram and I have finished our studies. (Correct)
20. ‘Some’ is used in affirmative sentences to express quantity or degree. ‘Any’ is uses in negative or
interrogative sentences.
I shall buy some apples.

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I shall not buy any apples.
Have you bought any apples?
But ‘some’ may be correctly used in interrogative sentences which are, in fact, requests.
Will you please give me some milk?
I shall read any book. (Incorrect)
I shall read the book. (Correct)
Have you bought some apples? (Incorrect)
Have you bought any apples? (Correct)
21. The use of ‘few’, ‘a few’’ and ‘the few’ should be used with care. They denote ‘number’.
‘Few’ means ‘not many’. It is the opposite of many. A ‘few’ is positive and means ‘some at least’. It
is the opposite of none. ‘The few’ means ‘whatever there is’.
A few men are free from fault. (Incorrect)
Few men are free from fault. (Correct)
Here the sense is negative and thus ‘a few’ is wrong.
Few boys will pass in the examination. Incorrect
A few boys will pass in the examination. Correct
Here the sense is positive and thus ‘few’ is incorrect.
I have already read a few books that are on the bookshelf. (Incorrect)
I have already read the few books that are on the bookshelf. (Correct)
Here the sense is ‘whatever there is’ or the particular thing.
22. Use of ‘less’ and ‘fewer’
‘Less’ denote quantity and ‘fewer’ denote number.
No less than fifty persons were killed. (Incorrect)
No fewer than fifty persons were killed. (Correct)
There are no fewer than five litres of water in the jug. (Incorrect)
There are no less than five litre of water in the jug. (Correct)
23. Use of little, a little, the little.
‘Little’ means ‘hardly any’
There is a little hope of his recovery. (Incorrect)
There is little hope of his recovery (correct)
‘A little’ means ‘some’, though not much.
Little knowledge is a dangerous thing. (Incorrect)
A little knowledge is a dangerous thing. (Correct)
‘The little means ‘not much but all there is’.
A little milk that is in the pot may be used for the patient. (Incorrect)
The little milk that is in the pot may be used for the patient. (Correct)
24. Use of elder, older.
‘Older’ refers to persons as well as things and is followed by ‘than’.
Ram is elder than all other boys of this area. (Incorrect)

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Ram is older than all other boys of this area. (Correct)
‘Elder’ is used for members of the family.
Suresh is my older brother. (Incorrect)
Suresh is my elder brother. (Correct)
Elder, older; eldest, oldest.- Elder and eldest are used only of persons, not of animals or things; and are
now confined to members of the same family. Elder is not used with than following. Older and oldest
are used of both persons and things.
John is my elder brother.
Tom is my eldest son.
He is older than his sister.
Rama is the oldest boy in the eleven.
This is the oldest temple in Kolkata.
25. normally ‘than’ is used in the comparative degree, but with words like superior, inferior, senior,
junior, prior, anterior, posterior and prefer ‘to’ is used.
Shelley is junior than Wordsworth. (Incorrect)
Shelley is junior to Wordsworth. (Correct)
I prefer reading than sleeping. (Incorrect)
I prefer reading to sleeping. (Correct)
26. When a comparison is made by using a comparative followed by ‘than’, the word ‘other’ must
be include the compared form the class of things with which it is compared.
He is stronger than any man. (Incorrect)
He is stronger than any other man. (Correct)
‘Any man’ includes the man himself and thus the sentences will be absurd.
27. In some cases, the comparison is subtle and must be given proper attention.
The climate of Ranchi is better than Gaya. (Incorrect)
Here the comparison should be between the climate of Ranchi and the climate of Gaya.
Note: ‘That of’ means ‘the climate of’
The climate of Ranchi is better than the climate of Gaya. (Correct)
or
The climate of Ranchi is better than that of Gaya. (Correct)
The scenery of Kashmir is better than Shimla. (Incorrect)
or
The scenery of Kashmir is better than climate of Shimla. (Correct)

If the traits are in plural, it will be ‘those of’.

The clothes of DCM are better than those of Mumbai.
The scenery of Kashmir is better than Shimla. (Incorrect)
The scenery of Kashmir is better than that of Shimla. (Correct)

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28. ‘Many a’ is always followed by the singular verb.

Many a man were drowned in the Sea. (Incorrect)
Many a man was drowned in the area. (Correct)
29. If the subject is ‘the number of’ the singular verb is used.
The number of students are very small. (Incorrect)
The number of students is very small. (Correct)
Note: If the subject is ‘a number of’ the plural verb is used.
A number books is missing. (Incorrect)
A number books are missing. (Correct)
30. When ‘as well as’, ‘along with’, together with’, ‘no less than’, ‘in addition to’ and ‘not’ and
‘with’ join two subjects, the verb will be according to the first subject.
Ram, as well as his ten friends, are going. (Incorrect)
Ram, as well as his ten friends, is going. (Correct)
The teacher, along with the students, were going. (Incorrect)
The teacher, along with the students, was going. (Correct)
31. ‘A great many’ is always followed by a plural noun and a plural verb.
A great many student has been declared successful. (Incorrect)
A great many students have been declared successful. (Correct)
32. If two subjects are joined by ‘either - or’, ‘neither - nor’, the verb agrees with the subject that is
near.
Either Ramesh or I are to do this work. (Incorrect)
Either Ramesh or I am to do this work. (Correct)
Neither he nor his friends is reading. (Incorrect)
Neither he nor his friends are reading (correct)
33. When two singular nouns joined by ‘and’ point out the same thing or person, the verb will be
singular.
Bread and butter make a good breakfast. (Incorrect)
Bread and butter makes a good breakfast. (Correct)
The collector and the District Magistrate are on leave. (Incorrect)
The collector and District Magistrate is on leave. (Correct)
34. ‘One of’ always takes a plural noun after it.
It is one of the important day in my life. (Incorrect)
It is one of the important days in my life. (Correct)
35. Use of ‘not only’ and ‘but also’; examine the sentences given below:
He not only comes for swimming but also for coaching the learners. (Incorrect)
He comes not only for swimming but also for coaching the learners. (Correct)
Here the error is due to misplacement.

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The expression ‘not only’ must be placed before the right word, otherwise the meaning changes.
Here this expression is meant for swimming and not for coming.
36. ‘Scarcely’ and ‘hardly’ are followed by ‘when’ and not by ‘than’.
I had scarcely entered the room than the phone rang. (Incorrect)
I had scarcely entered the room when the phone rang. (Correct)
Note: These words are followed by when or before, not than.

● Hardly had I entered the room when a strange creature ran out. OR Scarcely had I entered the
room when a strange creature ran out. (NOT Hardly had I entered the room, than …)

No sooner is followed by than, not when

● No sooner did she complete one project than she started working on the next.

As you can see, the adverbs hardly, scarcely and no sooner are all negative expressions. When a negative
expression comes at the beginning of a sentence, we use inverted word order. That means the auxiliary
verb comes before the subject.
These adverbs can also go in mid-position. In that case, we use normal word order.

● I had hardly entered the room when a strange creature ran out.
● I had scarcely solved one problem before another cropped up.

37. ‘Though’ is followed by ‘yet’ and not by ‘but’.

Though he is poor but he is honest. (Incorrect)
Though he is poor, yet he is honest. (Correct)
Note: When ‘though’ is used with a verb in the subjunctive mood (expressing doubt, a condition
contrary-to-fact, a wish, a concession) is followed by yet and not by but;

Though he might not have recognised me, yet it is rude of him.

Though she disallowed me, yet I will go to her.''
38. ‘No sooner’ is followed by ‘than’.
No sooner had I entered the class when the student stood up. (Incorrect)
No sooner had I entered the class than the students stood up. (Correct)
Attention must also be given to the verb from while using ‘no sooner than’. The correct forms are
past perfect or past indefinite.
No sooner had entered the class than the students stand up. (Incorrect)
No sooner had entered the class than the students stood up. (Incorrect)

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39. ‘Lest’ must be followed by ‘should’.

Read regularly lest you will fail. (Incorrect)
Read regularly lest you should fail. (Correct)
Note: The conjunction lest is not very common in modern English. This word has a negative meaning.
Therefore, it should not be used with not. The only auxiliary verb that can follow lest is should.

● Work hard lest you should fail. OR Work hard lest you fail. (NOT Work hard lest you should not
fail.)

The same idea can be expressed using the expression or else.

● Work hard, or else you will fail.

● Leave on time, or else you will miss the train.

40. ‘such’ is followed by ‘as’.

He is such a writer that everybody should read his books. (Incorrect)
He is such a writer as everybody should read his books. (Correct)
Note: ‘such’ is also followed by ‘that’ if we emphasize the degree of something by mentioning the result.
The extent of the disaster was such that the authorities were quite unable to cope.
41. ‘So’ is followed by ‘that’.
Sarita was popular with her classmate that she always had some people coming to her for advice.
(Incorrect)
Sarita was so popular with her classmate that she always had some people coming to her for advice.
(Correct)

So…that… is a subordinating conjunction. Using so…that… we can combine clauses that show a cause
and effect relationship.

Combine the following sentences using so… that…

1. The box is so heavy that I cannot lift it.

2. My brother worked so hard that he passed the test.
3. He is so ill that the doctors don’t expect him to survive.
4. My grandfather is so weak that he cannot survive.
5. She is so short that she cannot touch the ceiling.
42. ‘Unless’ express a condition. It is always used in the negative sense. Thus ‘not’ is never used with
‘unless’.
Unless you do not labour hard, you will not pass. (Incorrect)
Unless you labour hard, you will not pass. (Correct)

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 ENGLISH FOR COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS

1. We cannot play unless he gives us permission.

2. He will not come unless you invite him.
3. Unless you tell me the truth I cannot help you
43. Until expresses time. It has a negative sense and thus ‘not’ should never be used with it.
Wait here until I do not return. (Incorrect)
Wait here until I return. (Correct)
Until and Till
These two words mean exactly the same. They can be used both as prepositions and conjunctions. Till is
more common in an informal style. Note that in American English, a commonly seen informal spelling of
till is ’til.
● I waited until 6 o’clock and then I went home. OR I waited till 6 o’clock and then I went home.
● I will wait till / until I hear from you.
The preposition to is sometimes used instead of till and until. This usually happens after from…
● I usually work from ten to six. (OR I usually work from ten until / till six.)
Until and till both show time. They cannot be used to talk about distance. Instead we use to, as far as or
up to.
● We walked as far as the edge of the forest. (NOT we walked until the edge of the forest.)
To talk about quantity we can use up to.
This car can seat up to eight people. (NOT This car can seat until eight people.)
Tenses with until
After until we use present tenses to talk about the future.
● I will wait until she comes. (NOT I will wait until she will come.)
Not until / till can mean the same as not before.
● We won’t be seeing each other until / before Christmas.

44. ‘Since’ indicates a point of time and ‘for’ stands for the length/period of time.
He has been reading the book since two hours. (Incorrect)
He has been reading the book for two hours. (Correct)
Two hours is a length of time and thus ‘for’ is correct.
It has been raining for Monday last. (Incorrect)
It has been raining since Monday last. (Correct)
45. ‘As if’ used to convey the sense of pretension. When ‘as if’ is used in this sense, ‘were’ is used in
all cases, even with third person singular.
He behaves as if he was a king. (Incorrect)
He behaves as if he were a king. (Correct)
Note: The sense of time and tense is also very important. Certain important rules are listed below.
46. A past tense in the principal clause is followed by a past tense in the subordinate clause.
He saw that the clock has stopped. (Incorrect)
He saw that the clock had stopped. (Correct)
There are, however, two exceptions to this rule:

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(1) A past tense in the principal clause may be followed by a present tense in the subordinate clause,
when it expresses a universal truth.
The teacher observed that the Earth moved round the sun. (Incorrect)
The teacher observed that the Earth moves round the sun. (Correct)
(2) When the subordinate clause is introduced by ‘than’, even if there is past tense in the principal
clause, it may be followed by any tense required by the sense in the subordinate clause.
He helped him more than he helped his own children. (Incorrect)
He helped him more than he helps his own children. (Correct)
47. If two actions in a sentence are shown happing in the past, one after the other; the tense of the
action happening first should be past perfect and that of the second should be past indefinite.
The patient died before the doctor arrived. (Incorrect)
The patient had died before the doctor arrived. (Correct)
48. Two actions in the past, one depending on the other, should have the sequence as follows:
Past simple - would + V1
If you tried well, you will succeed in the examination. (Incorrect)
If you tried well, you would succeed in the examination. (Correct)
If they come on time, they would get the food. (Incorrect)
If they came on time, they would get the food. (Correct)

Had + past participle + would + have + past participle

If you had worked hard, you would have succeeded in the examination.

Past perfect + future perfect

Had + past participle + would + have + past participle
If you had worked hard, you would have succeeded in the examination.
Or
Had you worked hard, you would have succeeded in the examination.
If you would had practiced regularly, you would won the match. (Incorrect)
If you had practised regularly, you would have won the match. (Correct)
49. If, in a sentence, two actions are indicated and both are to take place in future, the sequence of
tense will be as follows:
The principal clause in present indefinite; and the subordinate clause in future indefinite.
If I go the Delhi, I shall attend the seminar.
‘If I go to Delhi’ is the principal clause and ‘I shall attend the seminar’ is the subordinate clause.
If it will rain, I shall not attend the meeting. (Incorrect)
If it rains, I shall not attend the meeting. (Correct)
50. When an action has taken place in two clauses of a sentence, it is used in both the clauses
according to the requirement.

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My brother has and is still doing excellent work for his organisation. (Incorrect)
My brother has done and is still doing excellent work for his organization. (Correct)
51. When there is a sense of continuity, that is, when a thing has taken place in the past and still
continue in the present, the prefect continues tense form of the verb should be used.
India is independent for the last forty – six years. (Incorrect)
India has been independent for the last seven decades. (Correct)
Note: The use of article is also an important matter and one must be careful about it.
52. before a consonant ‘a’ is used.
A boy, a horse, a woman.
But ‘a’ is also used before words like university, useful, unicorn, union, European, and one, etc.,
because these words began with a consonant sound.
Here is an university. (Incorrect)
Here is a university. (Correct)
An European lives in my area. (Incorrect)
A European lives in my area. (Correct)
It is an one – rupees note. (Incorrect)
It is a one – rupee note. (Correct)
53. Similarly, words like ‘hour’, ‘honest’, ‘heir’, etc., take ‘an’ before them as they begin with a
vowel sound.
I have been waiting for him for a hour. (Incorrect)
I have been waiting for him for an hour. (Correct)
54. Some important points to remember regarding the omission of a/an/the:
1. Before a common noun used in its widest sense, e.g.
Man us mortal.
2. before names of materials.
Bronze is a useful metal.
3. Usually before proper names.
Patina is the capital of Bihar.
4. Before abstract nouns used in general sense.
Beauty fascinates people.
5. before language.
English is a very popular language in the Delhi University.
6. Before ‘school’ ‘college’, ‘church’, ‘bed’, ‘table’, ‘hospital’, ‘market’, and ‘prison’, when these
place are visited or used for their common purpose.
My Christian friends go to church every Sunday.
But ‘the’ is used with these words when we refer to them as a definite place, building or object rather than
to the normal activity that goes on there.
I met my friend at the church.

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7. before names of relations, like ‘father’, ‘mother’, ‘aunt’, ‘uncle’, ‘cook’ and ‘nurse’.
Father is very happy today.
Father is very happy today.
Father has returned.
Aunt wants you to see her.
Cook has been a given notice.

8. before predicative nouns denoting a unique position that is normally held at one time by one
person only.
He was elected chairman of the Board.
55. Uses of ‘the’
1. When the object is unique.
The earth, the sky, the equator.
2. Before superlatives
The best, the finest, the most
3. with proper nouns like ‘seas’, ‘rivers’, ‘group of island’, ‘chains of mountains’, ‘deserts’,
‘newspaper’, ‘buildings’, ‘religious books’, ‘gulfs’,.
The Arabian sea, The Ganges, The Taj Mahal,
4. Before a proper noun, when it is qualified by an adjective.
The immortal Kalidas.
5. before an adjective, when the noun is hidden.
The rich should be kind and helping.
6. before musical instruments.
I know how to play the harmonium.
7. with a class of things.
The crow is a clever bird.
8. ‘The’ should be used before both comparative degrees when they are used in a sentence for
proportion.
Higher we go, cooler we feel. (Incorrect)
The higher we go, the cooler we feel. (Correct)
56. ‘What to speak of’ is incorrect; the correct expression is ‘not to speak of’.
What to speak of running, he cannot even walk. (Incorrect)
Not to speak of running, he cannot even walk. (Correct)
57. When there is the sense of dislike, hesitation, risk, etc., in a sentence, we should use a gerund
instead of a verb. A gerund is that form of the verb which ends in ‘ing’ and can be used in the place
of a noun.
I dislike to see a film late in the night. (Incorrect)
I dislike to seeing a film late in the night. (Correct)

14
Young girls hesitate to talk to strangers. (Incorrect)
Young girls hesitate talking to strangers. (Correct)
`58. ‘Cent per cent’ and ‘word by word’ are wrong. ‘Hundred per cent’ and ‘word for word’ are
correct expressions.
You are never cent per cent sure of your success in a competitive examinations. (Incorrect)
You are never hundred per cent sure of your success in a competitive examination. (Correct)
I can reproduce this lesson word by word. (Incorrect)
I can reproduce this lesson word for word. (Correct)
59. ‘Since’, ‘because’, ‘as’, ‘for’, – all means ‘because’, but there is a different in their degree.
‘Since’ and ‘because’ are used for stronger cases and ‘as’ and ‘for’ for weak cases.
I respect him as he is my teacher. (Incorrect)
I respect him because he is my teacher. (Correct)
I couldn’t attend the meeting because it was very hot today. (Incorrect)
I couldn’t attend the meeting as it was very hot today. (Correct)
60. Use of ‘when’ and ‘while’: Proper attention must be paid to these words. ‘While’ indicates a
general sense and ‘when’ implies a time during the process of doing a work.
When learning to swim, one of the most important things is to relax. (Incorrect)
While learning to swim, one of the most important things is to relax. (Correct)
Note: We can use when to introduce a single completed event that takes place in the middle of a longer
activity or event. In these cases, we usually use a continuous verb in the main clause to describe the
background event:
He was walking back to his flat when he heard an explosion.
We can use while or as to talk about two longer events or activities happening at the same time. We can
use either simple or continuous verb forms:
We spent long evenings talking in my sitting-room while he played the music he had chosen and explained
his ideas.
61. Sometimes the error lies in the use of words. Proper attention must therefore, be given to
appropriateness of words.
Prakash was leading a happy and leisurely life after his retirement from his service. (Incorrect)
Prakash was living a happy and leisurely life after his retirement from his service. (Correct)
Note: The word ‘leading’ is inappropriate. One does not lead life, one lives life. One leads a group, team,
movement, etc.
62. If in a sentence an apposition has been used, the verb will follow not the apposition but the noun
or pronoun preceding it.
You, my son, is a good boy. (Incorrect)
You, my son, are a good boy. (Correct)

15
My sister, whose name is Anusha, likes Sweets.
63. Proper, abstract and material nouns have no plural except when they are used as common
nouns.
The house is built of bricks. (Incorrect)
The house is built of brick. (Correct)
Note: when such nouns are used in the plural, they become common nouns with changed meanings; as
Coppers=copper coins;
Iron=fetters
Tins=cans made of tin,
Woods=forest,
(He lives in the woods. It means he lives in a forest.)
64. Clauses in sentences beginning with a relative pronoun (who, which, that) take a verb according
to the noun or pronoun preceding the relative pronoun.
It is I who has done it. (Incorrect)
It is I who have done it. (Correct)
65. The relative pronoun should be near as possible to its antecedent so that no ambiguity arises.
The boy is my cousin who stood first in the mile race. (Incorrect)
The boy, who stood first in the mile race, is my cousin. (Correct)
66. When two singular nouns joined by ‘and’ are preceded by ‘each’ or ‘every’ the pronoun used
for them is singular.
Each man and each boy is responsible for their action. (Incorrect)
Each man and each boy is responsible for his action. (Correct)
67. Sometimes a pronoun is used where it is not required at all.
He being an M.A., he is qualified for the post. (Incorrect)
He, being an M.A., is qualified for the post. (Correct)
68. If a pronoun comes after a preposition it should be used in the objective case.
Between you and I neither of us is correct. (Incorrect)
Between you and me neither of us is correct. (Correct)
69. When a pronoun come after ‘like and unlike’ it takes objective case.
A man like I will not do it. (Incorrect)
A man like me will not do it. (Correct)
70. A pronoun takes an objective case after ‘let’.
Let I do it. (Incorrect)
Let me do it. (Correct)
70. Pronouns joined by ‘and’ remain in the same case.
He and her are brother and sister. (Incorrect)
He and she are brother and sister. (Correct)

16
He and me are friends. (Incorrect)
He and I are friends. (Correct)
71. When pronouns of second person and third person are used as subjects, the pronoun following
them will be according to the second person pronoun.
You and he must bring his books. (Incorrect)
You and he must bring your books. (Correct)
72. When pronouns of second person and first person are used as subjects, the pronoun following
them will be first person plural form.
You and I must finish your work in time. (Incorrect)
You and I must finish our work in time. (Correct)
73. ‘But’ is also used as a relative pronoun. When a sentence has a negative noun or pronoun, ‘but’
can be used with it. In this case ‘but’ means: who not; that not.
Here was none but laughed to see the joker.
There is no bird but flies.
Note: Here the meaning of ‘but laughed’ is ‘who did not laugh’.
‘But files’ means ‘that does not fly’.
74. The relative pronoun ‘that’ is used in preference to ‘who’ or ‘which’ after adjectives in the
superlative degree.
The wisest man who ever lived made mistakes. (Incorrect)
The wisest man that ever lived made mistakes. (Correct)
This is the best which we can do. (Incorrect)
This is the best that we can do. (Correct)
75. The relative pronoun ‘that’ is also used in preference to ‘who’ and ‘which’ after the words ‘all’,
‘same’, any’ , ‘none’, ‘nothing’ and (the) ‘only’.
He is the same man who he has seen. (Incorrect)
He is the same man that he has seen. (Correct)
Man is the only animal who can talk. (Incorrect)
Man is the only animal that can talk. (Correct)
76. The same rule applies after the interrogative pronoun ‘who’ and ‘what’.
What is there which I do not know? (Incorrect)
What is there that I do not know? (Correct)
77. When there are two antecedents, a man and an animal or two things before the relative
pronoun, we should use ‘that’.
The man and his dog which passed through this road were killed. (Incorrect)
The man and his dog that passed through this road were killed. (Correct)
78. The case of the noun or pronoun preceding or succeeding the verb ‘to be’ should be the same.
It is him who came to see us. (Incorrect)
It is he who came to see us. (Correct)

17
It is me who caught the thief. (Incorrect)
it is I who caught the thief. (Correct)
79. when two qualities of a person or thing are compared ‘ more’ or ‘less’ is used before the
adjective and the adjective following them take positive degree.
Suman is better than brave. (Incorrect)
Suman is more good than brave. (Correct)
80. When two or more adjectives are used to show the qualities of the same man or thing, all the
adjectives must be in the same degree.
Sita is more intelligent and wise than Rita. (Incorrect)
Sita is more intelligent and wiser than Rita. (Correct)
Ramesh is the wisest and strong boy of the class. (Incorrect)
Ramesh is the wisest and the strongest boy of the class. (Correct)
81. ‘Very’ is used with adjectives in the positive degree and with present participles.
He is a much stronger man. (Incorrect)
He is a very strong man. (Correct)
It is a much interesting book. (Incorrect)
It is very interesting book. (Correct)
Note: ‘Much’ is used with adjectives in the comparative degree and with past participles.
He is very stronger than I am. (Incorrect)
He is very much stronger than I am. (Correct)
I am very obliged to my friend. (Incorrect)
I am very much obliged to my friend. (Correct)
82. To show equality ‘as’ is used before and after the adjective.
I can run as fast, if not faster, than you. (Incorrect)
I can run as fast as, if not faster, than you. (Correct)
83. Certain adjectives do not admit of comparison and thus they always remain in the ‘positive
degree’.
‘Absolute’, ‘annual’, ‘chief’, ‘circular’, ‘complete’, ‘entire’, ‘extreme’, ‘excellent’, ‘full’, ‘impossible’
‘perfect’, ‘right’, ‘round’, ‘unique’, ‘universal’, ‘whole’, etc.
This is the most unique building that I have seen. (Incorrect)
This is the unique building that I have seen. (Correct)
84. ‘More than one’ indicates a plural sense, but it is treated as a sort of compound of one. Thus it
agrees with a singular noun and takes a singular verb.
More than one employees were killed in the accident. (Incorrect)
More than one employee was killed in the accident. (Correct)
85. A verb must agree with its subject and not with the complement.
Our only guide at night were the stars. (Incorrect)
Our only guide at night was the s tars. (Correct)

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86. If the plural subject denotes a definite amount or quantity taken as a whole, the verb is singular.
Forty miles are a good distance. (Incorrect)
Forty miles is a good distance. (Correct)
Two – thirds of the book were rubbish. (Incorrect)
Two – third of the book was rubbish. (Correct)
87. The plural ‘heaps and ‘lots’ used colloquially for a great amount take a singular verb unless a
plural noun with ‘of’ is added.
There are lots of issues to discussed. (Incorrect)
There are lots of issues to be discussed. (Correct)
There is lots of books to read. (Incorrect)
There are lots of books to read. (Correct)
88. When qualified by ‘each’ or ‘every’ two singular subjects, if even connected by ‘and’, take a
singular, if even connected by ‘and’, take a singular verb.
Each boy and every girl were given rewards. (Incorrect)
Each boy and every girl was given rewards. (Correct)
89. The following Verbs are always followed by an infinitive:
‘decide’, ‘plans’, ‘expect’, ‘fail’, ‘hope’, ‘intend’, ‘learn’, ‘promise’, ‘refuse’, ‘want’, ‘agree’,
‘consent’, ‘try’, ‘love’, etc.
I refuse meeting him. (Incorrect)
I refuse to meet him. (Correct)
90. The following verbs and phrases should be followed by gerund which is a verbal noun: ‘enjoy’,
‘admit’, ‘deny’, ‘appreciate’, ‘regret’, ‘avoid’, ‘consider’, ‘stop’, ‘looking forward to’, ‘accustomed
to’, ‘is used to’, ‘do not mind’, ‘object to’, etc.
I am looking forward to receive your replay. (Incorrect)
I am looking forward to receiving your replay. (Correct)
He is used work hard. (Incorrect)
He is used to working hard. (Correct)
91. The word ‘to’ is frequently used with the infinitive, but it is not an essential part of it. For
example, after certain verb (‘bid’ ‘let’, ‘make’, ‘need’, ‘dare’, ‘see’, ‘hear’,) we use the infinitive
without ‘to’.
Bid him to go there. (Incorrect)
Bid him go there. (Correct)
Make him to stand. (Incorrect)
Make him stand. (Correct)
I saw him to cry. (Incorrect)
I saw him cry. (Correct)
92. The infinitive is used without ‘to’ after ‘had better’, ‘had rather’, ‘would rather’, ‘sooner than’,
and ‘rather than’,

19
You had better to ask permission from him. (Incorrect)
You had better ask permission from him. (Correct)
93. ‘Than’ should be used after ‘no other’.
I met on other man but Mr. Roy. (Incorrect)
I met no other than Mr., Roy. (Correct)
Ram has no other claim except his degrees. (Incorrect)
Ram has no other claim than his degrees. (Correct)
94. After the word ‘know’, ‘how’ or ‘when’ should be used before using an infinitive.
I know to write French. (Incorrect)
I know how to write French. (Correct)
95. A verb may take an infinitive or a gerund according to its implication. If the verb indicates a
purpose, an infinitive should be used and if the verb indicates a cause, a gerund should be used.
He went to school for seeing the principal. (Incorrect)
He went to school for see the principal. (Correct)
He was turned out to copy answers. (Incorrect)
He was turned out for copying answers. (Correct)
96. Adverb ‘as’ is not used with verbs like ‘appointed’, ‘elected’, ‘considered’, ‘called’, but it is used
with ‘regard’,
He was elected as President of our society. (Incorrect)
He was elected President of our society. (Correct)
I regard Ramesh my friend. (Incorrect)
I regard Ramesh as my friend. (Correct)
97. After the verb ‘doubt’ ‘that’ should not be used. ‘If’ or ‘whether’ should be used in its place.
I doubt that Ravi will come. (Incorrect)
I doubt if Ravi will come. (Correct)
98. Often a mistake is committed in the use of adjectives and adverbs. An adjective is correctly used
with the verb when some quality of the subject, rather than of the action of the verb, is to be
expressed.
The flowers smelt sweetly. (Incorrect)
The flowers smelt sweet. (Correct)
99. It is a common practice is conversation to make a statement and ask for confirmation; as, ‘It’s
very hot, isn’t it? Two points are to be kept in mind. If the statement positive, the pattern will be
Auxiliary + n’t + subject.
If the statement is negative, the pattern will be Auxiliary +subject
Examples:
It is raining, is it? (Incorrect)
It is raining, isn’t it? (Correct)
Your are not busy, aren’t you? (Incorrect)

20
You are not busy, are you? (Correct)
The point to note here is that the question tag will always have the same verb from which we have in
the main statement:
I have finished my work, didn’t I?( Incorrect)
I have finished my work, haven’t? (Correct)
100. There are certain common errors which should be avoided.
(a) ‘The two first’ is a meaningless expression for it implies that two things may be first. We should
say ‘the first two’.
The two first chapters of the novel are dull. (Incorrect)
The first two chapters of the novel are dull. (Correct)
(b) ‘Only’ should be placed immediately before the word it qualifies.
He only lost his ticket in the stampede. (Incorrect)
Only he lost his ticket in the stampede. (Correct)
(c) An infinitive verb should not be spit.
I request you to kindly help me. (Incorrect)
I request you kindly to help me. (Correct)
(d) Care should be taken in the use of verbs.
The doctor saw the pulse of the patient. (Incorrect)
The doctor felt the pulse of the patient. (Correct)
He told the truth. (Incorrect)
He spoke the truth. (Correct)
Do not speak a lie. (Incorrect)
Do not tell a lie. (Correct)
Our team made a goal. (Incorrect)
Our team scored a goal. (Correct)
He is taking a bath. (Incorrect)
He is having a bath. (Correct)
I tell my prayers in the morning. (Incorrect)
I say my prayers in the morning. (Correct)

21
 Kalpataru Coaching
Phn. 7005342133
3

PHRASE PREPOSITIONS
Phrase Prepositions: (Group of words used with the force of a single preposition.)

Phrase: A phrase does not contain a subject and verb and, consequently, cannot convey a complete thought. A
phrase contrasts with a clause. A clause does contain a subject and verb, and it can convey a complete idea.
Prepositions: Prepositions are a class of words that indicate relationships between nouns, pronouns and other
words in a sentence. Most often they come before a noun. They never change their form, regardless of the case,
gender etc. of the word they are referring to.

According to –: as stated, reported, or recorded by (someone or something)

➢ He arranged the books on the shelf according to [=by] their size.

➢ Everything went according to plan. [=everything went as it had been planned]

➢ According to a recent survey, most Americans drive to work. [=a recent survey says that most Americans
drive to work]

In accordance with –: in a way that agrees with or follows (something, such as a rule or request)
➢ In accordance with your request, I am sending a copy of my book.

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 ➢ In accordance with your instructions, we have remitted the 'amount to your bankers.
In place of—: as a substitute or replacement for someone or something
➢ She couldn't attend the meeting, so she sent her secretary in her place.
Agreeably to –
➢ Agreeably to the terms of the settlement, we herewith enclose our cheque for Rs. 1000.
In addition to –as well as; besides:
➢ In addition to directing the play, she designed most of the scenery.
In reference to—mentioning or talking about something.
➢ The author made the statement in reference to Silverman's latest book.
Along with – in addition to someone or something; together with someone or something.
➢ Jane went to the mall along with David. I ate some chocolates along with some fruit.
In (on) behalf of – as the representative of somebody or instead of them
➢ On behalf of the department I would like to thank you all.
➢ On behalf of the staff he read the address.

In regard to—concerning somebody/something

➢ A country’s laws in regard to human rights.
Away from –to different place or in a different direction
➢ The station is a few minutes’ walk away from here.
In case of – (often on official notes) if something happens
➢ In case of fire, ring the alarm bell.
➢ In case of breakdown, please press the alarm button and call this number.
In spite of—if you say that somebody did something in spite of fact, you mean it is surprising that
the fact did not prevent them from doing it.
➢ In spite of his age, he still leads an active life
Because of –used before a noun or noun phrase to say that somebody/something is the reason for
something.
➢ They are here because of us.
In comparison to –to seem less important when compared with something else.
➢ Last year’s riots pale in comparison with this latest outburst of violence.
Instead of—in the place something/somebody
➢ We just had soup instead of full meal.
By dint of –by means of something
➢ He succeeded by dint of hard work
In compliance with-- the practice of obeying the rules or requests made by people in authority.
➢ Procedures that must be followed to ensure full compliance with the law.
In the event of—if something happens
➢ In the event of accident, call this number.
By means of –with the help of something
➢ The load was lifted by means of a crane.
In consequence of – as a result of something.

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 ➢ The child was born deformed in consequence of an injury to the mother.
On account of—because of somebody/something
➢ She retired early an account of ill health.
By reason of –because of
➢ He was excused by reason of(because of) his age
In course of – a way of acting in or dealing with a particular situation.
➢ In course of time he saw his mistake.
Owing to—because of
➢ The game was cancelled owing to torrential rain.
By virtue of –by means of or because of something
➢ She got the job by virtue of her greater experience.
In favor of –you support or agree with them.
➢ He argued in favor of a strike.
By way of –by a route that includes the place mentioned.
➢ She came to TV by way of drama school.
In front of –
With an eye to--
Conformably to –
In lieu of –
With reference to
For the sake of –
In order to – In order to avoid litigation, he accepted Rs. 300 in full settlement of his claim for Rs. 400
With regard to--

IDIOMS
A group of words in a fixed order that have a particular meaning that is different from the
meanings of each words on its own. Thus, the unit of meaning is different from what the words actually
suggest.
An idiom is a a group of words which mean something different form its literal meaning.
For example, the expression ‘blue blood’ does not mean that blood is blue, but it means to belong to a
royal family. Similarly, the ‘apple of discord’ doesn’t imply any real apple; it means ‘a cause of quarrel’
or ‘Pandora’s box’ means a cause of several problems and does not imply any real box though it has as
an association with the box of Pandora. The experience comes out in an idiom in a standardized form.
Idioms and phrases are reconginsed through experience. Sometimes ordinary words fail to embody the
experience or catch the spirit of the special situation. Idioms and phrases are meant for such situation;
they enrich a language. Thus, in order to have a native’s command over English, it is necessary to
understand idioms.
E.g. For the first week on RGU IIIT, I felt like fish out of water

24
 A. Frustrated
B. Homeless
C. Disappointed
D. Uncomfortable
Make meaningful sentences using these idioms

1. The alpha and omega - the beginning and the end

2. To fight tooth and nail - to make all efforts to win
3. To take one’s heels - to run away
4. To pay through the nose - to pay very dearly
5. To let the cat out the bag - to reveal a secret
6. A bird’s eye view - a general view
7. By hook or by crook - by all means
8. Snake in the grass - unrecognized danger
9. Make no bones - make no objection
10. Bone of contention - matter of dispute
11. A feather in the cap - an good/extra achievement
12. A good Samaritan - a really kind man
13. To rise like a phoenix - to start afresh from a low position
14. To meet one’s waterloo - to meet one’s defeat
15. To have a cold feet - to be reluctant
16. To rise a dust - to create confusion
17. To bring home the bacon - to be successful
18. To carry the day - to win after a long time
19. To stick to one’s gun - to maintain one’s point against all opposition
20. Come cap in hand - very humble
21. Man of iron - a man of strong will
22. Man of straw - insignificant
23. Man of letters - scholar
24. To several irons in the fire - so many engagement at a time
25. At a low key - at reducing
26. At crossroads - be in confusion because of many choices
27. At stake - in danger
28. To die a dog’s death - unheroic death
29. To fire on the cylinders - to exert with all force
30. To break the duck - to begin
31. A big shot - an important person
32. A boon in disguise - a benefit in loss
33. A cry in the wilderness - an irrelevant effort
34. To beat around the bush - to talk about unimportant things

25
35. Copycat - someone who has few ideas of their own and does or says exactly
the same as someone else
36. Burn the midnight oil - to work late into the night
37. Cats and dogs - raining heavily
38. Once in a blue moon - not very often
39. Make hay while the sun shines - complete work in time
40. Once in a blue moon - not very often
41. To pull socks his/her up - to improve or speed up
42. To turn a deaf ear - refuse to listen
43. Break out in a cold sweat - to become frightened suddenly
44. Piece of cake - very easy take
45. Sixes and sevens - at a big confusion
46. Dribs and drabs - in small or a few at time
47. Cry over the spilt milk - to worry about the past
48. Cloud nine - extreme happiness
49. A hot potato - current disputable issue
50. Method to my madness - seems unlike, but there is a method

26