Fracturing Services Fluid System Training Manual

Introduction to
Fracturing Fluids
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 Introduction to Fracturing Fluids

PREFACE
Fracturing Services Training Manual Series

This manual is part of a training series in Sanjel’s Fracturing service line. The Fracturing service training
series includes materials on the following topics:

• Introduction to Fracturing
• Iron Truck Operator
• Fracturing Pump Operator
• Crew Cab Operator
• Introduction to Fracturing Fluids
• Chemical Unit Operator
• Quality Control Technician
• Blender Unit Operator
• Data Van Operator
• Hydration Unit Operator
• Combo Unit Operator
• BASS Unit Operator
• Fracturing Supervisor

Sanjel’s series of Fracturing training manuals are intended to provide employees in the Fracturing service
line with information and procedures that can be used to achieve exceptional job performance. Although
this series of training manuals covers essential information, employees are also expected to learn from
subject-matter experts and supervisors, and to use safe work practices and common sense while
performing all job–related duties and tasks.

Reinforcement Questions

Review questions are included at the end of each unit to highlight content critical to the understanding of
the principles and concepts presented. If the material is still unclear after thorough review, ask the
supervisor for clarification.

Self-Paced Learning

The intent with these units is to provide self-paced instruction wherever possible. This allows individual
control over the speed of proceeding through the material.

Terminology

The terms in this manual are technical and relate to the oil well servicing industry. Always attempt to use
the correct terms for procedures and equipment.
 Introduction to Fracturing Fluids
Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION TO FRACTURING FLUIDS ............................................. 1

1.0 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF FRACTURING FLUIDS ..........................1-1
1.1 Objectives ............................................................................................... 1-1
1.2 Introduction ............................................................................................. 1-1
1.3 Fluid Rheology........................................................................................ 1-3
1.3.1 Types of Flow .................................................................................... 1-3
1.3.2 Viscosity ............................................................................................ 1-6
1.4 Basic Chemistry.................................................................................... 1-10
1.4.1 Acids, Bases, and Neutralization ..................................................... 1-11
1.4.2 pH.................................................................................................... 1-16
1.4.3 Polymers ......................................................................................... 1-21
1.4.4 Polymer Hydration ........................................................................... 1-25
1.4.5 Cross-linking Water-based Systems................................................ 1-28
1.5 Fracturing Fluids ................................................................................... 1-33
1.5.1 General Characteristics ................................................................... 1-33
1.5.2 Fracturing Fluid Additives ................................................................ 1-34
1.5.3 Fluid Selection ................................................................................. 1-44
1.6 Fluid Systems ....................................................................................... 1-49
1.6.1 Water-based Fracturing Systems .................................................... 1-49
1.6.2 Hydrocarbon-based Fracturing Systems ......................................... 1-50
1.6.3 Emulsion-based Fracturing Systems ............................................... 1-51
1.7 Review Questions ................................................................................. 1-52
2.0 WATER-BASED FRACTURING FLUID SYSTEMS .......................2-1
2.1 Objectives ............................................................................................... 2-1
2.2 Introduction ............................................................................................. 2-1
2.3 Sanjel’s Water-Based Fluid Systems ...................................................... 2-3
2.3.1 Fluid System Components ................................................................ 2-3
2.3.2 Fluid System Additives .................................................................... 2-10
2.3.3 Energized Fluids.............................................................................. 2-19
2.3.4 Advantages of Water-based Fracturing Fluids ................................ 2-22

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2.3.5 Disadvantages of Water-based Fracturing Fluids............................ 2-23

2.3.6 Cross-linked versus Linear Fluids.................................................... 2-23
2.4 Cross-linked Fluid Systems .................................................................. 2-24
2.4.1 AQUAjel........................................................................................... 2-25
2.4.2 BORAjel........................................................................................... 2-31
2.4.3 BORAjel M....................................................................................... 2-38
2.4.4 T-jel ................................................................................................. 2-45
2.5 Linear Fluid Systems ............................................................................ 2-49
2.5.1 Foam-based Fluids.......................................................................... 2-49
2.5.2 CO2 POLYjel.................................................................................... 2-50
2.5.3 N2 FOAMjel...................................................................................... 2-55
2.5.4 CLEANjel......................................................................................... 2-60
2.6 Summary of Water-based Systems ...................................................... 2-64
2.7 Review Questions ................................................................................. 2-66
3.0 HYDROCARBON-BASED FRACTURING SYSTEMS ...................3-1
3.1 Objectives ............................................................................................... 3-1
3.2 Introduction ............................................................................................. 3-1
3.3 Sanjel’s Hydrocarbon-based Fluid Systems ........................................... 3-2
3.3.1 Fluid System Components ................................................................ 3-3
3.3.2 Fluid System Additives ...................................................................... 3-7
3.3.3 Advantages of Hydrocarbon-based Fracturing Fluids........................ 3-8
3.3.4 Disadvantages of Hydrocarbon-based Fracturing Fluids................... 3-9
3.4 OILjel Series ........................................................................................... 3-9
3.4.1 Cross-linked OILjels ........................................................................ 3-10
3.4.2 OILjel ............................................................................................... 3-11
3.4.3 OILjel LT.......................................................................................... 3-13
3.5 Summary of Hydrocarbon-based Fluid Systems Chart *....................... 3-16
3.6 Review Questions ................................................................................. 3-17
4.0 EMULSION BASED FRACTURING SYSTEMS .............................4-1
4.1 Objectives ............................................................................................... 4-1
4.2 Introduction ............................................................................................. 4-1
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4.2.1 Advantages of Emulsion-based Fluid Systems ................................. 4-2

4.2.2 Disadvantaged of Emulsion-based Fluid Systems ............................ 4-3
4.3 Sanjel’s POLYjel Fluid System ............................................................... 4-4
4.3.1 Fluid System Components ................................................................ 4-5
4.3.2 Fluid System Additives ...................................................................... 4-6
4.3.3 POLYjel Characteristics..................................................................... 4-7
4.4 Summary of Emulsion-based Fluid Systems .......................................... 4-8
4.5 Review Questions ................................................................................... 4-9
TRAINING MANUAL FEEDBACK .............................................................. 1

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INTRODUCTION TO Notes
FRACTURING FLUIDS
The Introduction to Fracturing Fluids training manual

includes four units with general information on fracturing

fluids, and more detailed information on Sanjel’s different

fracturing fluid systems. The four units are:

• Basic Principles of Fracturing Fluids

• Water-based Fracturing Fluids

• Hydrocarbon-based Fracturing Fluids

• Emulsion-based Fracturing Fluids

This manual is intended to provide employees with essential

background information on chemistry, fluid rheology and fluid

flow behaviours, fluid components, and on Sanjel’s three

different fluid systems that are used in Fracturing services.

The Introduction to Fracturing Fluids training manual will be

used as support material for training employees in all

fracturing jobs, and particularly with training chemical unit

operators, quality control technicians, and blender operators.

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1.0 BASIC PRINCIPLES Notes

OF FRACTURING
FLUIDS
1.1 Objectives
The objectives specify what you should know and the tasks

you should be able to perform by the end of the unit. Upon

completion of the unit you will be able to:

• Understand the rheological properties and flow

behaviours of fluid.

• Understand the different chemical properties of

fracturing fluid.

• Describe the different characteristics of and additives

in fracturing fluid.

• Identify the key features of Sanjel’s fracturing fluid

systems.

1.2 Introduction
Hydraulic fracturing is the process of creating a fracture

within a formation using (1) a suitable fluid and (2) hydraulic

pressure. During a hydraulic fracturing treatment, fluid is

combined with a propping agent (commonly sand), and is

injected into the formation to create a fracture. These

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fractures create a conductive flow channel for the formation

fluid or gas to be produced from the well more easily. Notes

Different kinds of fracturing fluid systems are available to

complete fracturing jobs. Components, including the base

fluid, gellant and other additives, are selected to meet the

specific requirements of each job. However, the basic

functions of any fracturing fluid are to:

• Transmit hydraulic pressure to the formation and

initiate fractures.

• Transport and distribute proppant along the fractures.

• Extend or propagate fractures.

• Break down and return to surface, leaving the

proppant to hold the formation open.

• Have no undesirable side effects when in contact with

reservoir rock or formation fluids.

At the end of a successful fracturing job, the fluid will return

to surface, while the proppant will remain in the fractures to

keep them “propped” open. This will enhance production

rates after the fracture job is complete.

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1.3 Fluid Rheology Notes

Rheology is the study of fluid flow behaviour, and changes in

flow behaviour under varying conditions. In fracturing,

rheological study is primarily concerned with flow behaviour

at controlled shear rates. The relationship between shear

rate and shear stress defines the viscosity of the fluid. When

pressure is exerted on a fluid, the resultant motion generates

shear stresses at the walls of the tubing.

Understanding flow behaviour in fracturing fluids is important

when designing fracturing treatments because flow

behaviour influences:

• Pressures in the wellbore and in the formation.

• Pumping costs.

• Fracture geometry.

• Transport and deposit of proppant.

• Fluid loss and fluid loss prevention.

By studying rheological properties, including types of flow,

viscosity, and shear, we can control and optimize some of

the parameters (above) that are affected by flow behaviour.

1.3.1 Types of Flow

Depending on the pressure applied to the fluid, and its

specific rheological properties, there are different types of

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flow patterns that are likely to occur. In fracturing, two of

these flow patterns are of particular interest: laminar and Notes

turbulent flow.

1.3.1.1 Laminar Flow

Laminar flow occurs when particles move in straight or

streamlined layers (Figure 1-1). These layers move in thin

parallel paths at their own speeds, where none of the layers

cross paths. Laminar flow occurs at low enough velocities for

the viscosity of the fluid to keep the particles in their

designated paths, which causes the layers to flow smoothly

with relatively low instabilities.

Figure 1-1 Streamlined Laminar Flow

In the case of fluid flowing through a cylindrical tube, like

wellbore tubing or a treating line, the layers in the centre of

the tube will have the highest velocity. (Figure 1-2).

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Slower
Notes

Faster

Slower

Figure 1-2 Straight Laminar Flow

1.3.1.2 Turbulent Flow

Sometimes the flow rate of a fluid increases to a point where

any minor disturbances grow in size and cause flow

instabilities. Above a “critical” velocity, these disturbances

become “turbulence”. In turbulent flow, the shear stress is so

great that the layers (or laminations) cannot stay in their

designated paths, and the fluid takes on a swirling or chaotic

motion (Figure 1-3). The velocity at any given point in a

turbulent fluid is random.

Figure 1-3 Turbulent Flow

Turbulent flow can be either useful or harmful in fracturing.

The swirling and chaotic motion is an effective and efficient

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means of suspending and transporting solids, like proppant.

However, that turbulence can also be very erosive. When a Notes

fluid contains an abrasive material like proppant, turbulent

flow can cause premature erosion of treating iron and

casing.

1.3.2 Viscosity
Sir Isaac Newton defined viscosity as “the measure of the

resistance of a fluid to flow”. In that sense, viscosity can be

considered internal friction. Internal friction deals with the

interaction of fluid particles with each other, and the

interaction of fluid particles with other particles, like

proppant.

In very basic terms, viscosity is a description of how “thin” or

“thick” the fluid is. The ”thinner” the fluid, the faster it will

flow, for a given pressure differential. The “thicker”, or more

viscous the fluid, the slower it will flow.

To understand viscosity, it is necessary to understand shear,

and Newtonian and non-Newtonian flow behaviours.

1.3.2.1 Viscosity and Shear

To understand viscosity, we must first consider the concept

of laminar motion. (See Section 1.3.1 on Types of Flow). The

velocity at each point in the fluid is the result of layers

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(laminae) slipping over each other, creating friction, or shear

stress. Shear stress causes deformations in the elements of Notes

lamina, at a given rate, called the shear rate. Viscosity is this

relationship between shear stress and shear rate. Absolute

viscosity is the ratio of shear stress divided by shear rate.

Shear Stress
Viscosity =
Shear Rate

Shear Stress

Shear stress is related to the force required to sustain a

particular fluid flow rate. This stress can result in

deformation, or strain, usually described in terms of

magnitude per unit of area (lb/ft2). Shear stress is the

pressure that is exerted on the fluid particles as the fluid

layers are in motion.

Shear Rate

Shear rate is the rate at which one particle of fluid is sliding

by another particle. This means that the shear rate

measures the rate at which the velocity of one layer of fluid

changes as it passes over an adjacent layer of fluid.

Using the laminar flow example in Figure 1-4, shear rate

would be the velocity difference between the two highlighted

fluid layers. The faster the layer in the centre slides past the

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slower layer beside it (difference in velocities), the higher the

shear rate will be. Notes

Slower

Faster

Slower

Figure 1-4 Shear Rate

1.3.2.2 Newtonian Flow Behaviour

Newtonian fluids have a direct relationship between shear

rate and shear stress. When pressure is applied to a

Newtonian fluid, it begins to flow. As pressure increases, the

velocity of the fluid also increases, which can result in a

smooth laminar flow transitioning into a turbulent flow.

However, Newtonian fluids maintain a constant viscosity

regardless of shear rates. This means that the viscosity of a

fluid will not thin under shear stress. Several fracturing fluids

are Newtonian.

1.3.2.3 Non-Newtonian Flow Behaviour

Non-Newtonian fluids behave differently than Newtonian

fluids in that non-Newtonian fluids do not exhibit a linear

relationship between shear rate and shear stress.

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Unlike Newtonian fluids, non-Newtonian fluids will not

maintain a constant viscosity as shear rates change. The Notes

apparent viscosity of a fluid is dependent on the shear stress

that exists at a certain shear rate. This means that a non-

Newtonian fluid can experience shear thinning (or viscosity

reduction), or shear thickening when shear stress is

increased. Many fracturing fluids are non-Newtonian.

Viscoelastic Fluids

Viscoelastic fluids are non-Newtonian fluids that will thin

under shear stress, and then partially reform into their

original viscous form once the stress is removed. These

fluids have a sort of “memory” that enables the fluid to

reform. In fracturing, fluids with viscoelastic fluids include

some polymer and surfactant-based solutions.

Pseudoplastic Fluids

Pseudoplastic fluids are non-Newtonian fluids that will thin

under shear stress, and will not reform again once the stress

is removed. In fracturing, pseudoplastic fluids include some

polymer solutions and emulsions.

1.3.2.4 Viscosity and Time

Because of the physical or chemical associations that occur

between particles in a fluid, the fluid’s viscosity can change

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over time, even with a constant shear rate. Two possible

time dependent effects include: Notes

Thixotropy

Thixotropic fluids will exhibit a decrease in viscosity over

time. This can occur when the fluid or gel undergoes shear,

but also when the fluid is simply agitated through vibration or

shaking.

Rheopecty

Rheopectic fluids will exhibit an increase in viscosity over

time. This can occur when the fluid or gel undergoes shear,

but rheopectic fluids will solidify when agitated through

vibration or shaking.

1.4 Basic Chemistry

An important chemical property of a fluid system is the level

of its acidity or alkalinity (basicity). All acids and bases

consist in part of a combination of hydrogen (H+) and/or

hydroxide (OH-) ions. Each ion has positive or negative

energy that reacts to form a bond with particles. H+ is

positively charged, and OH- is a negatively charged ion.

These two ions can act in two different ways:

1. H+ can react with OH- to form water (H2O).

H+ + OH- ⇌ H2O
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In this case, there are equal numbers of H+ and OH- ions,

meaning a state of equilibrium has been reached. Notes

2. In a water molecule (H2O), when the bonds between

H+ and OH- are broken apart, the reaction is called

dissociation of water.

H2O ⇌ H+ + OH-

The H20 molecule dissociates to form two ions, H+ and OH-.

These ions are then available to bond with other particles.

For example, H+ can now react with chlorine (Cl) to form

HCl+, and OH- can now react with sodium (Na) to form

NaOH-.

The H+ and OH- ions, and the concepts of equilibrium and

dissociation are important in understanding acids, bases and

neutralization.

1.4.1 Acids, Bases, and Neutralization

Acidity or alkalinity is determined by measuring how many

H+ ions there are relative to OH- ions within a solution. Table

1-1 shows the measure of relative H+ and OH- ions for

determining acidity.

Table 1-1 Acidity of Solutions

Acid Solution Base Solution Neutral Solution

[H+ ] > [OH-] [H+ ] < [OH-] [H+ ] = [OH-]

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A solution’s level of acidity is affected by the ratio between

Notes
H+ and OH- ions. The more the ions that dissociate, meaning

the more H+ or OH- ions that separate, the stronger the acid

or base solution will be. If there is not complete dissociation

of ions, meaning only some H+ or OH- ions separate, then

the acid or base is considered weak.

1.4.1.1 Acids

An acid solution contains a higher concentration of hydrogen

(H+) ions than hydroxide (OH-) ions. In an acid, the H+ ions

dissociate from their original compound, and react with other

molecules, thereby changing the molecules’ chemical

properties.

There are two categories of acids: strong and weak acids.

Strong Acids – Strong acids occur when the ions

completely dissociate from each other. Examples of strong

acids include, hydrochloric acid (HCl), and sulphuric acid

(H2SO4). Strong acids will have a lot of H+ ions, and will

typically have a pH between 0 and 2.

Example of Full Dissociation:

As a strong acid, hydrochloric acid (HCl) will completely

dissociate into H+ and Cl-.

HCl → H+ + Cl-
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Weak Acids – Weak acids occur when the ions do not

completely dissociate from each other. Examples of weak Notes

acids include acetic acid (CH3COOH), and formic acid

(HCOOH). Weak acids will have only some H+ ions as

compared to strong acids, and will typically have a pH

between 3 and 5. Weak acids are useful in fracturing

because if the H+ ions produced by the acid are consumed

by a chemical reaction, more H+ ions will dissociate and

become available, making it easier to maintain a particular

pH.

Example of Partial Dissociation:

As a weak acid, acetic acid (CH3COOH) will only partially

dissociate. In fact, only the H+ ion dissociates, leaving the

remainder of the molecule intact.

CH3COOH → CH3COO + H+

1.4.1.2 Bases

A basic solution contains a higher concentration of hydroxide

(OH-) ions than hydrogen ions (H+). In a basic solution, the

OH- ions dissociate from their original compound and react

with other molecules, thereby changing the molecules’

chemical properties.

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There are two categories of bases: strong and weak bases.

Strong Bases - Strong bases occur when the ions Notes

completely dissociate from each other. Sodium hydroxide

(NaOH) and potassium hydroxide (KOH) are examples of

strong bases. Strong acids will have a lot of OH- ions, and

will typically have a pH between 12 and 14.

Example of Full Dissociation:

As a strong base, sodium hydroxide (NaOH) will completely

dissociate into Na+ and OH-.

NaOH → Na+ + OH-

Weak Bases - Weak bases occur when the ions do not

completely dissociate from each other. Examples of weak

bases include sodium carbonate (soda ash/Na2CO3) and

sodium bicarbonate (baking soda/NaHCO3). Weak bases will

have only some OH- ions as compared to strong bases, and

will typically have a pH between 9 and 11.

Example of Partial Dissociation:

As a weak base, sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) will only

partially dissociate into H2CO3+ and OH- and Na+.

NaHCO3 → H2CO3+ + Na+ + OH-

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1.4.1.3 Neutralization

Neutralization of a solution occurs when an equilibrium has Notes

been reached between the number of hydrogen (H+) ions

and hydroxide (OH-) ions. In essence, neutralization occurs

when the excess H+ and OH- ions have reacted with other

species. For water (H2O), the neutralization reaction formula

is:

H+ + OH- → H2O

In this reaction, there are less excess H+ and OH- ions in the

solution because they have reacted to form water.

To neutralize an acidic solution, which has excess H+ ions, a

base with excess OH- ions would need to be added. The

excess H+ ions in the acidic solution would react with the

added OH- ions to form H2O, causing the solution to

neutralize.

Example of Neutralization:

When hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH)

are dissolved in an aqueous (water-based) solution, it

produces salt (NaCl) and water (H2O). The HCl in water

dissociates to H+ and Cl- ions and the NaOH exists in water

as Na+ and OH- ions.

HCl + NaOH Æ H2O + Na+ + Cl-

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Note that there are no excess H+ or OH- ions once this

reaction has completed, meaning the solution is neutral. Notes

1.4.2 pH
pH is a unit of measurement that is used to describe the

degree of acidity or alkalinity (basicity) of a solution. The pH

is directly related to the concentration of hydrogen (H+) ions

in a solution. When the H+ ions outnumber the OH- ions, the

solution is acidic and has a lower pH. When there are less

H+ ions than OH- ions, the solution is basic and has a higher

pH.

pH is measured on a scale of 0 to 14 (Figure 1-5), which

easily identifies whether a fluid is acidic or basic. A pH of 7 is

considered neutral. As the pH values move further away

from the neutral mark, the solution is considered more acidic

or basic. For example, a pH of 8 or 9 is considered a weak

base. However, a pH of 13 is considered a very strong base.

0 7 14
Highly Acidic Neutral Highly Basic
(Water)

Figure 1-5 pH Scale

A change of one pH unit represents a ten-fold change in the

hydrogen ion (H+) concentration in a solution. For example, if

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milk has a pH of 8 and water has a pH of 7, then milk has

ten times less H+ ions in its solution than water. This means Notes

that milk is 10 times less acidic than water.

Figure 1-6 shows various solutions on the pH scale.

Acid 14 Lye

13
Household Bleach
12

11 Ammonia

10
Borax
9 Baking Soda

8 Egg White
Blood
Neutral 7 Pure Water

6 Many Soils

5 Coffee

4 Tomato Juice

3 Vinegar
Lemon Juice
2
Digestive Juice
1
Battery Acid
Base 0

Figure 1-6 Solutions on the pH Scale

ph levels are very important in fracturing fluids because

certain events in fracturing will only be optimized within

specified pH ranges. Changes in pH will greatly affect:

polymer hydration, cross-linking and enzyme-breaker

activity. Because these events are critical to the success of

fracturing operations, the pH levels must be tested and

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adjusted (by using acidic or basic buffers) to ensure optimal

results. Notes

1.4.2.1 Testing for pH

Before acid treatments are performed, acid solutions are

titrated. In acid-base chemistry, titration is a chemical

analysis process used to measure the concentration of a

substance in a solution. Part of titration includes determining

the concentration of hydroxide (OH-) or hydronium (H3O+)

ions in an acid or base solution of unknown concentration.

When presented with a solution that has an unknown

concentration of an acid or base, precise volumes of a

known amount of an acid or a base are added until the

solution of unknown concentration reaches the desired pH

level and becomes neutralized, known as the end point.

During this process, the excess hydroxide (OH-) or

hydronium (H3O+) ions are reacting with the titrant until the

solution is neutralized.

The pH level of the solution is determined using a pH

indicator. An indicator is usually a weak acid or base that

changes color as its pH level changes. Sanjel uses

phenolphthalein (C20H14O4) as an acid-base indicator. This

compound, which is itself a weak acid, turns from colorless

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in acidic solutions to pink in basic solutions. (This color

change occurs at a pH of about 9.) Phenolphthalein, as a Notes

molecule, is colorless. However, the phenolphthalein ion is

pink. The color change occurs because, as the

phenolphthalein molecules dissociate, the phenolphthalein

loses hydrogen (H+) ions causing the pink color to emerge.

This color change acts as the “indicator” that the acid-base

reaction has occurred.

Once this color change has occurred, the concentration of

the original unknown solution can then be determined from

the amount of acid or base needed to cause the color

change in the solution. The precise volume of the known

acid or base that was added to the solution can be cross-

referenced on a concentration table to determine the actual

hydronium (H3O+) ion concentration in the original solution.

Titration is of particular importance in fracturing because the

acidic concentration of a solution will impact the solution’s

ability to hydrate and cross-link, among other things. Before

performing any treatments that are impacted by acidity, the

pH must be measured by using a pH meter or litmus paper.

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Example:

When presented with an acid blend of unknown Notes

concentration, we must test the solution to ensure the

strength of the acid blend is appropriate for the job. To test

for concentration in a blended hydrochloric acid (HCl)

solution by titration, you must:

1. Clean a prescription bottle, and add approximately

40ml of distilled water.

2. Using a clean 1cc syringe, accurately measure 1ml of

acid to be titrated and add to the above distilled water.

3. Add 4 drops of 1% phenolphthalein solution and mix

thoroughly.

4. Titrate using 1N sodium chloride (NaOH) solution.

The following procedures should be used to

accurately measure the acid strength.

5. Using a clean 10cc syringe, accurately measure 10ml

of 1N NaOH.

6. Add to the 1N NaOH drop by drop, thoroughly mixing,

to the acid solution until it turns from a clear to a light

pink color.

7. Once the solution turns pink, allow it to stand for a

couple of minutes.

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8. Should the solution turn back to a clear color, add

more 1N NaOH drop by drop until the solution Notes

remains a pink color (this should only take 1-2 drops).

9. Read the volume of 1N NaOH that was used off of the

syringe.

10. Find the percentage of acid from the Titration Charts

in Section 5 of the Sanjel Technical Data Handbook.

1.4.3 Polymers
Polymers are a special kind of compound made up of many

small molecules of the same type (called monomers). They

are linked together to form very large molecules with

structures like long chains (called polymers). Normally

polymers refer to molecules with a molecular weight in the

thousands to millions. The large weight occurs because very

long polymers can contain tens of thousands of monomers.

Often, a polymer refers to a linear polymer. A linear polymer

is simply a chain polymer formed from atoms linked together

in one long chain, called the “backbone”. (Figure 1-7).

Backbone

A A A A A A A A A

B B B

Pendant Group

Figure 1-7 Polymer Backbone and Pendant Groups

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Smaller chains of atoms, called pendant groups, may attach

Notes
to the backbone. (Figure 1-7).

When the polymer is fully hydrated, the backbone usually

becomes very flexible and is able to twist and bend like a

rope or link chain. (See Section 1.4.4 Polymer Hydration).

Because the long-chain molecules in the polymer solution

are entangled at the molecular level, polymer fluid moves as

a coherent material (or substance). The entanglement of the

different polymer strands creates viscosity. (See Figure 1-8,

in Section 1.4.4 on Polymer Hydration). Because of this

viscosity, liquid polymers are used in many of Sanjel’s water-

based fluid systems.

1.4.3.1 Guar and Guar Derivatives

The polymer that Sanjel uses in many of its water-based

systems is guar. Guar is a natural thickening agent that is

extracted from the guar bean. During processing, the guar

bean embryos (or “splits”) are removed from the bean pods

and hulls, and are ground into a powder. When the powder

is added to an aqueous solution, the guar particles swell and

hydrate. (See Section 1.4.4 on Polymer Hydration). Among

other things, this thickening agent increases fluid viscosity to

enhance sand carrying ability.

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Natural Guar

Naturally occurring guar polymers (WG-2BL) are very Notes

soluble in water and can rapidly hydrate to form a viscous

solution at a neutral pH, which make them a convenient and

effective method for viscosifying aqueous fluids.

However, the process used to create the guar powder does

not separate all the guar from other unwanted plant

materials. Because these other plant materials are not

soluble in water, the guar solution will leave between 8% and

12% residue in the formation after the degradation of the

polymer. This residue is a concern because of the potential

for the residue to act as a plugging agent in the fractures or

pores of the formation.

Natural guar can be used with base fluids that contain less

than 10% methanol.

Guar Derivatives

One alternative to natural guar is a guar derivative.

Derivatized guar refers to guar that has been chemically

altered to give it increased temperature stability and

viscosity. Guar derivatives are also of benefit because they

have dual cross-linking capability. (See Section 1.4.5 on

Cross-linking Water-based Systems).

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Guar derivatives used by Sanjel include hydroxypropyl guar

(HPG) and carboxymethyl hydroxypropyl guar (CMHPG). Notes

They provide a convenient, rapid and highly effective method

for viscosifying aqueous liquids.

HPG: (WG-4TL) Guar can be derivatized with propylene

oxide to produce hydroxypropyl guar (HPG), a “single-

derivatized” guar. Although it is more costly than natural

guar, HPG has added benefit because it hydrates faster than

guar. HPG can be “cross-linked” with titanates and borates,

or it can be used directly as a linear gel.

CMHPG: (WG-3ZL) HPG can be further derivatized when it

reacts with sodium monochloroacetate. This creates a

“double-dervatized” guar, carboxymethyl hydroxypropyl guar

(CMHPG). CMHPG has the functionality of HPG as well as a

carboxylic acid substituent. Although CMHPG is more costly

than guar or HPG, it hydrates faster than both. CMHPG can

be “cross-linked” with zirconates, or it can be used directly

as a linear gel.

Along with rapid hydration times, guar derivatives have less

residue than natural guar after the degradation of the

polymer. The added processing involved in derivatizing the

guar removes much of the unwanted plant material, In fact,

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derivatized guars have residues of only about 1% to 4%.

Actually, it is even suggested that the extra processing Notes

required for CMHPG further reduces the amount of residue

beyond that of HPG.

Unlike natural guar, derivatized guars can be used with base

fluids that contain up to 100% methanol.

1.4.4 Polymer Hydration

Guar polymers naturally undergo hydration when exposed to

water. With hydration, the polymer chains become more

flexible. In a non-hydrated state, polymer strands can be

pictured as all coiled up. When guar is added to water and

hydration occurs, the polymer strands uncoil and extend out

into the solution. This allows the water molecules to attach

themselves to the polymer chain. The guar solution can be

pictured as bloated strands suspended in water.

As hydrated polymer strands extend into the solution, they

tend to overlap and become entangled with each other,

hindering motion (Figure 1-8). This interaction of the polymer

coils and their entanglement causes the polymer solution to

become viscous.

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Notes

Unhydrated Polymer Hydrating Polymer Fully Hydrated

Chains Chains Polymer Chains

Figure 1-8 Hydration Process of Polymer Chains

Polymer hydration can be greatly impacted by many factors.

Two important factors are: time and pH level.

1.4.4.1 Hydration and Time

In the hydration process, the polymer strands need enough

time to uncoil and associate with the water molecules in

order for full hydration to occur. It is important to note that

hydration times vary depending on the environment. Some

fluid systems require more time to hydrate than others. (See

Appendix A on Hydration Times in the Quality Control

Technican Manual for some hydration scenarios).

Guar: Guar-based fluid systems must achieve hydration by

batch mixing or by using a hydration unit. At Sanjel, these

include the poly-emulsion (POLYjel) system and some

borate (BORAjel) systems.

HPG: HPG-based fluid systems hydrate faster than guar,

however they still must achieve hydration by batch mixing or

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using a hydration unit. At Sanjel, these systems include the

titanate (T-jel) system and some borate (BORAjel) systems. Notes

CMHPG: Because of its ability to hydrate rapidly, fluid

systems that use CMHPG can be pumped “on the fly”. At

Sanjel, these include zirconate (AQUAjel) systems and some

linear gels (CO2 POLYjel, and N2 FOAMjel).

(See See Appendix A on Hydration Times in the Quality

Control Technican Manual).

1.4.4.2 Hydration and pH

Gels will only hydrate efficiently when they are at a neutral

pH or lower. The optimum pH levels are:

Polymer pH
Guar 7
HPG 5
CMHPG 4

If the pH is not optimal, then the water molecules will not

associate with the polymer strands and allow them to uncoil.

pH control is often achieved by adding a low pH buffer

(Buffer A) to the base fluid. Once the required pH is

achieved, then the guar gellant can begin hydrating.

Ensuring that the polymer gellant is fully hydrated is

extremely important in ensuring that the solution reaches its

desired viscosity either as a linear gel, or to prepare the

solution for cross-linking.

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1.4.5 Cross-linking Water-based

Systems Notes

In order to achieve a higher fluid viscosity in water-based

systems, certain gels are cross-linked. By adding a “cross-

linking agent” to a fluid system, the solution will become

more viscous, and enable increased sand-carrying

capability. Sanjel uses borate, titanate, or zirconate cross-

linkers, depending on the specific fluid system requirements.

The cross-linking reaction is one where the molecules of the

hydrated polymer strands are linked or “bridged” together by

metal-containing anions, creating a network of

interconnected polymer strands. (Figure 1-9).

Uncross-linked Polymers Cross-linked Polymers

Figure 1-9 Cross-linking of Polymers

Cross-links are formed because of an interaction between

the metal oxides and hydroxyl groups, on the backbone of

the guar polymers. The interaction may change a gel system

from a viscous liquid to a pseudoplastic fluid. (See Section

1.3.2.3 on Non-Newtonian Flow Behaviour).

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1.4.5.1 Cross-linking and Gel Quality

When cross-linking, the quality of the gel must be verified to Notes

ensure the viscosity is changing as required. If the gel is

under cross-linked, then the fluid will not be viscous enough

to carry the sand. If the gel is overcross-linked, then the

cross-link can cause problems with instability. Testing for

cross-link quality can be done by performing a lip test.

Lip Test: Simply collect a sample of the gel in a sample

container, and observe the fluid until it becomes very

viscous. In this test, the gel will be one mass that can be

poured slightly out of the sample container and then tipped

back into the container as a single mass. (Figure 1-10).

Figure 1-10 Lip Test

1.4.5.2 Cross-linking and Time

Time is an important factor in cross-linking fluid systems. If

the fluid does not react to the cross-linker in a timely

manner, then it will not be viscous enough to carry the sand

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downhole to the fracture zone. Therefore, testing must be

done to determine optimal cross-linking times. Testing for Notes

cross-link time can be done by performing a vortex closure

test.

Vortex Closure Test: This requires visually observing fluid

in a blender. With the blender set at a constant shear rate,

the vortex (a funnel or whirlpool current in the water) will

disappear when the fluid is cross-linked. (Figure 1-11).

Figure 1-11 Vortex Closure Test

1.4.5.3 Cross-linking and Gel Breaking

Once the fracturing operation is complete and the proppant

has been deposited, the gel must be fully broken (returned to

its original viscosity), so that the base fracturing fluid can

flow back to surface and the permeability of the formation is

restored. The chemicals used to “break”, or degrade the gel

in this way are called breakers. (See Section 1.5.2.2 on

Breakers).

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1.4.5.4 Factors Affecting Cross-linking

There are a number of factors that impact cross-linking. Notes

Each of these factors can be manipulated chemically to

control the quality and rate of the cross-link.

Fluid temperature: Fluid temperatures may increase as the

fluid moves downhole toward the formation face, and cross-

linkers are optimized for use within a specified temperature

range. Although these temperature ranges can be broad, the

cross-linker must be compatible with the fluid temperatures

expected for the entire job. If the fluid temperature is not

within the suggested range, the gel may not cross-link, or it

may lose its viscosity as it increases in temperature

downhole.

pH: Each of Sanjel’s cross-linkers is optimized for use in a

different pH environment. Buffers are used to raise or lower

the pH to the desired level prior to adding the cross-linker. In

most cases, if the pH is off by even 1 unit, then the cross-

linker will be ineffective. (See Section 2.3.2.2 on Cross-

linkers for specific pH levels needed for water-based cross-

linkers).

Shear Conditions: Cross-linked polymer solutions are non-

Newtonian fluids. With these types of fluids, shear plays a

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significant role in fluid viscosity. Cross-linked polymers will

experience shear thinning or viscosity reduction when shear Notes

stress is increased. This affects all of Sanjel’s water-based

systems that are cross-linked. (See Section 1.3.2.3 on Non-

Newtonian Flow Behaviour).

Cross-linker Type: Cross-linkers contain specific

ingredients that enable them to be compatible with certain

polymer systems. Each of Sanjel’s borate, zirconate, and

titanate cross-linkers is optimized for use with guar, HPG, or

CMHPG, within a specified temperature and pH range.

Therefore, using the proper cross-linker in a fracturing

treatment is imperative to ensure the cross-link works.

Contamination: When using fluid on location, there is a risk

that the fluid may contain undesirable contaminants, such as

bacteria. Biocide can be added to the fluid to eliminate any

undesirable organisms in the fluid in order to start cross-

linking.

In the case of fluid tanks on location, there is a risk of

chemical contamination from previous use if the tanks have

not been properly cleaned out. This may include some

surfactants, clay stabilizers, and other additives. Such

contaminants can inhibit the gel from cross-linking, and

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further testing must be done on the fluids to determine the

most effective resolution to this problem. This could mean Notes

simply increasing the cross-linker loading, or it may require

the use of new, uncontaminated fluid for the base gel.

1.5 Fracturing Fluids

Fracturing fluids are carefully designed to provide optimum

performance.

1.5.1 General Characteristics

An ideal fracturing fluid will have the following

characteristics:

• Maintains effective viscosity at elevated reservoir

temperatures.

• Is compatible with the formation.

• Has high proppant-carrying capability.

• Has low leak-off (fluid loss) rate.

• Prevents emulsions and sludging of co-mingled fluids.

• Has low pumping friction loss through tubulars.

• Reduces friction pressures during pumping.

• Has controlled break down rate.

• Is easy, safe and economical to use.

• Is easy to remove from the formation.

• Leaves minimal residue in the formation.

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1.5.2 Fracturing Fluid Additives

Notes
Several additives can be included in the gel in order to

optimize the fluid system for the formation type and for the

job. These additives are intended to adjust pH, improve

viscosity, break gels for flowback, minimize formation

damage, control fluid loss, and eliminate bacteria.

1.5.2.1 Buffers

Buffering agents are added to fracturing fluids to control the

pH level, for both hydration and cross-linking. Buffers are

fluids that stabilize the pH of a system within a small range

of pH values. They do this by having components that adjust

the acidity of the system that they are buffering. If the pH of

the system is too high, one of Sanjel’s buffers produces acid

to lower the pH to about 4. If the pH is too high, one of

Sanjel’s buffers removes acid from the system to raise the

pH to about 10.

1.5.2.2 Breakers

Breakers are additives that cause the viscosity of fracturing

fluids to fall slowly over time, until they return back to their

original viscosity. This allows the fluid to easily be flowed

back to surface.

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Viscous gels must be broken in order to ensure that:

• Sand will stay deposited in the fractures and will not Notes

be carried back to surface during flowback.

• Production fluids can flow into the wellbore once

flowback is complete. (A fracturing fluid that remains

viscous will inhibit permeability and restrict or prevent

the flow of production fluid).

Sanjel currently uses three different kinds of breaker

systems: enzyme breakers, oxidizing breakers, and pH

adjustors.

Enzyme Breaker

Enzymes are naturally occurring materials that do not get

consumed in a single chemical reaction. In essence, these

breakers act in a “key-in-lock” manner. The enzyme attaches

to the backbone of a polymer chain and breaks a chemical

bond, reducing the chain into two smaller molecules. As the

enzyme continues to work for many cycles, the polymer

chain is “chopped” into smaller and smaller molecules,

progressively losing viscosity in the process. The benefit of

enzyme breakers not being consumed during a single

reaction is that the enzyme can continue breaking the

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polymer backbone into smaller pieces, until eventually it too

degrades. Notes

Temperature and pH are important factors in the

effectiveness of enzyme breakers. These breakers work best

at low temperatures and moderate pH, and will denature if

the temperature is too high, or the pH too extreme. Enzyme

breakers can be used in any fluid system as long as the

temperature and pH criteria are maintained.

Oxidizing Breakers

Oxidizing breakers (oxidizers) are also used in Sanjel’s

water-based fluid systems. An oxidizer attacks and breaks

the polymer chains in a similar fashion to the enzymes.

However, the oxidizer is consumed in the reaction, and does

not remain active or retain the ability to break any other

chains.

Oxidizers are also pH and temperature sensitive, although

much less so than enzymes. Oxidizers are impacted by pH

levels, but have a broad pH range at which they will

efficiently break fracturing fluid systems. However, unlike

enzyme breakers, increases in temperature will accelerate

the oxidizer’s reaction rate. When temperatures are too low,

oxidizing breakers must be coupled with an activator to

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accelerate the process of gel breaking. When temperatures

are too high, oxidizing breakers might be too active and will Notes

break the gel too quickly for it to carry the sand to the

formation. This is called a “flash” break.

pH Adjustors

pH adjustors are used as breakers in some pH sensitive

fracturing fluid systems. Unlike enzyme and oxidizing

breakers, pH adjustors raise or lower the pH so that the fluid

viscosity will be broken under the changed pH conditions.

With hydrocarbon-based fluid systems (OILjel), pH adjustors

raise the pH so the system will become unstable. With

water-based systems (AQUAjel-D), the pH adjustor lowers

the pH to break the gel.

Break times

In order to carry proppant to the formation, the fracturing

fluid must maintain its viscosity for an appropriate length of

time. Time is a critical factor in breaking gel. If the gel loses

viscosity too early, the sand will fall out of the fluid system;

whereas, if the gel remains viscous for too long, then the

fracturing fluid may not flow back to surface. Therefore,

break times must be tested to ensure the gel will not start to

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break too early, but will be fully broken by the time the job is

complete and flowback is initiated. Notes

1.5.2.3 Non-Emulsifiers

Non-emulsifiers are added to fracturing fluids to prevent the

creation of emulsions when the fluid interacts with reservoir

fluids, and to treat emulsions that may have already

occurred. In fracturing, unwanted emulsions can severely

inhibit production.

An emulsion occurs when two immiscible fluids (fluids that

normally do not mix) are intimately mixed and tiny droplets of

one fluid become suspended and dispersed within the other.

There are two types of emulsions in the oil industry: oil in

water (reverse/invert), or water in oil (normal).

Unstable emulsions are those that will break as soon as the

source of mixing energy, such as agitation, is removed. For

example, oil and vinegar in a container will separate as soon

as the agitation stops.

Stable emulsions are those where immiscible fluids will

remain emulsified for extended periods of time. Stable

emulsions are more problematic because they can often be

difficult to break. Non-emulsifiers are used in fracturing fluids

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to completely suppress the formation of stable oil-water

emulsions. Notes

1.5.2.4 Clay Control

Clay stabilizers are chemical additives that are added to

water-based fluid systems to prevent the migration or

swelling of water-sensitive clay particles in the formation.

When the chemical environment around clays is disturbed,

for example by the invasion of a water-based fracturing fluid,

it can cause particles to migrate and swell, blocking

formation pores and greatly reducing permeability. However,

such formation damage can be minimized or avoided by

using clay stabilizers that bind to the clay particles, lowering

their hydration requirements and inhibiting swelling.

Sanjel uses both temporary and permanent clay controls, as

appropriate for the formation and for the job. Temporary clay

controls (SCC-2L) are intended to stabilize the clay until the

well begins production again. More permanent clay controls

(SCC-1L) are intended to continue stabilizing the clay after

production has begun again. Potassium chloride (KCl) can

also be used for clay control.

1.5.2.5 Surfactants

Surfactants are “surface-active agents” that may be added to

one or more immiscible substances in order to create a

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stable mixture or emulsion of those substances. Immiscible

substances refer to phases that will not spontaneously form Notes

a homogenous mixture. Immiscible substances can be two

liquids like oil and water, or they can be a liquid and gas, or

a liquid and a solid.

Surfactants usually contain a long hydrocarbon chain where

the molecule has two key components: a hydrophobic tail,

and a polar, or hydrophilic head group. (Figure 1-12).

Hydrophobic Hydrophilic

Figure 1-12 Schematic of Surfactant Molecule

In the case of an oil-water interface, the hydrophobic tail is

attracted to oil, while the hydrophilic head group is attracted

to water. The hydrophobic end is insoluble in water, but is

soluble in oil. The hydrophilic end, on the other hand, is

water-soluble. Surfactants will stabilize the oil/water interface

by forming a fluid, two-dimensional sheet, almost like a

balloon, that separates the oil and water phases, reducing

the interfacial tension (energy) and allowing the phases to

remain mixed. (Figure 1-13).

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Water
Notes

Oil

Surfactant

Figure 1-13 Oil-Water Surfactant

Surfactants are significant in terms of how they “wet” the

formation. Most formations are water-wet, meaning that

there is a film of water on the surface of the formation, and

others are oil-wet where there is a film of oil on the surface

of the formation. Therefore, wettability refers to the

formation’s chemical compatibility with, or ease of spreading

a liquid, such as oil or water. This is an important criteria in

choosing surfactants because the fracturing fluid must be

compatible with the formation’s natural wettability.

Surfactants serve several purposes in fracturing fluids. They

are used:

• To create stable foams.

• To create stable emulsions.

• To reduce surface tension (or interfacial tension).

• To improve formation clean-up and fluid recovery.

• To control wettability of the formation.

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Sanjel uses cationic, anionic and non-ionic surfactants.

Cationic surfactants are positively charged, meaning the Notes

surfactant dissociates in solution, creating an ionic species

plus an electron. Sanjel’s cationic surfactants are embedded

in some of our products, and are therefore not as visible in

our fluid system components.

Anionic surfactants are negatively charged, meaning the

surfactant dissociates in solution, creating an ionic species

plus a proton. This dissociation can cause changes in the

natural wettability of a formation. It can leave a carbonate

formation oil-wet, and a sandstone formation water-wet.

Changing the natural wettability of a formation can be

problematic because it can reduce permeability and hinder

productivity. Sanjel’s anionic surfactant includes FA-1.

Non-ionic surfactants, on the other hand, have no charge,

meaning the surfactant molecules do not dissociate in

solutions, and therefore will not alter the natural wettability of

the formation. Sanjel mostly uses non-ionic surfactants

because of their compatibility with different formation types.

Sanjel’s non-ionic surfactants include: CAS-1, FA-2, IFTR-1,

and OF-2.

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1.5.2.6 Friction Reducers

Friction reducers are chemical additives that are used to Notes

reduce the friction that is created between the fracturing fluid

and the surface of the tubing or casing when the fluid is

pumped downhole. When low-viscosity fluid is pumped at

high rates, it tends to have high turbulence, leading to high

friction pressure. When a high-viscosity fluid is pumped, the

fluid may not reach the turbulent flow regime, and the fluid

flows more smoothly.

High molecular-weight synthetic polymers (FRHC-1) are

effective friction reducers when pumping hydrocarbons. In

order to be effective, these friction reducers need to be

added to the base fluid when it is pumped in turbulent flow.

Because they are surface-active, they absorb on pipe

surfaces and lower friction, much like a non-stick frying pan.

(See Section 1.4.3 on Polymers).

Cationic emulsion polymers (FRW-1) are effective friction

reducers when pumping acids, fresh water, or almost any

aqueous fluid. As the cationic nature can lead to

incompatibilities (ie. with anionic surfactants), the material is

typically added on-the-fly, or when batch mixing is required,

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it is added directly to the water phase before other chemicals

are added. Notes

1.5.2.7 Biocides

The water chemistry of the fluid on location is usually

unknown initially. Certain naturally occurring species

(contaminants) can interfere with hydration and/or cross-

linking, and can also cause catastrophic results if pumped

into the formation. In fact, formations can turn sour because

of the growth of sulfate-reducing bacteria that create

hydrogen sulfide.

Biocide can be added to the fluid on location to effectively

eliminate both aerobic and anaerobic organisms, and reduce

any populations of sessile and planktonic organisms that are

known to plug injection wells. Sanjel’s biocide works rapidly

by decontaminating tanks within one hour.

1.5.3 Fluid Selection

Fracturing fluid systems are carefully selected with

consideration for both the fluid characteristics and well

requirements. When selecting fluid systems, consideration

must be made to the size of the fracturing job, and the

amount and cost of fluid and additives required. However,

some of the other main considerations include: viscosity,

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proppant-carrying capability, formation compatibility, fluid

loss, and temperature. See Sanjel’s Fracturing Supervisor Notes

Training Manual for a more detailed description of how fluid

systems are selected.

1.5.3.1 Viscosity

In fracturing, the key rheological characteristic of a fluid is

viscosity. Viscosity refers to the degree to which a fluid is

resistant to flow. With a given driving force or pressure, the

“thinner” the fluid, the faster the fluid will flow; and the

“thicker” or more viscous a fluid, the slower the fluid will flow.

(See Section 1.3.2 on Viscosity).

1.5.3.2 Proppant-Carrying Capability

Proppant (usually sand) is suspended in the fracturing fluid

so that it can be carried downhole and into the formation.

When lower velocities are used, the proppant is more likely

to settle or drop out of the fluid than when higher velocities

are used. This means that the proppant is deposited in the

formation before it has reached the desired destination for

the fracturing job. To avoid premature proppant settling, a

good fracturing fluid must be able to carry the sand at lower

velocities, when required, depending on individual job

design.

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Four main factors impact a fracturing fluid’s ability to carry

the proppant: Notes

1. Fluid Viscosity –

Particles, like proppant, can stay suspended in fluids with

higher viscosities (thicker fluids) much more easily and for

longer amounts of time than fluids with lower viscosities

(thinner fluids). Energizing less viscous fluids with N2 or CO2

can also increase proppant-carrying ability. (See Section

2.3.3 on Energized Fluids).

2. Proppant Size –

Proppants are available in different particle sizes. Smaller

sized proppant particles can be suspended in fracturing fluid

of given velocity more easily than larger particles.

3. Relative Density –

Both fluid and proppant particles have specified densities.

The difference in density between the fluid and proppant

determines how well the proppant will remain suspended.

Lighter particles are more easily suspended in lighter fluids,

whereas heavier particles are less easily suspended in

lighter fluids. If heavier particles are mixed with lighter fluid,

the particles will settle out, or fall to the bottom. Sanjel

generally pumps lighter particles in lighter fluids, and heavier

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particles in heavier fluids so the densities of the proppant

and the fluid are relative (ie. both heavy, or both light) in Notes

order for the proppant to suspend optimally.

4. Length of Time –

The longer the proppant remains suspended, the greater the

number of particles that will settle out before the proppant

has reached its desired destination in the formation.

Therefore, the fracturing treatment must be designed so that

the job is complete before the proppant begins to settle out

of the fluid.

1.5.3.3 Formation Compatibility

The fracturing fluid must be selected, ensuring that it is

compatible with the formation. Compatibility exists when the

fluid selected does not cause formation damage resulting in

inhibited production. A fluid is considered compatible with

the formation when it does not:

• Plug formation pores through: clay swelling, or the

creation of emulsions or sludge oil.

• Dissolve the cementitious material that holds the

particles in the formation together (usually in

sandstone formations).

• Cause scale or paraffin deposits inside the pipe.

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1.5.3.4 Low Leak-Off Rate (Fluid Loss)

When fluid is pumped into the formation, some of that fluid Notes

will leak away into the formation rather than propagate the

fracture. That fluid is considered “lost” (fluid loss), and is not

useful in completing the fracturing job. To minimize fluid loss,

the fluid must be pumped into the formation at a much faster

rate than the rate at which fluid is leaking off. A fluid’s leak-

off rate is impacted by both the properties of the fluid and the

formation.

Factors affecting leak-off rate include:

• Fluid viscosity

• Flow rate

• Pressure

Formation properties affecting leak-off rate include:

• Porosity and permeability of the reservoir

• Vugginess (cavities, voids, or large pores in the rock)

• Pressure

• Fluid saturation

• Presence of micro-fractures or faults

The most desirable situation is to have as little fluid loss as

possible. Therefore, the leak-off rate is controlled by

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adjusting the fluid viscosity. Depending on the fluid system,

this can be accomplished by: Notes

• Adjusting the gel concentration.

• Adding a cross-linker to the fluid.

• Adding carbon dioxide (CO2) or nitrogen (N2) to the

slurry.

1.5.3.5 Temperature

Downhole temperature plays a significant role in fluid

selection. Each fluid system has its own unique temperature

range in which it has optimal performance. In fluid systems,

temperature affects viscosity, hydration, cross-linking, and

breaking. Fluid systems must be selected considering the

pumping and downhole temperatures that all components of

the fluid system will be exposed to, in order to develop an

optimal system for the job.

1.6 Fluid Systems

Sanjel’s fracturing fluids can be arranged into 3

classifications: water-based fluids, hydrocarbon-based fluids,

and emulsion-based fluids.

1.6.1 Water-based Fracturing Systems

Water-based fluids are the most commonly used fracturing

fluids. The base fluids can consist of varying amounts and

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combinations of water, methanol, and potassium chloride

(KCl). These fluids can be gelled or cross-linked for added Notes

viscosity. (See Unit 2 on Water Based Fracturing Fluid

Systems).

1.6.2 Hydrocarbon-based Fracturing

Systems
Sanjel’s hydrocarbon-based fluids use a phosphate ester

gelling agent and an organo-metallic cross-linker (or

Activator) to create a gel with excellent fracturing

characteristics. Because these systems are oil-based, they

are ideal for use in water-sensitive formations. However,

because every hydrocarbon base-fluid reacts slightly

differently, laboratory testing and quality control is required

for all oil-based fluid systems to determine specific

rheological and breaking properties.

Because hydrocarbon-based systems are highly flammable,

great caution must be used when preparing and pumping

these systems. (See Unit 3 on Hydrocarbon-Based

Fracturing Fluid Systems).

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1.6.3 Emulsion-based Fracturing

Systems Notes

Emulsions are multiphase fluids created by mixing oil, water,

and surfactant under high shear. The interference between

the phases of the emulsion causes an increase in the fluid’s

viscosity, creating high viscosity solutions with good

proppant-carrying capabilities. Sanjel uses water-external

emulsions, such as the polyemulsion. Polyemulsions consist

of a three-parts oil and one-part base gel and surfactant

solution. This combination significantly reduces friction

pressures. (See Unit 4 on Emulsion-based Fracturing

Systems).

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1.7 Review Questions

1. Why can turbulent flow be useful in fracturing?

2. What is the difference between Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids when

exposed to shear stress?

3. What is the difference between an acid and a base solution?

4. List 3 things that changes in pH can affect in fracturing fluids.

a.

b.

c.

5. List 2 reasons guar derivatives can be of greater benefit in fracturing fluids than
natural guar.

a.

b.

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6. How does pH affect polymer hydration?

a.

b.

7. List 3 factors that affect the quality of a crosslink.

a.

b.

c.

8. All surfactants are compatible with all formation types.

True False

9. Which of the following characteristics are considered when selecting a fracturing

fluid system?

a. Viscosity

b. Proppant Carrying Capability

c. Fluid Loss

d. All of the Above

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Notes
2.0 WATER-BASED
FRACTURING FLUID
SYSTEMS
2.1 Objectives
The objectives specify what you should know and the tasks

you should be able to perform by the end of the unit.

Upon completion of the unit you will be able to:

• Identify the general components and additives in

Sanjel’s water-based fracturing fluid systems.

• Understand the advantages and disadvantages of

water-based fracturing fluid systems.

• Describe the specific components, additives and

characteristics of each water-based fracturing fluid

system.

2.2 Introduction
Water-based fluid systems are most commonly used in

fracturing. The base fluids in water-based systems can

consist of varying amounts and combinations of the

following:

• Water
• Methanol
• KCl (potassium chloride)

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Water: Water is generally used as the base fluid in these Notes

systems, and is simply provided from the stored water on

location. Because water is readily available and can be

supplied from any number of different sources, this base

fluid is very economical to use.

Methanol: Methanol, or other alcohol-based fluids, can be

used in water-based fluid systems. When added to water-

based fluids, methanol can increase fluid compatibility with

water-sensitive formations. Methanol can be used to remove

water locks, reduce surface tension, and to stabilize

temperature. However, methanol is more difficult to handle

because it does produce noxious fumes and presents a fire

hazard.

KCl: Potassium chloride can be added to the base fluid for a

number of reasons, depending on the type of gelled system

being used. KCl can increase fluid viscosity, can act as a

short-term clay stabilizer, and in some cases can enable

gelling to occur ( as is the case with CLEANjel).

Because of their water base, these fluids have a number of

benefits, including the following:

• Economical to use.

• Raised hydrostatic pressure.

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• Ease of handling, with no fire hazard (when not Notes

combined with methanol fluids).

• Readily available, low cost base fluid (water).

• Fluid viscosity can easily be increased.

2.3 Sanjel’s Water-Based

Fluid Systems
Sanjel uses a number of different water-based fluid systems

for fracturing. These include both cross-linked and non-

cross-linked fluids. Figure 2-1 shows all of Sanjel’s cross-

linked and non-crosslinked fluid systems.

Sanjel's Water Based

Fracturing Systems

Crosslinked Non-Crosslinked

AQUAjel CO2 POLYjel

T-jel N2 FOAMjel
BORAjel N2 CLEANjel
BORAjel M
Figure 2-1 Water-based Fluid Systems

2.3.1 Fluid System Components

All water-based fracturing fluid systems, whether cross-

linked or non-crosslinked, will consist of a minimum of 3

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components: (1) a linear or base fluid, (2) a gellant, and (3) a Notes

breaker.

2.3.1.1 Linear or Base Fluid

Linear fluid: (or linear gel) generally refers to a fluid that is

pumped as an uncross-linked gelled fluid.

Base fluid: (or base gel) generally refers to a fluid that will

be cross-linked.

All of Sanjel’s water-based fluid systems use water as the

base for the fluid system. The only exception to that is

CLEANjel, which uses water mixed with 2-4% KCl as a fluid.

Water is a very economical choice as a linear or base fluid,

and is very easy to handle during job operations.

One downside to water though, is its purity. Because the

water can be supplied from any number of different sources,

the purity of the water may not be known. This can mean the

water on location may be contaminated with any number of

undesirable particles, such as residual oil from the tank, or

bacteria, to name only a couple. Contaminants can seriously

affect the quality of gelling or cross-linking in a water-based

fluid system. As a result, chemical loadings may need to be

reviewed to compensate for such impurities in order to

optimize the fluid for the job.

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2.3.1.2 Gellant Notes

In Sanjel’s water-based fluid systems, all linear or base fluids

are gelled using a guar-based polymer viscosifier, with the

exception of CLEANjel. (See Section 2.5.4 on CLEANjel).

The fluids are thickened in order to:

• Increase the fluid’s proppant carrying capability.

• Decrease undesirable fluid loss.

• Increase fracture width.

The first gellant that was used in fracturing was starch. Then,

in the early 1960’s guar was introduced. Guar is a natural

thickening agent that is extracted from the guar bean.

Currently, Sanjel uses guar and guar derivatives in its water-

based fluid systems. See Section 1.4.3 on Polymers.

Table 2-1 shows the existing product codes for Sanjels guar

gellants:

Table 2-1 Water-based Gellant Codes

CODE GELLANT TYPE
WG-2BL Guar Natural
WG-4TL HPG Single Derivatized
WG-3ZL CMHPG Double Derivatized

WG-2BL: Natural guar is used in only one of Sanjel’s water-

based systems, BORAjel. (See Section 2.4.2 on

BORAjel). Because it is the slowest of the guars to

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hydrate, the base gel must either be batch mixed or Notes

pumped on-the-fly with a hydration unit.

WG-4TL: HPG is used to create a base gel for Sanjel’s

cross-linked titanate system, T-jel. (See Section 2.4.4

T-jel). Or HPG can also be used directly as a linear

gel. This single derivatized guar hydrates much faster

than natural guar, but still must either be batch mixed

or pumped on-the-fly with a hydration unit.

WG-3ZL: CMHPG is used in both cross-linked and linear gel

systems. Cross-linked gels include Sanjel’s zirconate

system, AQUAjel. Linear gels include CO2 POLYjel,

and N2 FOAMjel. Because this double derivatized

guar hydrates so much more rapidly than guar or

HPG, it can be pumped on-the-fly without the aid of a

hydration unit.

MG-1BL: This guar is also single-derivatized (HPG).

However, unlike WG-4TL, it has been chemically

modified to hydrate strongly in solutions with up to

100% methanol. This polymer can be cross-linked

using a special borate cross-linker (BX-2L) in the

BORAjel-M100 or CO2 POLYjel-M systems. MG-1BL

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hydrates fast enough that it can be pumped on-the-fly Notes

without the aid of a hydration unit.

2.3.1.3 Breaker

Breakers are additives that cause the viscosity of fracturing

fluids to fall slowly over time, until they return back to their

original viscosity. This allows the fluid to easily be flowed

back to surface. (See Section 1.5.2.2 on Breakers).

There are several breakers, both enzyme and oxidizer, that

Sanjel has available for breaking water-based gels. Each

one is designed for use at different pH and temperature

ranges. Table 2-2 shows a summary of Sanjel’s breakers.

Table 2-2 Breaker Summary Chart

CODE TYPE RANGE SYSTEMS

10% Methanol
High pH,
Breaker-1B Liquid Enzyme N2, CO2
Up to 60°
10% Methanol
Low to Moderate
Breaker-1Z Liquid Enzyme N2, CO2
pH, Up to 75°
Methanol,
Encapsulated High pH, AQUAjel,
Breaker-2B
Oxidizer Over 75° BORAjel

Encapsulated High pH,

Breaker-2ZD AQUAjel-D
Acid Up to 150°
Methanol,
Broad range pH, AQUAjel,
Breaker-O Solid Oxidizer
Up to 75° BORAjel

Breaker-1B: (High pH Enzyme Breaker) Breaker-1B is a

liquid enzyme breaker for higher pH water-based

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systems. Breaker-1B enzymes are most active at pH Notes

7.0 and 60°C, and are effective at breaking high pH

systems up to 60°C. However, as the pH values

increase, the time the enzyme can tolerate high

temperatures shortens. Above pH 10, Breaker-1B

enzymes permanently and rapidly denature. Breaker-

1B can be used with 10% methanol-water systems,

N2 and CO2.

Breaker-1Z: (Low to Moderate pH Enzyme Breaker)

Breaker-1Z is a liquid enzyme breaker for low to

moderate pH water-based systems. Breaker-1Z

enzymes are most active at pH 4.0 and 40°C, and are

effective at breaking low to moderate pH systems up

to 75°C. Breaker-1Z can be used with 10% methanol-

water systems, N2 and CO2.

Breaker-2B: (Encapsulated High pH Oxidizing Breaker)

Breaker-2B is an encapsulated version of Breaker-0,

which is a strongly oxidizing breaker. Breaker-2B

works at higher temperatures, where normal oxidizing

breakers may be too active. The encapsulation

enables a controlled-release of the breaker to delay

the reaction for downhole breaking, and also results in

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less volatility when handling than the solid Breaker-O. Notes

Breaker-2B is effective at breaking a broad range of

pH systems (3-14 pH), and can work above 75°C. It

can be used with methanol, AQUAjel, and BORAjel

systems.

Breaker-2ZD: (Encapsulated High pH, High Temp. Acid

Breaker). Breaker-2ZD is a pH adjustor. It is an

encapsulated acid that works at high pH and high

temperatures. The encapsulation enables a

controlled-release of the breaker to delay the reaction

for downhole breaking. Breaker-2ZD works effectively

up to 150°C. Because it works at high temperatures, it

requires an additional activator if used at

temperatures below 75°C.

Breaker-O: (Oxidizing Breaker) Breaker-O is a strongly

oxidizing breaker that is effective at breaking in a

broad range of pH systems (3-14 pH), and can work

up to 75°C. However, over 75°C, the breaker might be

too active to work effectively. Instead Breaker-2B

should be used at these higher temperatures. At

temperatures under 35°C, the breaker is not very

active, and must be used with an activator (LTA-1) in

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order to accelerate the process of gel degradation. Notes

Breaker-O can be used with methanol, AQUAjel, and

BORAjel systems.

2.3.2 Fluid System Additives

Several additives can be included in water-based gels in

order to optimize the fluid system for the formation type and

for the job.

NOTE: Some chemical products have been combined to

enhance fluid system quality, and maximize chemical unit

tote storage space.

IFTR-N2 = IFTR-1 + FA-1

IFTR-CO2 = IFTR-1 + CAS-1

BX-1LB = BX-1L + Buffer-B

2.3.2.1 Buffer

Buffering agents are added to fracturing fluids to control the

pH level, for both hydration and cross-linking. See Section

1.5.2.1 on Buffers. Sanjel has 3 different buffers that can be

used in water-based systems, depending on the desired pH:

Buffer A, Buffer B, and Buffer S. Table 2-3 shows a

summary of Sanjel’s buffers.

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Table 2-3 Buffer Summary Chart

Notes
CODE TYPE SYSTEMS

AQUAjel,
Low pH, CO2 POLYjel
Buffer A
Assists with hydration CLEANjel

BORAjel,
High pH,
Buffer B T-jel
Assists with cross-linking
Low pH,
Buffer S For naturally buffered waters Used with Buffer A
with high bicarbonates

Buffer A: (Low pH Buffer) Buffer A is an acetic acid that is

used to control and stabilize the pH of a fluid system

so it stays between 4.0 and 4.5. It is primarily used to

lower pH in water-based fluids that contain polymers,

like AQUAjel, CO2 POLYjel, so that hydration can

occur. It is also used in CLEANjel to enhance

viscosity with particular surfactant loadings.

Buffer B: (High pH Buffer) Buffer B is a mixture of sodium

hydroxide, potassium carbonate, and methanol. It is

used to control and stabilize the pH of a fluid system

so it stays between 8.5 and 10.0. It is used with guar

and HPG systems to ensure an optimal pH range for

effective cross-linking. These systems include

BORAjel and T-jel.

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Buffer S: (Low pH Buffer) Buffer S is a sulphamic acid that Notes

is used to control and stabilize the pH of a fluid

system so it stays between 4.5 and 5.0. It is intended

for use in AQUAjel systems when the formation has

naturally buffered waters that have high bicarbonate

levels. Buffer S is always used in conjunction with

Buffer A. However, it is rarely used in our fracturing

systems today. Buffer S was originally used with a

previous buffering product that is no longer used.

Since the introduction of Buffer A to Sanjel’s product

line, Buffer S is very seldom needed.

2.3.2.2 Cross-linkers

By adding a “cross-linking agent” to a fluid system, the

solution will become more viscous, and increase sand-

carrying capability. Sanjel uses borate, titanate, or zirconate

cross-linkers, depending on the specific fluid system

requirements. (See Section 1.4.5 on Cross-linking Water-

based Systems). Table 2-4 shows a summary of Sanjel’s

cross-linkers.

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Table 2-4 Cross-linker Summary Chart

Notes
CODE TYPE USE SYSTEMS
BORAjel,
Cross-link systems with
BX-1L Borate BORAjel-M40
guar and HPG

Cross-link systems with

BX-2L Borate BORAjel-M100
methanol gels
Cross-link systems with
TX-1L Titanate T-jel
HPG

ZX-1L Zirconate Cross-link systems with AQUAjel

CMHPG

BX-1L: (Borate) BX-1L is a stable borate solution that is

used to cross-link fluid systems that use guar (WG-

2BL) and HPG (WG-4TL). Because BX-1L is a boric

acid, this cross-linker is used in BORAjel, and

BORAjel-M40. (See Section 2.4.2 on BORAjel and

Section 2.4.3 on BORAjel-M). BX-1L can be used

over a broad temperature range (20-105°C), and

cross-links best at a pH between 8.5 and 10.

BX-2L: (Borate) BX-2L is a stable borate solution that is

used to cross-link methanol gels. This cross-linking

product is exclusive to Sanjel and is intended for use

specifically with MG-1BL solutions to make the

BORAjel-M100 system. BX-2L can be used over a

broad temperature range (20-85°C).

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TX-1L: (Titanate) TX-1L is a stable titanate solution that is Notes

used to cross-link HPG (WG-4TL) solutions. The

titanate makes this product useful for cross-linking

Sanjel’s T-jel system. TX-1L works best in a neutral

pH range of 6.5 to 8.5, and does not require any

external buffers to control pH for cross-linking. It can

also be used over a broad temperature range (20-

75°C).

ZX-1L: (Zirconate) ZX-1L is a stable zirconate solution that

is used to cross-link double derivatized guar (WG-

3ZL) solutions. The zirconate makes this product

useful for cross-linking Sanjel’s AQUAjel systems. ZX-

1L works best in a low pH range of 3.5 to 5, which will

likely require adding an external buffer. It can also be

used over a broad temperature range (20-105°C).

2.3.2.3 Clay Control

Clay stabilizers are chemical additives that are added to

water-based fluid systems to prevent the migration or

swelling of water-sensitive clay particles in the formation.

(See Section 1.5.2.4 on Clay Control). Table 2-5 shows a

summary of Sanjel’s clay controllers.

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Table 2-5 Clay Control Summary

Notes
Chart
CODE TYPE USE
Potassium
KCl Chloride Temporary

Chlorine
SCC-1L Salts Temporary

Quaternary
SCC-2L Amines Permanent

Quaternary
SCC-3L Amines Permanent

Chlorine
SCC-5L Salts Temporary

KCl: Potassium chloride can provide some clay stabilization

because of its ability to ion-exchange with susceptible

clays.

SCC-1L: SCC-1L is a solution of chloride salt, and replaces

high concentrations of KCl. SCC-1L is recommended

for use as a temporary clay stabilizer. This product is

only used in Canada because product patents would

require Sanjel to pay royalties if used in the U.S.A.

SCC-2L: SCC-2L is a complex mixture of quaternary

amines, and replaces high concentrations of KCl. This

clay stabilizer tends to reduce or hinder foaming

ability of certain fluid systems. Therefore, SCC-2L

would not be suitable for use with any fluid systems

that should foam. SCC-2L is recommended for use as

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a permanent or long term clay stabilizer, and can be Notes

used in conjunction with SCC-1L.

SCC-3L: SCC-3L is very similar to SCC-2L in that it is a

complex mixture of quaternary amines, and replaces

high concentrations of KCl. It is also used as a

permanent or long term clay stabilizer. However,

SCC-3L does not reduce or hinder a fluid system’s

foaming ability. So it is compatible with all fluid

systems.

SCC-5L: SCC-5L is very similar to SCC-1L. It is a solution of

chloride salt, and replaces high concentrations of KCl.

SCC-5L is recommended for use as a temporary clay

stabilizer. Unlike SCC-1L, the supplier pays patent

royalties on SCC-5L, so Sanjel will use the product in

the U.S.A.

NOTE: All SCC clay stabilizers have highly-polar, surface

active materials that are designed to bind tightly to sheet-like

clay particles to lower surface tension and inhibit swelling.

2.3.2.4 Non-emulsifier

Non-emulsifiers are added to fracturing fluids to prevent the

creation of emulsions when the fluid interacts with reservoir

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fluids, or to treat emulsions that have already occurred. (See Notes

Section 1.5.2.3 on Non-Emulsifiers).

NE-3: NE-3 is a non-ionic non-emulsifier for aqueous fluid

systems, and is compatible with a wide range of

fracturing additives.

2.3.2.5 Surfactant

Surfactants are “surface-active agents” that may be added

one or more immiscible substances in order to create a

stable mixture or emulsion of those substances. (See

Section 1.5.2.5 on Surfactants). Table 2-6 shows a summary

of Sanjel’s surfactants.

Table 2-6 Surfactant Summary Chart

CODE TYPE SYSTEM USE

CAS-1 Non-ionic AQUAjel Creates foam on flowback
CG-5 Cationic CLEANjel
FA-1 Anionic All Systems
FA-2 Non-ionic All Systems
IFTR-1 Non-ionic Many Systems
PS-2L Non-ionic CO2 POLYjel

CAS-1: CAS-1 is a non-ionic liquid surfactant called a CO2

Assist Surfactant. It is designed for use with

AQUAjels. When used with CO2 AQUAjel systems, it

enhances clean up and fluid recovery because it

creates a moderate foam during flowback.

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CG-5: CG-5 is a cationic surfactant that has visco-elastic Notes

properties with aqueous fluids. It has no polymers,

and does not need to be hydrated like guar. Its

viscosity is dependent on chemical loading and pH.

CG-5 is used in the CLEANjel fluid system.

FA-1: FA-1 is an anionic surfactant used to create foam in

when combined with N2 and CO2. This foamer is

compatible with virtually all production fluids.

FA-2: FA-2 is a non-ionic hydrocarbon dispersible foaming

agent. It is compatible with a wide range of production

fluids. However, it is not compatible with certain

additives, such as SCC-2L clay controller.

IFTR-1: IFTR-1 is a blend of surface-active materials that

are designed to reduce the natural interfacial tension

between immiscible phases, such as water and

hydrocarbons. IFTR-1 also acts as a flowback

enhancer for improved fluid recovery. IFTR-1 is

compatible with virtually all aqueous fluid systems,

except CLEANjel.

PS-2L: PS-2L is a foaming surfactant that is specifically

designed for CO2 POLYjel systems. It works by

creating a water-external emulsion between the liquid

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CO2 and the linear gel. PS-2L can foam even with oil Notes

contamination or different types of water.

2.3.2.6 Biocide

Biocide can be added to the fluid on location to effectively

eliminate naturally occurring contaminants in the fluid on

location. (See Section 1.5.2.7 on Biocides).

BE-1: BE-1is a water-soluble biocide that will decontaminate

a system within an hour. It is effective against sulfate-

reducing and algal (slime-forming) bacteria, aerobic

and anaerobic microorganisms, and sessile and

planktonic organisms This biocide is compatible with

virtually any fluid system.

2.3.3 Energized Fluids

Energized fluids (gases) are used in a variety of ways for

hydraulic fracturing. They can be used with water or oil

based systems to assist in the removal of the stimulation

fluid, or to create emulsions or foam based fluids. Like non-

energized fracturing fluids, energized systems can be used

directly to fracture a formation and improve the production of

oil and gas. But, energized fluid fracturing systems have

additional advantages, including:

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• They can energize the near wellbore in wells with low Notes

pressure.

• They can assist in the recovery of treating fluids.

• They provide a means of stimulating formations that

are slightly or moderately sensitive to aqueous fluids,

as the total volume of water used, per m3 of fluid

used, can be up to 70% less than that used in a non-

energized fluid.

The two most common gases/liquids used to energize

hydraulic fracture treatments are:

• Carbon dioxide (CO2)

• Nitrogen (N2)

2.3.3.1 Characteristics CO2

• CO2 is miscible with aqueous solutions at normal

reservoir conditions and the dispersed fluid does not

dissipate easily into the formation. Therefore, CO2 is

‘stored’ in the fracturing fluid until the well is flowed

back. At these reduced pressures, CO2 comes out of

the solution, energizing the fluid, and promoting rapid

flow back and fluid recovery.

• It is less expensive than nitrogen

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• It is pumped as a liquid, which requires less Notes

preparation than N2, which is transported as a liquid

and pumped as a gas.

• Not stored as a cryogenic fluid

• Reacts with water to produce carbonic acid (H2CO3),

thereby reducing the pH of the fluid. This may not be

desirable in all situations and limits its use to low pH

compatible systems

2.3.3.2 Characteristics of N2

• N2 is an inert gas that is relatively immiscible in

aqueous fluids; it does not have a chemical effect on

the fracturing fluid

• N2 has a higher expansion ratio than CO2

• N2 is stored as a cryogenic fluid, which must be

pumped through a burner before going down the well

as a gas. If the iron is exposed to the cryogenic fluid,

it could develop stress cracks due to rapid thermal

contraction, compromising the integrity of the iron

Note: Exposure of personnel to cryogenic fluids is

dangerous.

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2.3.3.3 Benefits of Energized Fluids Notes

• Rapid and complete removal of the stimulation fluid,

particularly from formations with low bottom hole

pressures.

• The pumping pressures are typically higher because

the hydrostatic head of the fluid is reduced. Entrained

gases assist in fluid loss control phase, since foams

have greater viscosity than equivalent linear gels.

Further, because the liquid phase of the foam is

usually only 20% to 40% by volume, less liquid is lost.

• Uses significantly less chemical and base fluid (20-

40% fluid). Energized systems are useful for

moderately water sensitive formations.

2.3.4 Advantages of Water-based

Fracturing Fluids
The following are some of the advantages of water-based

fluid systems when compared to hydrocarbon-based

systems:

• Less expensive than hydrocarbon based fluids.

• Higher density than most hydrocarbons resulting in

greater hydrostatic pressure and lower surface

pressure during the job.

• Reduce friction pressures.

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• Easily viscosified and controlled, which is practical for Notes

replicating laboratory results in the field.

• Non-flammable.

2.3.5 Disadvantages of Water-based

Fracturing Fluids
The following are some of the disadvantages of water-based

fluid systems when compared to hydrocarbon-based

systems:

• Requires residence time for hydration.

• Freezes at low temperatures.

• Polymer residue may be left in the formation.

• Can cause damage if used in water-sensitive

formations.

2.3.6 Cross-linked versus Linear

Fluids
Linear Gels: Viscosity of linear gels is well understood

because it is easy to reproduce viscosity data. However,

linear gels have poor proppant transport capabilities

because of a lower viscosity than cross-linked fluids. Linear

gels also have less temperature stability than cross-linked

fluids. More often, linear gels are used to repair near-

wellbore damage (small fractures) than to achieve deep

penetration.
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Cross-linked Gels: Cross-linked gels have a higher Notes

viscosity, therefore they are better able to transport proppant

deep into the formation. Cross-linking increases the

temperature stability of the base polymer, and increases the

fluid viscosity without increasing friction pressure. However,

cross-linked gels are shear sensitive and will lose viscosity

when sheared at high rates. Delayed cross-linkers have

been developed to overcome this, achieving higher viscosity

in the fracture, with much better proppant carrying ability,

better temperature stability, and better fluid loss control.

2.4 Cross-linked Fluid

Systems
Cross-linked fracturing fluids are considered a major

advance in fracturing. Viscosity can be increased without

increasing the polymer concentration, as is required for the

linear systems. By adding a “cross-linking agent” to a fluid

system, the solution will become more viscous, and increase

sand-carrying capability. (See Section 1.4.5 on Cross-linking

Water-based Systems). Sanjel’s cross-linked systems

include: AQUAjel, BORAjel, and T-jel.

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2.4.1 AQUAjel Notes

AQUAjel fluid systems are a series of water-based,

zirconium cross-linked, high viscosity fluids that use a highly

effective, ultra-low residue CMHPG polymer as a gelling

agent. AQUAjel fluids show excellent rheological properties

at temperatures up to 105°C, and pH up to 7. AQUAjel has

optimal viscosity characteristics that help to mitigate leak-off

and enhance proppant carrying capacity. AQUAjel can be

pumped with up to 40% methanol.

The AQUAjel series includes 4 different systems: AQUAjel 6-

8-10-12. These numbers refer to the volume of polymer that

is loaded into the fluid system, 6, 8, 10, 12 L/m3. The

following outlines the typical chemicals that make up the

AQUAjel fluid system.

Gellant:

WG-3ZL (CMHPG polymer) is the viscosifying agent used in

an AQUAjel fracturing system. WG-3ZL hydrates faster than

WG-2BL or WG-4TL and leaves very little non-degradable

residue in the formation. Using CMHPG allows the AQUAjel

system to be pumped on-the-fly without the aid of a

hydration unit or batch mixing when pumping up to 3% KCl.

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CMHPG can also be pumped in either a low pH or high pH Notes

system. Normally in a high pH environment, the AQUAjel will

be cross-linked. However, AQUAjel systems that use

delayed cross-linkers usually require cross-linking in high pH

environments.

Cross-linker:

ZX-1L (zirconate) is the cross-linker used in an AQUAjel

fracturing system. This cross-linking results in viscosities

ranging from 800cP to 3000cP, depending on the polymer

loading, crosslinker loading, and bottom hole temperature. In

order for the cross-link to work, the linear base gel needs to

be in the pH range of 3.8 to 4.5.

Buffer:

The hydration process for the polymer usually raises the pH

of the fluid slightly. Buffer A (acetic acid) is added to the

base gel before adding the cross-linker in order to lower the

pH inside the range of 3.8 to 4.5. If the water is naturally

buffered (USA water) then Buffer S can also be added.

Breaker:

Either Breaker-1Z (enzyme) or Breaker-O (oxidizer) can be

added to the AQUAjel system. Both will degrade (“break”)

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the polymer's molecular structure and revert the fluid to low Notes

viscosity.

Breaker-1Z can be used independently for wells with a

bottom hole temperature of 75ºC or lower. Temperatures

higher than 75ºC tend to cause the enzyme in Breaker 1-Z to

denature. At temperatures greater than 75°C, a dual breaker

system (enzyme and oxidixer) can be used. In such as case,

Breaker-O is used in combination with Breaker-1Z. Breaker

concentration and combinations may be adjusted to tailor the

break time in accordance with individual applications.

Additives:

The AQUAjel system has other additives that do not affect

gel or break time. They are used to reduce the interaction

between the treating fluids and the formation. Clay Controls

SCC-1L, SCC-2L, SCC-3L, or SCC-5L are added to prevent

clay migration and swelling in the formation.

Non-emulsifier, NE-3, is added to prevent any emulsion from

occurring between the water in the AQUAjel system and the

crude oil in the formation.

Surfactants, CAS-1, FA-1, or FA-2 are added to create foam

during flowback to enhance clean up and fluid recovery.

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2.4.1.1 AQUAjel Characteristics Notes

• Uses CMHPG as gelling agent.

• Uses a zirconate cross-linker.

• Low pH system.

• Can be run on the fly up to 3% KCl.

• Can be used as an acid diverter.

• Can be energized with CO2 or N2.

• Ultra-low residue.

• Methanol tolerant up to 40%.

• Linear system is active in the temperature range 20ºC

to 105ºC.

Table 2-7 shows the typical chemical loadings for an

AQUAjel system.

2.4.1.2 AQUAjel-D

AQUAjel-D (delayed cross-link) is an enhanced version of

the AQUAjel system, where the development of viscosity can

be delayed by a controlled amount. This provides the

advantage of lower friction pressures when working with

small diameter tubing. The AQUAjel-D system can be used

with fracturing fluids above pH 7.

Unlike the AQUAjel system, AQUAjel-D is NOT methanol

tolerant.

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AQUAjel-D works very similar to the AQUAjel series, in that Notes

it uses WG-3ZL (CMHPG) as its base polymer and ZX-1L

(zirconate) as its cross-linker. However, Buffer B is used to

elevate the pH of the system, and Breaker-2ZD is used to

break the system. Additives available for use with this

system include: SCC-1L (clay control), and NE-3 (non-

emulsifier). As the delay mechanism is not compatible with

CO2, energized AQUAjel systems should only use N2.

AQUAjel-D can be pumped on-the-fly at temperatures up to

130ºC.

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Table 2-7 Typical Chemical Loadings for AQUAjel

Chemical Function Loading Addition Comments

L/m3 Location

WG-3ZL CMHPG 6 to 12 Clean Provides base viscosity. Pumped on the fly

Polymer up to 3% KCl.

Buffer-A Low pH 2 Clean Decreases pH for ideal hydration. Added to

buffer gel on clean side to promote hydration.

ZX-1L Cross- 1.5 to 4 Slurry Zirconate cross-linker. Added only after

linker hydration is achieved. Added after the
flowmeter on the dirty side.

Breaker-1Z Breaker 4% at Slurry Enzyme breaker, effective at temperatures

up to 75ºC. Added at farthest valve from
1 to 4
blender tub on slurry side.

Breaker-O Breaker 1% at Slurry Oxidizing breaker, effective at temperatures

greater than 75ºC. Added at farthest valve
1 to 10
from blender tub on slurry side.

SCC-1L (Canada) Temporary 2 to 4 Clean/ Inhibits clay migration and swelling. Can be
clay control added on clean or dirty side.
SCC-5L (USA) Slurry

SCC-2L Permanent 2 to 4 Clean/ Inhibits clay migration and swelling. Can be

clay control added on clean or dirty side.
SCC-3L Slurry

KCl Temporary 0 to 7% Pre- Inhibits clay migration and swelling. Can be

Clay mixed added on clean or dirty side.
by weight
control
IFTR-1
Interfacial 1 to 2 Slurry Reduces interfacial tension between the
IFTR-N2
tension treating and production fluids. Added on
IFTR-CO2 reducer slurry side to prevent tub foaming.

CAS-1 Surfactant 1 to 2 Slurry Creates moderate foam between AQUAjels

and CO2 on flowback. Added on slurry side to
prevent tub foaming.

FA-1 / FA-2 Surfactant 1 to 5 Slurry Stabilizes foam between AQUAjel and N2.
Added on slurry side to prevent tub foaming.

NE-3 Non- 1 Clean/ Prevents the formation of pore clogging

emulsifier emulsion between the water and
Slurry
hydrocarbons in the formation. Can be added
on clean or dirty side.

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2.4.2 BORAjel Notes

BORAjel fluid systems are a series of water-based, borate

cross-linked, high viscosity fluid that uses a low residue guar

polymer as a gelling agent. BORAjel fluids show excellent

rheological properties at temperatures from 20 to 105°C, and

pH above 8.5. BORAjel has a high degree of shear stability

and superb proppant transport characteristics. BORAjel can

be pumped with up to 10% methanol.

The BORAjel series includes 4 different systems: BORAjel 6-

8-10-12. These numbers refer to the volume of polymer that

is loaded into the fluid system, 6, 8, 10, 12 L/m3. The

following outlines the typical chemicals that make up the

BORAjel fluid system.

Gellant:

WG-2BL (guar polymer) is the viscosifying agent used in a

BORAjel fracturing system. Because WG-2BL hydrates

slower than CMHPG, it must be either batch mixed or run

with a hydration unit. Guar requires more hydration time than

CMHPG, but is significantly less money than CMHPG.

Cross-linker:

BX-1L (borate) is the cross-linker used in BORAjel. This

results in viscosities similar to the AQUAjel, ranging from

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200 cP to 3000 cP, depending on the polymer loading, Notes

cross-linker loading, and bottom hole temperature. The

BORAjel needs to be cross-linked in a high pH atmosphere,

and is therefore incompatible with CO2.

Buffer:

The hydration process for the polymer usually raises the pH

of the fluid slightly. Buffer-B (high pH buffer) is added to the

hydrated base gel to increase the pH even further to

between 8.0 and 10.0 pH. The base gel must be in the pH

range 8.0 to 10.0 for optimal cross-linking.

Breaker:

Breaker-1B (enzyme), Breaker-O (oxidizer), Breaker-2B

(encapsulated oxidizer), or a combination of Breaker-O and

LTA-1 (low temperature activator) can be used in the

BORAjel system to degrade the polymer's molecular

structure and revert the fluid to its original viscosity.

Breaker-1B is a high pH enzyme breaker that is exhibits the

greatest activity at pH 7 and up to 60ºC. It is compatible with

10% methanol, N2 and CO2.

Breaker-O is a strongly oxidizing breaker that is effective at

breaking polymers over a broad pH range (3-14), and up to

75ºC.

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The effectiveness of Breaker-O is temperature dependent. It Notes

can function effectively on its own between 35 and 75ºC.

However, if the temperature range is between 20 and 34ºC,

the rate of free radical generation (which is what breaks the

polymers) is slow. Therefore, Breaker-O must be coupled

with an activator (LTA-1) in order to accelerate the process

of gel degradation. At temperatures over 75ºC, Breaker-O

might be too active to be effective.

Breaker-2B is an encapsulated version of Breaker-0. It is

also a strongly oxidizing breaker that is effective at breaking

polymers over a broad pH range (3-14). However, because it

is encapsulated, it is effective at breaking polymers in a

temperature range between 76 and 105ºC. The

encapsulation of Breaker-2B enables a controlled-release of

the breaker so that it is not immediately available for reaction

when added to the fluid.

Breaker concentrations and combinations may be adjusted

to tailor the break time in accordance with individual

applications.

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Additives: Notes

Like the AQUAjel system, the BORAjel system has other

additives that do not affect gel or break time. They are used

to reduce the interaction between the treating fluids and the

formation. Clay Controls SCC-1L, SCC-3L, or SCC-5L are

added to prevent clay migration and swelling in the

formation.

Non-emulsifier, NE-3, is added to prevent any emulsion from

occurring between the water in the AQUAjel system and the

crude oil in the formation.

Surfactants, FA-1, or FA-2, are added to create foam during

flowback to enhance clean up and fluid recovery. IFTR-1 is

added as an interfacial tension reducer to also aid in fluid

recovery.

2.4.2.1 BORAjel Characteristics

• High pH, water-based fracturing system.

• Uses guar as a gelling agent.

• Uses a borate cross-linker.

• Low residue system.

• Very cost-effective.

• BORAjel system is not shear sensitive, and can heal

in low shear environments.

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• BORAjel can be pumped on-the-fly with a hydration Notes

unit.

• Methanol tolerant up to 10%.

• Can be energized with N2.

• Linear system is active in the temperature range 20-

105ºC.

Table 2-8 shows the typical chemical loadings for a BORAjel

system.

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Table 2-8 Typical Chemical Loadings for BORAjel

Chemical Function Loading Addition Comments

L/m3 Location

WG-2BL Guar 4 - 12 Clean Provides base viscosity. Batch mix or hydration

polymer unit.

Buffer-B High pH 1.5 - 3.5 Clean Increases pH for cross-linking. Added only after
buffer hydration is achieved.

BX-1L Crosslinker 1.5 - 5 Slurry Borate cross-linker. Added only after hydration is
achieved. Added after the flowmeter on the dirty
BX-1LB
side.

Breaker- Breaker 0.5 - 10% Slurry Enzyme breaker, effective at temperatures from 20-
1B at 60ºC. Added at farthest valve from blender tub on
slurry side.
1.0 - 5

Breaker-O Breaker 1-10% at Slurry Oxidizing breaker, effective at temperatures from

20-75ºC. Added at farthest valve from blender tub
1 - 10
on slurry side.

LTA-1 Low 5% at Slurry Low temperature activator used with Breaker-O at

temperature temperatures from 20-34°C.
1 - 10
activator

Breaker- Breaker 0.1 - 5.0 Dry-add Encapsulated breaker, effective at temperatures

2B kg/m3 greater than 75ºC. Added to the blender tub at the
back of the blender.

SCC-1L Temporary 2-4 Clean/ Prevents clay migration and swelling. Can be
(Canada) clay control added on clean or dirty side.
Slurry
SCC-5L
(USA)

SCC-3L Permanent 2-4 Clean/ Prevents clay migration and swelling. Can be
clay control added on clean or dirty side.
Slurry

KCl Temporary 2 - 7% Pre-Mixed Prevents clay migration and swelling.

clay control
IFTR-1
Interfacial 1-2 Slurry Reduces interfacial tension between the treating
IFTR-N2
tension and production fluids. Added on slurry side to
reducer prevent tub foaming.

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Chemical Function Loading Addition Comments

L/m3 Location

FA-1 Surfactant 1-5 Slurry Stabilizes foam between BORAjel and N2. Added
on slurry side to prevent tub foaming.
FA-2

NE-3 Non- 1 Clean/ Prevents the formation of pore clogging emulsion

emulsifier between the water and hydrocarbons in the
Slurry
formation. Can be added on clean or dirty side.

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2.4.3 BORAjel M Notes

The BORAjel M series is very similar to the BORAjels.

However, instead of being predominantly water-based,

BORAjel M fluid systems have much higher concentrations

of methanol in their base fluids. The BORAjel M series

includes: BORAjel M-40, and BORAjel M-100.

2.4.3.1 BORAjel M-40

Like the BORAjels, BORAjel M-40 is a water-based fluid

system that is borate cross-linked and highly viscous.

However, unlike BORAjel, BORAjel M-40 can be pumped

with up to 40% methanol.

Instead of using a guar polymer like BORAjel, BORAjel M-40

uses WG-4TL (HPG) as its gellant. Because WG-4TL

hydrates more slowly than WG-3ZL (CMHPG), it must be

either batch mixed or run with a hydration unit to achieve full

hydration.

BORAjel M-40 uses the same cross-linker and additives as

the BORAjel series. The key chemical differences are in the

buffers and breakers used. With BORAjel M-40, Buffer-A

(low pH buffer) is added to the base fluid when using WG-

4TL to aid in hydration, and only Breaker-O or Breaker-2B

is used as a breaker.

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BORAjel M-40 has excellent rheological characteristics at Notes

temperatures from 20 to 100ºC, with a high degree of shear

stability and very low ultimate residue.

2.4.3.2 BORAjel M-40 Characteristics

• High pH water/methanol based fluid system.

• Uses HPG as a gelling agent.

• Uses a borate cross-linker.

• Very low residue system.

• Cost-effective.

• Not shear sensitive.

• Can be pumped on-the-fly with a hydration unit.

• Methanol tolerant up to 40%.

• Can be energized with N2.

• Linear system is active in the temperature range 20-

100ºC.

Table 2-9 shows the typical chemical loadings for a BORAjel

system.

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Table 2-9 Typical Loadings for BORAjel-M 40

Chemical Function Loading Addition Comments

L/m3 Location

WG-4TL HPG 4 - 12 Clean Provides base viscosity, up to 40% methanol

polymer compatible. Batch mix or hydration unit.

MG-1BL HPG 4 - 12 Clean Provides base viscosity, over 40% methanol

polymer compatible. Batch mix or hydration unit.

Buffer-B High pH 1.5 – 3.5 Clean Increases pH for cross-linking. Added only after
buffer hydration is achieved.

Buffer-A Low pH 0.5 Clean Used with WG-4TL to aid in hydration. Batch
buffer mix or hydration unit.

BX-1L Crosslinker 1.5 - 3 Slurry Borate cross-linker. Added only after hydration
is achieved. Added after the flowmeter on the
dirty side.

Breaker-O Breaker 1-10% at Slurry Oxidizing breaker, effective at temperatures

from 20-75ºC Added at farthest valve from
1 - 10
blender tub on slurry side.

LTA-1 Low 5% at Slurry Low temperature activator used with Breaker-O

temperature at temperatures from 20-34°C.
1 - 10
activator

Breaker-2B Breaker 0.1 - 5 Dry-Add Encapsulated breaker, effective at

kg/m3 temperatures greater than 75ºC. Added to the
blender tub at the back of the blender.

SCC-1L Temporary 2-4 Clean/ Prevents clay migration and swelling. Can be
(Canada) clay control added on clean or dirty side.
Slurry
SCC-5L (USA)

SCC-3L Permanent 2-4 Clean/ Prevents clay migration and swelling. Can be
clay control added on clean or dirty side.
Slurry

KCl Temporary 2 - 7% Pre- Prevents clay migration and swelling.

clay control Mixed
IFTR-1
Interfacial 1-2 Slurry Reduces interfacial tension between the
IFTR-N2
tension treating and production fluids. Added on slurry
reducer side to prevent tub foaming.

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Chemical Function Loading Addition Comments

L/m3 Location

FA-1 Foaming 1-5 Slurry Stabilizes foam between BORAjel and N2.
agents Added on slurry side to prevent tub foaming.
FA-2

NE-3 Non- 1 Clean/ Prevents the formation of pore clogging

emulsifier emulsion between the water and hydrocarbons
Slurry
in the formation. Can be added on clean or
dirty side.

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2.4.3.3 BORAjel M-100 Notes

Unlike BORAjel M-40, BORAjel M-100 is 100% methanol

tolerant, providing an alternative to oil-based fracturing fluids

for formations that are highly sensitive to water. It uses a

MG-1BL as its gellant. MG-1BL is a highly specialized HPG

gelling agent that is designed for use in methanol-based fluid

systems. When pumped in pure methanol, MG-1BL can

hydrate on-the-fly without any trace amounts of water.

BORAjel M-100 uses the same buffers and cross-linkers as

BORAjel M-40, with the exception of using BX-2L as a

cross-linker when using 100% methanol. However, there are

some differences in the typical additives used from the

BORAjel M-40 system. BORAjel M-100 is normally

programmed with only SCC-1L for clay control, Breaker-O

as a breaker, and NE-1 as a non-emulsifier.

2.4.3.4 BORAjel M-100 Characteristics

• Methanol-based fluid system.

• Uses specialized HPG as a gelling agent.

• Uses exclusive form of borate cross-linker.

• Very low residue system.

• High value-added system.

• Not shear sensitive.

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• Can be pumped on-the-fly with a hydration unit. Notes

• Methanol tolerant up to 100%.

• Can be energized with N2.

• Linear system is active in the temperature range 25-

75ºC.

Table 2-10 shows the typical chemical loadings for a

BORAjel system.

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Table 2-10 Typical Loadings for BORAjel-M 100

Chemical Function Loading Addition Comments

L/m3 Location

WG-4TL HPG 4 - 12 Clean Provides base viscosity, up to 40% methanol

polymer compatible. Batch mix or hydration unit.

MG-1BL Specialized 10 - 15 Clean Provides base viscosity, over 40% methanol.

HPG Batch mix or hydration unit.
polymer

Buffer-B High pH 1.5 - 3.5 Clean Increases pH for cross-linking. Added only after
buffer hydration is achieved.

Buffer-A Low pH 0.5 Clean Used with MB-1BL to aid in hydration. Batch
buffer mix or hydration unit.

BX-1L Cross-linker 2-3 Slurry Borate cross-linker for water-based gels.

Added only after hydration is achieved. Added
after the flowmeter on the dirty side.

BX-2L Cross-linker 1-3 Slurry Used with borate cross-linking for methanol
gels. Added only after hydration is achieved.
Added after the flowmeter on the dirty side.

Breaker-O Breaker 1-10% at Slurry Oxidizing breaker, effective at temperatures

from 20-75ºC Added at farthest valve from
1 - 10
blender tub on slurry side.

LTA-1 Low 1% at Slurry Low temperature activator used with Breaker-O

temperature at temperatures from 20-34°C.
1 - 10
activator

SCC-1L Temporary 2-4 Clean/ Prevents clay migration and swelling. Can be
(Canada) clay control added on clean or dirty side.
Slurry
SCC-5L (USA)

KCl Temporary 0 - 7% Pre- Prevents clay migration and swelling.

clay control Mixed

FA-1 Foaming 1-5 Slurry Stabilizes foam between BORAjel and N2.
agents Added on slurry side to prevent tub foaming.

NE-3 Non- 1 Clean/ Prevents the formation of pore clogging

emulsifier emulsion between the water and hydrocarbons
Slurry
in the formation. Can be added on clean or
dirty side.

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2.4.4 T-jel Notes

The T-jel fluid system is a water-based, titanium cross-

linked, high viscosity fluid that uses a highly effective, low

residue HPG polymer as a gelling agent. T-jel has excellent

rheological properties at temperatures up to 75°C, and

neutral pH. At these temperatures and pH, T-jel has a high

capacity for proppant transport, with a rapid and efficient

fluid break mechanism. T-jel can be pumped with up to 40%

methanol.

Gellant:

T-jel uses WG-4TL (HPG) as its gellant. Because WG-4TL

hydrates more slowly than WG-3ZL (CMHPG), it must be

either batch mixed or run with a hydration unit to achieve full

hydration.

Cross-Linker:

TX-1L (titanate) is the cross-linker used in T-jel. This results

in viscosities ranging from 300 cP to 800 cP, depending on

the polymer loading, cross-linker loading, and bottom hole

temperature.T-jel needs to be cross-linked in a neutral pH

range (6.5-8.5), and may not require the use of an external

buffer to raise the pH for optimal cross-linking. TX-1L cross-

linker is compatible with N2.

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Buffer: Notes

Buffer-B (high pH buffer) can be added to the hydrated base

gel to increase the pH after hydration, if needed. The base

gel must be in the pH range 6.5 to 8.5 for optimal cross-

linking.

Breaker:

Breaker-1Z (enzyme) can be added to the T-jel system. It

will degrade (“break”) the polymer's molecular structure and

revert the fluid to low viscosity.

Breaker-1Z can be used independently for wells with a

bottom hole temperature of 75ºC or lower. Temperatures

higher than 75ºC tend to cause the enzyme in Breaker-1Z to

denature. Breaker concentration may be adjusted to tailor

the break time in accordance with individual applications.

Additives:

The T-jel system has other additives that do not affect gel or

break time. They are used to reduce the interaction between

the treating fluids and the formation. Clay Control SCC-1L,

is added to prevent clay migration and swelling in the

formation.

Non-emulsifier, NE-3, is added to prevent any emulsion from

occurring between the water in the T-jel system and the

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crude oil in the formation. IFTR-1 is added as an interfacial Notes

tension reducer to also aid in fluid recovery.

2.4.4.1 T-jel Characteristics

• Uses HPG as gelling agent.

• Uses a titanate cross-linker.

• Very low residue system.

• Neutral pH system.

• Methanol tolerant up to 40%.

• Can be energized with N2.

• T-jel can be pumped on-the-fly with a hydration unit.

• Linear gel is active in the temperature range 20-75ºC.

Table 2-11 shows the typical chemical loadings for an T-jel

system.

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Table 2-11 Typical Chemical Loadings for T-jel

Chemical Function Loading Addition Comments

L/m3 Location

WG-4TL HPG 4 - 12 Clean Provides base viscosity, up to 40% methanol

polymer compatible. Batch mix or hydration unit.

Buffer-B High pH 1.5 - 3.5 Clean Increases pH for cross-linking. Added only after
buffer hydration is achieved.

TX-1L Cross-linker 2 Slurry Titanate cross-linker. Added only after hydration is

achieved. Added after the flowmeter on the dirty
side.

Breaker- Breaker 4% at Slurry Enzyme breaker, effective at temperatures up to

1Z 75ºC. Added at farthest valve from blender tub on
1 to 4
slurry side.

SCC-1L Temporary 2-4 Clean/ Prevents clay migration and swelling. Can be
(Canada) clay control added on clean or dirty side.
Slurry
SCC-5L
(USA)

IFTR-1 Interfacial 1-2 Slurry Reduces interfacial tension between the treating
tension and production fluids. Added on slurry side to
reducer prevent tub foaming.

NE-3 Non- 1 Clean/ Prevents the formation of pore clogging emulsion

emulsifier between the water and hydrocarbons in the
Slurry
formation. Can be added on clean or dirty side.

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Notes
2.5 Linear Fluid Systems
Linear fluid systems are non-crosslinked systems that are

used in fracturing. The fluids will often have a guar-based

gellant or surfactant added to the fluid in order to increase

fluid viscosity. Like other water-based systems, linear

systems are economical, easy to use and control, and their

viscosities under laboratory conditions can easily be

replicated in the field. However, as mentioned in Section

2.3.6 on Cross-linked versus Linear Fluids, linear gels have

poor proppant-carrying ability, and have less temperature

stability than cross-linked gels.

2.5.1 Foam-based Fluids

All of Sanjel’s linear fluids include a foaming component.

Foam quality enhances proppant-carrying ability in linear

gels. Foamed fluids are basically a gas-in-liquid emulsion.

Turbulence causes gas bubbles to form when liquid and gas

are mixed. When the bubbles are emulsified in the liquid, it

creates a foam that will break over time. These emulsions

can be stabilized when a surfactant is added, which coats

the bubbles. Adding polymers to the fluid system will also

increase foam stability.

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Foams are created in water-based systems by mixing a Notes

foaming agent or surfactant with the linear base gel, and

then energizing the fluid with CO2 or N2. See Section 2.3.3

on Energized Fluids.

The viscous properties of a stable foam are similar to a

gelled water-based fluid. Foam stability and viscosity are

related to foam quality. As foam quality increases from 60-

90% of the total volume, foam stability and viscosity also

increase. Typical fracturing treatments are designed to

achieve a 70-80% foam quality for optimization.

2.5.2 CO2 POLYjel

CO2 POLYjel is a two-part system that uses liquid CO2 as

the internal phase and a linear gel as the external phase.

PS-2L surfactant is pumped in combination with the CO2,

creating an emulsion with the linear gel. With a decrease in

pressure on flowback, the CO2 is converted into a gas,

thereby assisting in full recovery of the load fluid.

CO2 POLYjel can tolerate up to 40% methanol and up to 7%

KCl. The system is highly cost effective, since it uses 75%

less additives than an equivalent cross-linked, water-based

gel. Used with a CO2 foam quality of 60-90%, the CO2

POLYjel system is stable up to 100ºC.

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Energized systems, like Sanjel’s CO2 POLYjel, are most Notes

useful for reservoirs with low permeability and pressure. The

CO2 POLYjel fluid is an excellent choice for water sensitive

zones and powerful remedial treatment for removing water

blocks and residue near the wellbore.

The following outlines the typical chemicals that make up the

CO2 POLYjel system.

Gellant:

WG-3ZL (CMHPG polymer) is the viscosifying agent used in

the CO2 POLYjel system and can be pumped on-the-fly with

up to 40% methanol or 7% KCl. WG-3ZL hydrates faster

than WG-2BL or WG-4TL and leaves very little non-

degradable residue in the formation. Using CMHPG allows

the CO2 POLYjel system to be pumped on-the-fly without the

aid of a hydration unit or batch mixing.

Buffer:

The hydration process for the polymer usually raises the pH

of the fluid slightly. Buffer A (acetic acid) is added to the

base gel to aid in hydration.

Breaker:

Either Breaker-1Z (enzyme) or Breaker-O (oxidizer) can be

added to the CO2 POLYjel system. Both will degrade

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(“break”) the polymer's molecular structure and revert the Notes

fluid to low viscosity.

Breaker-1Z can be used independently for wells with a

bottom hole temperature of 75ºC or lower. Temperatures

higher than 75ºC tend to cause the enzyme in Breaker-1Z to

denature. At temperatures greater than 75°C, a dual breaker

system (enzyme and oxidixer) can be used. In such as case,

Breaker-O is used in combination with Breaker-1Z. Breaker

concentration and combinations may be adjusted to tailor the

break time in accordance with individual applications.

Surfactant:

PS-2L (foaming agent) is added to the CO2 POLYjel system

in order to create a water/gas emulsion. PS-2L works by

creating a water-external emulsion between the linear gel

and the liquid CO2. This will result in excellent proppant

carrying ability.

Additives:

The CO2 POLYjel system also has other additives that do

not affect gel or break time. They are used to reduce the

interaction between the treating fluids and the formation.

Clay Controls SCC-1L, SCC-2L, SCC-3L, or SCC-5L are

added to prevent clay migration and swelling in the

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formation. IFTR-1 is added as an interfacial tension reducer Notes

to aid in fluid recovery.

2.5.2.1 CO2 POLYjel Characteristics

• Linear water, water/methanol-based system.

• Compatible with up to 40% methanol.

• Uses CMHPG as a gelling agent.

• Ultra low residue system.

• Very cost effective system.

• Can be pumped on-the-fly up to 3% KCl.

• Uses 75% less polymer and additives than the

AQUAjel system.

• Useful for moderately water sensitive formations.

• CO2 brings the linear gel back to the surface after

treatment, which is useful for low-pressure reservoirs.

• Very good fluid loss control.

• Limited to bottom hole temperature of less than 50ºC,

because the linear gel is not stable at higher

temperatures.

Table 2-12 shows the typical chemical loadings for a CO2

POLYjel system.

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Table 2-12 Typical Chemical Loadings for CO2 POLYjel

Chemical Function Loading Addition Comments

L/m3 Location

WG-3ZL CMHPG 6 - 12 Clean Provides base viscosity. Pumped on the fly

Polymer
up to 3% KCl.

PS-2L Surfactant 5 Slurry Creates emulsion between CO2 and base

gel. Added on slurry side to prevent tub
foaming.

Breaker-1Z Breaker 0.25-1% Slurry Enzyme breaker. Added at farthest valve

at from blender tub on slurry side.
1-3

Buffer-A Low pH buffer 2 Clean Decreases pH to aid in hydration. Added to

gel on clean side to promote hydration.

SCC-1L Temporary clay 2-4 Clean/ Prevents clay migration and swelling. Can be
(Canada) control added on clean or slurry side.
Slurry
SCC-5L (USA)

SCC-2L Permanent clay 2-4 Clean/ Prevents clay migration and swelling. Can be
control added on clean or slurry side.
SCC-3L Slurry

KCl Temporary clay 0 - 7% Pre- Prevents clay migration and swelling.

control Mixed
by weight

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2.5.2.2 CO2 POLYjel-M Notes

Unlike CO2 POLYjel, CO2 POLYjel-M is a linear, methanol-

based fluid system. Like BORAjel M-100, It uses a MG-1BL

as its gellant. MG-1BL is a highly specialized HPG gelling

agent that is designed for use in methanol-based fluid

systems. When pumped in pure methanol, MG-1BL can

hydrate on-the-fly without any trace amounts of water.

CO2 POLYjel-M uses the same buffer as CO2 POLYjel.

However, there are some differences in the typical additives

used from the CO2 POLYjel-M. CO2 POLYjel-M is normally

programmed with only SCC-1L or SCC-2L for clay control,

Breaker-O (with LTA-1) as a breaker, and NE-1 as a non-

emulsifier.

2.5.3 N2 FOAMjel
Sanjel's N2 FOAMjel is a two-part system that uses N2 as the

internal phase and a linear gel as the external liquid phase.

FA-1 (surfactant) is pumped in combination with N2, creating

an emulsion with a viscous, stable foam suitable for

fracturing. The N2 FOAMjel system can have foam qualities

of 60% to 90%. During higher sand stages (>1200 kg/m3),

the foam quality is reduced to achieve higher downhole

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concentrations. The resulting foam is more stable and more Notes

viscous, and allows for higher sand concentrations.

N2 FOAMjel can tolerate up to 40% methanol and up to 7%

KCl. The system is highly cost effective, since it uses 75%

less additives than an equivalent cross-linked, water-based

gel. Used with an N2 foam quality of 60-90%, the N2 FOAMjel

system is stable up to 100ºC.

Like the CO2 POLYjel, the N2 FOAMjel is most useful for

reservoirs with low permeability and pressure. The stored

energy imparted by the N2 gas provides more rapid removal

of the stimulation fluid and aggressive well clean up.

Gellant:

The N2 FOAMjel system uses WG-3ZL (CMHPG polymer)

as a gelling agent, and can be pumped with up to 40%

methanol or 7% KCl. WG-3ZL hydrates faster than WG-2BL

or WG-4TL and leaves very little non-degradable residue in

the formation. Using CMHPG allows the N2 FOAMjel system

to be pumped on-the-fly without the aid of a hydration unit or

batch mixing.

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Buffer: Notes

The hydration process for the polymer usually raises the pH

of the fluid slightly. Buffer A (acetic acid) is added to the

base gel to aid in hydration.

Breaker:

Either Breaker-1Z (enzyme) or Breaker-O (oxidizer) can be

added to the N2 FOAMjel system. Both will degrade (“break”)

the polymer's molecular structure and revert the fluid to low

viscosity.

Breaker-1Z can be used independently for wells with a

bottom hole temperature of 75ºC or lower. Temperatures

higher than 75ºC tend to cause the enzyme in Breaker-1Z to

denature. At temperatures greater than 75°C, a dual breaker

system (enzyme and oxidixer) can be used. In such as case,

Breaker-O is used in combination with Breaker-1Z. Breaker

concentration and combinations may be adjusted to tailor the

break time in accordance with individual applications.

Surfactant:

FA-1 is added to the N2 FOAMjel system in order to create

the emulsion. FA-1 works by creating a water-external

emulsion between the linear gel and the N2. This will result in

increased proppant carrying ability.

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Additives: Notes

The N2 FOAMjel system also has other additives that do not

affect gel or break time. They are used to reduce the

interaction between the treating fluids and the formation.

Clay Controls SCC-1L, SCC-2L, SCC-3L, or SCC-5L are

added to prevent clay migration and swelling in the

formation. IFTR-1 is added as an interfacial tension reducer

to aid in fluid recovery.

2.5.3.1 N2 FOAMjel Characteristics

• Linear water, water/methanol-based system.

• Compatible with up to 40% methanol.

• Uses CMHPG as a gelling agent.

• Ultra low residue system.

• Very cost effective system.

• Can be pumped on-the-fly.

• Uses 75% less polymer and additives than the

AQUAjel system.

• Limited to bottom hole temperature of less than 50ºC,

because the linear gel is not stable at higher

temperatures.

Table 2-13 shows the typical chemical loadings for an N2

FOAMjel system.

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Table 2-13 Typical Chemical Loadings for N2 FOAMjel

Chemical Function Loading Addition Comments

L/m3 Location

WG-3ZL CMHPG 6 - 12 Clean Provides base viscosity. Batch mix or

Polymer hydration unit.

FA-1 Foaming 5 Slurry Creates foam between N2 and base gel.

agents Added on slurry side to prevent tub foaming.
FA-2

Breaker-1Z Breaker 0.25 -1% Slurry Added at farthest valve from blender tub on
at 1 - 3 slurry side.

Buffer-A Low pH buffer 2 Clean Decreases pH to aid in hydration. Added to

gel on clean side to promote hydration.

SCC-1L Temporary 2-4 Clean/ Inhibits clay migration and swelling. Can be
(Canada) clay control added on clean or dirty side.
Slurry
SCC-5L (USA)

SCC-3L Permanent 2-4 Clean/ Inhibits clay migration and swelling. Can be
clay control added on clean or dirty side.
Slurry

KCl Temporary 0 - 7% by Pre-Mixed Inhibits clay migration and swelling.

clay control weight

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2.5.4 CLEANjel Notes

Sanjel’s CLEANjel system is unique compared to the other

water-based systems in that it is polymer-free and uses a

surfactant to create viscosity. Using a visco-elastic

surfactant means that no cross-linking agents are required to

increase viscosity. Rather, the surfactant loading and fluid

properties are simply adjusted until the desired viscosity is

achieved. Using surfactants instead of polymers results in

cleaner breaks and avoids the possibility of formation

damage from polymer residue.

The CLEANjel system has greatly improved fluid recovery

characteristics compared to conventional polymer-based

systems. The surfactant package reduces interfacial tension,

even when broken to a low viscosity. CLEANjel systems are

operationally efficient because they can be pumped on-the-

fly, and can be energized (foamed) with N2 for improved

proppant-carrying ability and enhanced fluid recovery.

However, unlike other linear systems, CLEANjel is not

methanol tolerant.

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Gellant: Notes

A base fluid of 2 to 4% KCl is required for this system.

Buffer:

Buffer-A is added to reduce the pH of the base fluid to

between 4.0 and 4.5, which provides optimum viscosity for a

particular CG-5 loading.

Breaker:

CG-1BL is the breaker for the N2 CLEANjel. It slowly

dissolves in the gel, resulting in an increase in pH to 7.5 at

which point the CLEANjel breaks to a viscosity between 1

and 2 cP.

Surfactant:

CG-5 is a viscoelastic surfactant that aligns itself, under the

proper conditions, to create microscopic structures called

micelles, which have inherent viscosity.

Addtitives:

The CLEANjel system also has other additives that do not

affect gel or break time. However, they are used to reduce

the interaction between the treating fluids and the formation.

Clay Controls SCC-1L, SCC-3L, or SCC-5L are added to

prevent clay migration and swelling in the formation.

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2.5.4.1 CLEANjel Characteristics Notes

• Surfactant-based fluid system.

• Uses a blend of visco-elastic surfactants for viscosity.

• No polymer residue.

• Can be pumped on-the-fly.

• No cross-linker used.

• Not shear sensitive.

• Not methanol tolerant.

• Compatible with N2.

• Greatly improved fluid recovery.

• Excellent stability and consistent, controlled breaks.

• Limited to bottom hole temperature of less than 50ºC,

because the linear gel is not stable at higher

temperatures.

• Limited compatibility with other additives.

Table 2-14 shows the typical chemical loadings for a

CLEANjel system.

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Table 2-14 Typical Chemical Loadings for N2 CLEANjel

Chemical Function Loading Addition Comments

L/m3 Location

Buffer-A Low pH buffer 2 Clean Decreases pH to create the gel. Added to gel
on clean side before CG-5 to promote
hydration.

SCC-1L Temporary 2-4 Clean/ Inhibits clay migration and swelling. Can be
(Canada) clay control added on clean or dirty side.
Slurry
SCC-5L (USA)

SCC-3L Permanent 2-4 Clean/ Inhibits clay migration and swelling. Can be
clay control added on clean or dirty side.
Slurry

CG-5 Surfactant 15 – 40 Clean & Creates viscosity. Added 3 L/m3 on the clean
Slurry side, and the remainder on the slurry side.

CG-1BL Breaker 1 - 10 Slurry Delayed release high pH breaker. Added on

the slurry side.

KCl Temporary 2–4 Pre-Mixed Prevent migrations and swelling. Provides a

clay control base for the surfactant to create viscosity.

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2.6 Summary of Water-based Systems

3
Chemical Function Loading L/m Location Comments

AQUAjel
WG-3ZL CMHPG Polymer 6 - 12 Clean Provides base viscosity. Pumped on-the-fly up to 3% KCl.
Buffer-A Low pH buffer 2 Clean Added to gel on clean side to promote hydration.
ZX-1L Cross-linker 1.5 - 4 Slurry Added after flowmeter on dirty side after hydrated.
Breaker-1Z Breaker (Enzyme) 4% at 1 - 4 Slurry Added at farthest valve from blender tub on slurry side.
Breaker-O Breaker (Oxidizer) 1% at 1 - 10 Slurry Added at farthest valve from blender tub on slurry side.
SCC-1L (Canada) Temporary clay control 2-4 Clean/Slurry Can be added on clean or dirty side.
SCC-5L (USA) Temporary clay control 2-4 Clean/Slurry Can be added on clean or dirty side.
SCC-2L Permanent clay control 2-4 Clean/Slurry Can be added on clean or dirty side.
SCC-3L Permanent clay control 2-4 Clean/Slurry Can be added on clean or dirty side.
KCl Temporary Clay control 0 - 7% Pre-mixed Can be added on clean or dirty side.
IFTR-1/ N2 / CO2 Interfacial tension reducer 1-2 Slurry Added on slurry side to prevent tub foaming.
CAS-1 Surfactant 1-2 Slurry Added on slurry side to prevent tub foaming.
FA-1 / FA-2 Surfactant 1-5 Slurry Added on slurry side to prevent tub foaming.
NE-3 Non-emulsifier 1 Clean/Slurry Can be added on clean or dirty side.
BORAjel
WG-2BL Guar polymer 4 - 12 Clean Batch mix or hydration unit.
Buffer-B High pH buffer 1.5 - 3.5 Clean Added only after hydration is achieved.
BX-1L / BX-1LB Crosslinker 1.5 - 5 Slurry Added only after hydration is achieved.
Breaker-1B Breaker (Enzyme) 0.5 - 10% at 1.0 - 5 Slurry Added at farthest valve from blender tub on slurry side.
Breaker-O Breaker (Oxidizer) 1-10% at 1 - 10 Slurry Added at farthest valve from blender tub on slurry side.
LTA-1 Low temperature activator 5% at 1 - 10 Slurry Low temperature activator used with Breaker-O.
3
Breaker-2B Encap. Breaker (Oxidizer) 0.1 - 5.0 kg/m Dry-add Added to the blender tub at the back of the blender.
SCC-1L (Canada) Temporary clay control 2-4 Clean/Slurry Can be added on clean or dirty side.
SCC-5L (USA) Temporary clay control 2-4 Clean/Slurry Can be added on clean or dirty side.
SCC-3L Permanent clay control 2-4 Clean/Slurry Can be added on clean or dirty side.
KCl Temporary clay control 2 - 7% Pre-Mixed Prevents clay migration and swelling.
IFTR-1 / N2 Interfacial tension reducer 1-2 Slurry Added on slurry side to prevent tub foaming.
FA-1 Surfactant 1-5 Slurry Added on slurry side to prevent tub foaming.
FA-2 Surfactant 1-5 Slurry Added on slurry side to prevent tub foaming.
NE-3 Non-emulsifier 1 Clean/Slurry Can be added on clean or dirty side.
BORAjel M
WG-4TL HPG polymer 4 - 12 Clean Batch mix or hydration unit. Up to 40% methanol.
MG-1BL HPG polymer 4 - 12 Clean Batch mix or hydration unit. Over 40% methanol.
Buffer-B High pH buffer 1.5 - 3.5 Clean Added only after hydration is achieved.
Buffer-A Low pH buffer 0.5 Clean Batch mix or hydration unit.
BX-1L Crosslinker 1.5 - 3 Slurry Added only after hydration is achieved.
Breaker-O Breaker (Oxidizer) 1-10% at 1 - 10 Slurry Added at farthest valve from blender tub on slurry side.
LTA-1 Low temperature activator 5% at 1 - 10 Slurry Low temperature activator used with Breaker-O.
3
Breaker-2B Encap. Breaker (Oxidizer) 0.5 - 5 kg/m Dry-Add Added to the blender tub at the back of the blender.
SCC-1L (Canada) Temporary clay control 2-4 Clean/Slurry Can be added on clean or dirty side.
SCC-5L (USA) Temporary clay control 2-4 Clean/Slurry Can be added on clean or dirty side.
SCC-3L Permanent clay control 2-4 Clean/Slurry Can be added on clean or dirty side.
KCl Temporary clay control 0 - 7% Pre-Mixed Prevents clay migration and swelling.
IFTR-1 / N2 Interfacial tension reducer 1-2 Slurry Added on slurry side to prevent tub foaming.
FA-1 Surfactant 1-5 Slurry Added on slurry side to prevent tub foaming.
FA-2 Surfactant 1-5 Slurry Added on slurry side to prevent tub foaming.
NE-3 Non-emulsifier 1 Clean/Slurry Can be added on clean or dirty side.
T-jel
WG-4TL HPG polymer 4 - 12 Clean Batch mix or hydration unit.
Buffer-B High pH buffer 1.5 - 3.5 Clean Added only after hydration is achieved.
TX-1L Cross-linker 2 Slurry Added only after hydration is achieved.
Breaker-1Z Breaker (Enzyme) 4% at 1 to 4 Slurry Added at farthest valve from blender tub on slurry side.
SCC-1L (Canada) Temporary clay control 2-4 Clean/Slurry Can be added on clean or dirty side.
SCC-5L (USA) Temporary clay control 2-4 Clean/Slurry Can be added on clean or dirty side.
IFTR-1 Interfacial tension reducer 1-2 Slurry Added on slurry side to prevent tub foaming.
NE-3 Non-emulsifier 1 Clean/Slurry Can be added on clean or dirty side.

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3
Chemical Function Loading L/m Location Comments

CO2 POLYjel
WG-3ZL CMHPG Polymer 6 - 12 Clean Provides base viscosity. Pumped on-the-fly up to 3% KCl.
PS-2L Surfactant (Emulsion) 5 Slurry Added on slurry side to prevent tub foaming.
Breaker-1Z Breaker (Enzyme) 0.25-1% at 1 - 3 Slurry Added at farthest valve from blender tub on slurry side.
Buffer-A Low pH buffer 2 Clean Added to gel on clean side to promote hydration.
SCC-1L (Canada) Temporary clay control 2-4 Clean/Slurry Can be added on clean or slurry side.
SCC-5L (USA) Temporary clay control 2-4 Clean/Slurry Can be added on clean or slurry side.
SCC-2L Permanent clay control 2-4 Clean/Slurry Can be added on clean or slurry side.
SCC-3L Permanent clay control 2-4 Clean/Slurry Can be added on clean or slurry side.
KCl Temporary clay control 0-7% Pre-Mixed Prevents clay migration and swelling.
N2 FOAMjel
WG-3ZL CMHPG Polymer 6 - 12 Clean Batch mix or hydration unit.
FA-1 Foaming agents 5 Slurry Added on slurry side to prevent tub foaming.
FA-2 Foaming agents 5 Slurry Added on slurry side to prevent tub foaming.
Breaker-1Z Breaker (Enzyme) 0.25 -1% at 1 - 3 Slurry Added at farthest valve from blender tub on slurry side.
Buffer-A Low pH buffer 2 Clean Added to gel on clean side to promote hydration.
SCC-1L (Canada) Temporary clay control 2. - 4 Clean/Slurry Can be added on clean or dirty side.
SCC-5L (USA) Temporary clay control 2. - 4 Clean/Slurry Can be added on clean or dirty side.
SCC-3L Permanent clay control 2-4 Clean/Slurry Can be added on clean or dirty side.
KCl Temporary clay control 0 – 7% Pre-Mixed Inhibits clay migration and swelling.
CLEANjel
3
CG-5 Surfactant 15 – 40 Clean & Slurry Added 3 L/m (clean), and the rest (slurry).
Buffer-A Low pH buffer 2 Clean Added to gel on clean side before CG-5 for hydration.
SCC-1L (Canada) Temporary clay control 2-4 Clean/Slurry Can be added on clean or dirty side.
SCC-5L (USA) Temporary clay control 2-4 Clean/Slurry Can be added on clean or dirty side.
SCC-3L Permanent clay control 2-4 Clean/Slurry Can be added on clean or dirty side.
CG-1BL Breaker 1 - 10 Slurry Added on the slurry side.
KCl Temporary clay control 2–4 Pre-Mixed Provides a base for the surfactant to create viscosity.

* IMPORTANT: The Typical Fluid Systems Chart represents the “typical” chemical components and concentrations of
Sanjel’s fluid systems. Quality control technicians must always verify the accuracy and completeness of chemical
additives and concentrations on job programs with the Technical Centre as job programs will vary based on specific job
needs.

NOTE: Some chemical products have been combined through reformulation to enhance fluid system quality and
maximize chemical unit storage space. Combinations cannot be recreated at the field level due to the reformulation
involved. (IFTR-N2 = IFTR-1 + FA-1) (IFTR-CO2 = IFTR-1 + CAS-1) (BX-1LB = BX-1L + high pH buffer)

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2.7 Review Questions

1. What are the three basic components of any water-based fluid system?

a. b. c.

2. What might happen if, by mistake, you added Buffer B to an AQUAjel system
instead of Buffer A?

3. Why can energized systems be useful for moderately water-sensitive zones?

4. List 1 advantage of water-based fluids.

5. List all of Sanjel’s water-based fluid systems that use a CMHPG polymer in its
base gel.

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Notes
3.0 HYDROCARBON-
BASED FRACTURING
SYSTEMS
3.1 Objectives
The objectives specify what you should know and the tasks

you should be able to perform by the end of the unit.

Upon completion of the unit you will be able to:

• Identify the general components and additives in

Sanjel’s hydrocarbon-based fracturing fluid systems.

• Understand the advantages and disadvantages of

hydrocarbon-based fracturing fluid systems.

• Describe the specific components, additives and

characteristics of each hyrocarbon-based fracturing

fluid system.

3.2 Introduction
The first hydrocarbon-based systems were aluminum salts of

long chain fatty acids, similar to napalm. These systems

were replaced by a phosphate-ester system in the 1970’s,

and are what Sanjel uses in its hydrocarbon-based (or oil-

based) systems today.

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Notes
3.3 Sanjel’s
Hydrocarbon-based
Fluid Systems
Sanjel uses two different oil-based fluid systems for

fracturing. Unlike water-based systems that have cross-

linked and non-crosslinked fluid systems, Sanjel’s oil-based

systems are all cross-linked. Figure 3-1 shows Sanjel’s oil-

based fluid systems.

Sanjel's Hydrocarbon Based

Fracturing Systems

OILjel
OILjel LT

Figure 3-1 Oil-based Fluid Systems

Both systems are very similar. However, the key difference

between OILjel and OILjel LT is that OILjel can used in a

broad temperature range (20-120ºC), whereas the OILjel LT

is designed for use in low temperatures (20-75ºC), therefore

requiring some different fluid components and additives.

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Notes
3.3.1 Fluid System Components
Sanjel’s oil-based fracturing fluid systems will consist of a

minimum of 4 components: (1) base fluid, (2) gellant,

(3) activator, and (4) breaker.

3.3.1.1 Base Fluid

The base fluid of oil gels can be any type of stable

condensate, hydrocarbon reformates, crude oil, or untreated

diesel fuel.

However, every base fluid reacts slightly differently and

laboratory testing is required to determine the specific

rheological and breaking properties, as well as thermal

stability. Consequently, oil based fluids require a great deal

of pre-job testing and quality control prior to use.

3.3.1.2 Gellant

In Sanjel’s oil-based fluid systems, all base fluids are gelled

using a phosphate-ester gelling agent. These include: OG-

5G LT and OG-6G.

The phosphate-ester system is based on the formation of

surfactant micelles consisting of a polar (hydrophilic) core

and a hydrophobic tail. Surfactants will stabilize the micelle

interface by forming a fluid, two-dimensional sheet, almost

like a balloon, that separates the two phases, reducing the

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interfacial tension (energy) and allowing the phases to Notes

remain mixed. See Section 1.5.2.5 on Surfactants.

OG-5G LT: This phosphate-ester gelling agent quickly forms

a gel without requiring hydration time. When

combined with OG-5A LT (activator), its viscosity

compares favorably to the best cross-linked, gelled-

water frac systems. OG-5G LT is designed for use

with the OILjel LT (low temperature) system, and is

stable in downhole temperatures up to 75ºC.

OG-6G: This phosphate-ester gelling agent is very similar to

OG-5G LT in that it quickly forms a gel without

requiring hydration time, and has excellent viscosities

when combined with OG-6A (activator). Unlike OG-

5G LT, OG-6G is designed for use with the OILjel

system, and is stable over a much more broad

temperature range, up to 121ºC.

3.3.1.3 Activator

By adding a “cross-linking agent” to a fluid system, the

solution will become viscous, and increase sand-carrying

capability. In oil-based fluid systems, this cross-linking agent

is called an “activator”. Sanjel’s activators cross-link very

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rapidly and can be pumped on-the-fly. (See Section 3.4.1 on Notes

Cross-Linked OILjels).

Unlike water-based systems, the gellant alone does not add

viscosity to the base fluid. Instead, the gellant must be

combined with an activator to create viscosity.

Interactions between aluminum or iron complexes (in the

activator) and phosphate-ester stabilized micelles (in the

base fluid) produce polymer-like networks throughout the

fluid. This interaction results in viscosity development, or

“gelling” of the base fluid.

The fluids are thickened in order to:

• Increase the fluid’s proppant carrying capability.

• Decrease undesirable fluid loss.

• Increase fracture width.

Sanjel uses two different kinds of activators, each used in

different temperature ranges.

OG-5A LT: OG-5A LT is the aluminum-based activator used

in Sanjel’s low temperature OILjel LT system. When

combined with OG-5G LT (gellant), the activator

yields a highly viscous and temperature stable

hydrocarbon gel. This activator is stable up to 75ºC.

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OG-6A: OG-6A is the iron-based activator used with Sanjel’s Notes

OILjel system. Because this activator is iron-based, it

provides more temperature stability for use in higher

temperature jobs. When combined with OG-6G

(gellant), the activator yields a highly viscous and

temperature stable hydrocarbon gel. This activator is

stable up to 150ºC.

3.3.1.4 Breaker

Breakers are additives that cause the viscosity of fracturing

fluids to fall slowly over time, until they return back to their

original viscosity. This allows the fluid to easily be flowed

back to surface. (See Section 1.5.2.2 on Breakers).

Sanjel uses alkaline pH adjustors as breakers in oil-based

systems. In oil gels, pH adjustors raise the pH so the system

will become unstable. Although pH is the primary cause for

the break, other factors will influence the break time,

including:

• Temperature and shear history of the gel.

• Concentration and particle size of the breaker.

• Type of hydrocarbon used and its water content.

• Type and concentration of the gellant and activator.

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Therefore, pre-job testing of specific fluids at realistic Notes

downhole temperatures is very important prior to every job.

OG-5BL: OG-5BL is the breaker used with Sanjel’s OILjel

system. It is a slurried breaker system that will

dissolve steadily to reduce fluid viscosity. It is

effective at 20-150ºC with all OILjel systems.

OG-6BL: OG-6BL is a lower strength version of OG-5BL

breaker. Like OG-5BL, OG-6BL is a slurried breaker

system that is effective at 20-150ºC. However, OG-

6BL is specifically designed for use with low rate

fracturing jobs.

3.3.2 Fluid System Additives

There is only one additive used with Sanjel’s hydrocarbon-

based fluid systems, and is always included in any OILjel

system.

3.3.2.1 Non-Emulsifier

Non-emulsifiers are added to fracturing fluids to prevent the

creation of emulsions when the fluid interacts with reservoir

fluids, or to treat emulsions that have already occurred. (See

Section 1.5.2.3 on Non-Emulsifiers). Sanjel uses only one

type of non-emulsifier with its oil-based fluid systems.

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NE-2: NE-2 is a complex blend of no-ionic surfactants that Notes

functions as a non-emulsifier and interfacial tension

control agent. Being non-ionic, NE-2 leaves the

formation water-wet, improving the flow of

hydrocarbons. (See Section 1.5.2.5 on Surfactants).

3.3.3 Advantages of Hydrocarbon-

based Fracturing Fluids
The following are some of the advantages of hydrocarbon-

based fluid systems when compared to water-based

systems:

• Can be used in water-sensitive formations.

• Not sensitive to high shear rates and does not require

a long hydration period.

• Lower friction pressures than water based systems

during pumping.

• Run on the fly and compatible with N2 and CO2.

• Can be used in formations up to approximately 100ºC.

• Lower density than water-based systems. The lighter

fluid has a lower hydrostatic head, which requires

higher overall surface pressure while pumping.

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Notes
3.3.4 Disadvantages of Hydrocarbon-
based Fracturing Fluids
The following are some of the disadvantages of

hydrocarbon-based fluid systems when compared to water-

based systems:

• Highly flammable.

• Higher pumping friction.

• Higher pumping pressures due to lack of hydrostatic

pressure.

• Less predictable system outside of laboratory

conditions.

• More difficult to prepare and work with on the job.

• More costly.

3.4 OILjel Series

Both the OILjel and OILjel LT systems share many similar

characteristics, with the primary difference being the

temperature ranges that each fluid system is best used for.

All OILjels are ideal for water-sensitive formations. As

OILjels contain no water or aqueous additives, they are

completely inert (non-reacting), compatible with, and non-

damaging toward clay-rich formations.

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Fracturing with OILjels is recommended for reservoirs that Notes

contain heavy crude oils, rich in paraffins and asphaltenes,

where precipitation catalyzed by adverse interactions with

aqueous fluids can lead to severe formation damage.

3.4.1 Cross-linked OILjels

All of Sanjel’s hydrocarbon-based fluid systems are cross-

linked. The cross-linking in these fluid systems works, in

concept, the same way as a water-based cross-linker. (See

Section 1.4.5 on Cross-linking Water-based Systems). The

cross-linking reaction is one where the molecules of the one

strand are linked or “bridged” together by metal-containing

anions, creating a network of interconnected strands.

Unlike water-based systems, the gellant alone does not add

viscosity to the base fluid. Instead, the gellant must be cross-

linked with an activator to create viscosity.

Sanjel’s activators cross-link very rapidly and can be

pumped on-the-fly. This eliminates the need for pre-mixing of

gelling agent and cross-linker, minimizing the potential for

unused (wasted) hydrocarbon. Sanjel’s cross-linked systems

include: OILjel and OILjel LT.

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3.4.1.1 OILjel Series Characteristics Notes

• Uses a phosphate-ester gelling agent.

• Uses an organo-metallic complex as an activator.

• Not shear sensitive.

• Low surface treating and tubular friction pressures.

• Ideal for water sensitive formations.

• Can be pumped on-the-fly.

• No residue is left after treatment.

• Can be energized with CO2 or N2.

3.4.2 OILjel
The OILjel system is used in the temperature range 20-

120ºC. OILgel is a strong gel that stays more viscous at

higher temperatures.

Gellant:

OG-6G is the viscosifying agent used in the OILjel system. It

quickly forms a gel without hydration, and is designed for

use in a broad temperature range, up to 121ºC.

Activator:

OG-6A is the activator used in the OILjel system. OG-6A is

stable up to 150ºC. Activator needs to be added on both the

clean and dirty side of the blender (2-3 2-3 L/M3 on clean

after flowmeter, with the remainder on the slurry side).

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Adding some activator on the clean side provides enough Notes

viscosity to carry the sand through the blender. However,

adding all of it on the clean side would cause it to be too

viscous to run through the blender. So the remainder is

added on the slurry side.

Breaker:

OG-5BL or OG-6BL can be used with the OILjel system.

(OG-6BL is designed for low rate fracturing jobs). Both

breakers slowly dissolve to reduce viscosity, and is effective

at 20-150ºC.

Non-Emulsifier:

NE-2 is used with the OILjel system to prevent emulsions

from forming. Being non-ionic, NE-2 leaves the formation

water-wet, improving the flow of hydrocarbons.

Table 3-1 shows the typical chemical loadings for an OILjel

system.

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Notes
Table 3-1 Typical Chemical Loadings for OILjel

Chemical Function Loading Addition Comments

L/m3 Location

OG-6G Gelling 3-10 Clean Gellant needs to be well

agent mixed before activation.
Pumped on-the-fly.

OG-6A Activator 3-10 Clean and Split 2-3 L/M3 on clean

Slurry after flowmeter, with the
remainder on the slurry
side.

OG-5BL Breaker 8-10 Slurry Breaker is added on slurry

side after gel has formed.
OG-6BL

NE-2 Non- 1 Clean/ Reduces interaction

emulsifier between the treating
Slurry
fluids, and prevents
emulsification. Can be
added to the clean or
slurry side.

3.4.3 OILjel LT
The OILjel LT (low temperature) system is used in the

temperature range 20-75ºC. OILgel LT tends to thin, or lose

viscosity at higher temperatures.

Gellant:

OG-5G LT is the viscosifying agent used in the OILjel LT

system. It quickly forms a gel without hydration, and is

designed for use in a temperature range, up to 75ºC.

Activator:

OG-5A LT is the activator used in the OILjel LT system. OG-

5A LT is stable up to 75ºC. Activator needs to be added on

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both the clean and dirty side of the blender (2-3 2-3 L/M3 on Notes

clean after flowmeter, with the remainder on the slurry side).

Adding some activator on the clean side provides enough

viscosity to carry the sand through the blender. However,

adding all of it on the clean side would cause it to be too

viscous to run through the blender. So the remainder is

added on the slurry side.

Breaker:

OG-5BL or OG-6BL can be used with the OILjel LT system.

(OG-6BL is designed for low rate fracturing jobs). Both

breakers slowly dissolve to reduce viscosity, and is effective

at 20-150ºC.

Non-Emulsifier:

NE-2 is used with the OILjel system to prevent emulsions

from forming. Being non-ionic, NE-2 leaves the formation

water-wet, improving the flow of hydrocarbons.

Table 3-2 shows the typical chemical loadings for an OILjel

LT system.

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Notes
Table 3-2 Typical Chemical Loadings for OILjel LT

Chemical Function Loading Addition Comments

L/m3 Location

OG-5G Gelling 3-10 Clean Gellant needs to be well

LT agent mixed before activation.
Pumped on-the-fly.

OG-5A Activator 3-10 Clean and Split 2-3 L/M3 on clean

LT Slurry after flowmeter, with the
remainder on the slurry
side.

OG-5BL Breaker 8-10 Slurry Breaker is added on slurry

side after gel has formed.
OG-6BL

NE-2 Non- 1 Clean/ Reduces interaction

emulsifier between the treating
Slurry
fluids, and prevents
emulsification. Can be
added to the clean or
slurry side.

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3.5 Summary of Hydrocarbon-based

Fluid Systems Chart *
OILjel
OG-6G Gelling agent 3-10 Clean Gelling agent for high temp. systems. Pumped on-the-fly.
3
OG-6A Activator 3-10 Clean & Slurry Split 2-3 L/M (clean) after flowmeter, the rest on slurry.
OG-5BL Breaker 8-10 Slurry Breaker is added on slurry side after gel has formed.
OG-6BL Breaker 8-10 Slurry Breaker is added on slurry side after gel has formed.
NE-2 Non-emulsifier 1 Clean/Slurry Can be added to the clean or slurry side.
OILjel LT
OG-5G LT Gelling agent 3-10 Clean Gelling agent for low temp. systems. Pumped on-the-fly.
3
OG-5A LT Activator 3-10 Clean & Slurry Split 2-3 L/M (clean) after flowmeter, the rest on slurry.
OG-5BL Breaker 8-10 Slurry Breaker is added on slurry side after gel has formed.
OG-6BL Breaker 8-10 Slurry Breaker is added on slurry side after gel has formed.
NE-2 Non-emulsifier 1 Clean/Slurry Can be added to the clean or slurry side.

* IMPORTANT: The Typical Fluid Systems Chart represents the “typical” chemical components and concentrations of
Sanjel’s fluid systems. Quality control technicians must always verify the accuracy and completeness of chemical
additives and concentrations on job programs with the Technical Centre as job programs will vary based on specific job
needs.

NOTE: Some chemical products have been combined through reformulation to enhance fluid system quality and
maximize chemical unit storage space. Combinations cannot be recreated at the field level due to the reformulation
involved. (IFTR-N2 = IFTR-1 + FA-1) (IFTR-CO2 = IFTR-1 + CAS-1) (BX-1LB = BX-1L + high pH buffer)

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3.6 Review Questions

1. What are the 4 basic components of any hydrocarbon-based system?

a. b. c. d.

2. What type of formations are OILjels ideal for?

3. List 2 drawbacks to using OILjels.

a.

b.

4. When would you use OILjel LT instead of OILjel?

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Notes
4.0 EMULSION BASED
FRACTURING
SYSTEMS
4.1 Objectives
The objectives specify what you should know and the tasks

you should be able to perform by the end of the unit.

Upon completion of the unit you will be able to:

• Identify the general components and additives in

Sanjel’s emulsion-based fracturing fluid systems.

• Understand the advantages and disadvantages of

emulsion-based fracturing fluid systems.

• Describe the specific components, additives and

charactistics of each emulsion-based fracturing fluid

system.

4.2 Introduction
Emulsions are multiphase fluids created by mixing oil, water

and surfactant under high shear. Surfactants are “surface-

active agents” that may be added to one or more immiscible

(unmixable) substances, like oil and water, in order to create

a stable mixture or emulsion. (See Section 1.5.2.5 on

Surfactants). This interaction forms two phases, an external

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phase and an internal continuous phase. The interference Notes

between the two phases increases the fluid's viscosity.

Surfactants will stabilize the oil/water interface by forming a

fluid, two-dimensional sheet, almost like a balloon, that

separates the internal and external oil and water phases,

reducing the interfacial tension (energy) and allowing the

phases to remain mixed. (Figure 4-1).

Water

Oil

Surfactant

Figure 4-1 Oil-Water Surfactant

Emulsions can be created with either a water-external or oil-

external phase. At Sanjel, emulsion-based fluids are water-

external, which significantly reduces friction pressures.

4.2.1 Advantages of Emulsion-based

Fluid Systems
The following are some of the advantages of water-external

emulsion-based fluid systems when compared to other fluid

systems:

• Lower friction pressure than oil-external emulsions.

• Require only one-quarter the gelling agent, surfactant

and other additives.

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• Cost-effective because lease crude is typically used Notes

for internal phase.

• The oil in the mixture can be produced back and sold.

• Easy to mix and pump.

• Good fluid loss control.

• Excellent proppant carrying ability.

• Very low residue after treatment.

• Not shear sensitive.

4.2.2 Disadvantaged of Emulsion-

based Fluid Systems
The following are some of the disadvantages of water-

external emulsion-based fluid systems when compared to

other fluid systems:

• Higher friction pressure than comparable water-based

gels. (However, further friction pressure can be

reduced by adding polymers in the water-external

phase.)

• Must be hydrated with a hydration unit or through

batch mixing.

• Loses viscosity at higher temperatures.

• Highly flammable.

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Notes
4.3 Sanjel’s POLYjel
Fluid System
Several of Sanjel’s fracturing fluids resemble an emulsion.

Any of our foamed fluids, such as CO2 POLYjel, are basically

a gas-in-liquid emulsion. However, the only fluid system that

is classified as an “emulsion system” in Sanjel’s fracturing

fluid systems, is POLYjel.

Sanjel’s POLYjel system is a water-external, polyemulsion

gel, with an internal phase of oil. The emulsion is three parts

oil to one part aqueous base gel, with a viscosity range of

160 cP to 240 cP. The water (aqueous) phase is a linear gel,

created with a non-derivatized guar polymer. The oil phase

may consist of produced crude oil, diesel, or any stable

condensate.

The POLYjel system itself is highly cost effective, since it

requires only one-quarter the amount of gelling agent and

additives of other traditional aqueous fracturing fluids. (The

other three-quarters of the fluid volume is the internal oil

phase). This system is useful in formations with bottom-hole

temperatures up to 100°C, due to stability of the linear gel.

The POLYjel system is ideally suited for water-sensitive

formations. These fluids have superior leak-off

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characteristics, excellent proppant carrying capacity and Notes

aggressive well clean up.

4.3.1 Fluid System Components

Base Fluid

Water makes up the external phase. Oil makes up the

internal phase and can consist of produced crude oil, diesel,

or any stable condensate.

Gellant

WG-2BL (guar polymer) is the viscosifying agent for the

aqueous phase of the POLYjel fracturing system. Because

WG-2BL hydrates slowly, it must be either batch mixed or

run with a hydration unit. WG-2BL in the water phase

provides added viscosity and stability. However, as the oil

ratio increases, the viscosity of the fluid increases, at the

expense of its stability. When too much oil is added, it will

start seeping out and the emulsion will break back into

immiscible phases of oil and water.

Surfactant Foamer

PS-1L is the surfactant used in the POLYjel system to create

a water/oil emulsion, with water-external and oil-internal

phases. PS-1L is adaptable because it can be used with any

type of distillate, crude or frac oil. It has excellent proppant

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transport characteristics, and is a highly effective foaming Notes

agent. PS-2L will produce stable emulsions at temperatures

up to 50°C.

Breaker

Breaker-1Z (enzyme) is added to the POLYjel system. It will

degrade (“break”) the polymer's molecular structure and

revert the fluid to low viscosity, which destabilizes the

emulsion.

Breaker-1Z can be used independently for wells with a

bottom hole temperature of 75ºC or lower. Temperatures

higher than 75ºC tend to cause the enzyme in Breaker-1Z to

denature. Breaker concentration may be adjusted to tailor

the break time in accordance with individual applications.

The emulsion is also broken when the formation absorbs the

surfactant or when the fluids in the formation change the

ratio of oil to water.

4.3.2 Fluid System Additives

The POLYjel system only has one other additive, which is

used to reduce the interaction between the treating fluids

and the formation.

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Clay Control Notes

Clay Controls SCC-1L, SCC-2L, SCC-3L, or SCC-5L are

added to prevent clay migration and swelling in the

formation.

4.3.3 POLYjel Characteristics

• Good leak off characteristics.

• Can be used in formations with a bottom hole

temperature up to 100ºC.

• Only requires one-quarter the polymer and additives

required for the water phase, compared to completely

water-based systems.

• The friction properties of POLYjel are between those

of linear and cross-linked gels.

• POLYjel is more stable with increased shear.

• Excellent viscosity and fluid loss properties, but lose

their viscosity at higher temperatures.

• Guar is the viscosifying agent, which is inexpensive.

• Does not use a cross-linker for added viscosity.

• Batch mixing the linear gel is time consuming.

Table 4-1 shows the typical chemical loadings for a POLYjel

system.

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Table 4-1 Typical Chemical Loadings for POLYjel

Chemical Function Loading Addition Comments

L/m3 Location

WG-2BL Guar 6 Clean Provides linear gel viscosity. Batch mix or

Polymer hydration unit.

Breaker-1Z Breaker 1% at Slurry Enzyme breaker, effective at temperatures

up to 75ºC. Added at farthest valve from
5
blender tub on slurry side.

PS-1L Surfactant 5 Clean Creates emulsion between linear gel and

crude oil. Added to the water stream just
before the suction pump.

SCC-1L (Canada) Temporary 2 to 4 Clean/ Inhibits clay migration and swelling. Can be
clay control added on clean or dirty side.
SCC-5L (USA) Slurry

SCC-2L Permanent 2 to 4 Clean/ Inhibits clay migration and swelling. Can be

clay control added on clean or dirty side.
SCC-3L Slurry

4.4 Summary of Emulsion-based Fluid

Systems
POLYjel
WG-2BL Guar Polymer 6 Clean Batch mix or hydration unit.
Breaker-1Z Breaker 1% at 5 Slurry Added at farthest valve from blender tub on slurry side.
PS-1L Surfactant 5 Clean Added to the water stream just before the suction pump.
SCC-1L (Canada) Temporary clay control 2 to 4 Clean/Slurry Can be added on clean or dirty side.
SCC-5L (USA) Temporary clay control 2 to 4 Clean/Slurry Can be added on clean or dirty side.
SCC-2L Permanent clay control 2 to 4 Clean/Slurry Can be added on clean or dirty side.
SCC-3L Permanent clay control 2 to 4 Clean/Slurry Can be added on clean or dirty side.

* IMPORTANT: The Typical Fluid Systems Chart represents the “typical” chemical components and concentrations of
Sanjel’s fluid systems. Quality control technicians must always verify the accuracy and completeness of chemical
additives and concentrations on job programs with the Technical Centre as job programs will vary based on specific job
needs.

NOTE: Some chemical products have been combined through reformulation to enhance fluid system quality and
maximize chemical unit storage space. Combinations cannot be recreated at the field level due to the reformulation
involved. (IFTR-N2 = IFTR-1 + FA-1) (IFTR-CO2 = IFTR-1 + CAS-1) (BX-1LB = BX-1L + high pH buffer)

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4.5 Review Questions

1. What is the ratio of oil to water in a Sanjel emulsion fluid system?

Parts Water To Parts Oil

2. List 2 advantages to using emulsion-based fluid systems.

a.

b.

3. Why is the POLYjel emulsion ideally suited for water-sensitive formations?

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TRAINING MANUAL FEEDBACK

Please evaluate the Introduction to Fracturing Fluids training manual by answering the

following questions. The training department at Sanjel uses this information to improve

the quality of training.

1. The objectives were clearly specified and achievable. Yes

If the answer is No, please explain. No

2. The content was relevant to the job. Yes

If the answer is No, please explain. No

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4. The material has too much detail. Yes

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Thank you for providing feedback on this unit. Please send the completed form to:

The Training Department

Sanjel Corporation
505 2nd St SW
Calgary, AB T2P 1N8

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