IBAU HAMBURG Guidelines

“How to avoid lump formation in cement silos”

Content

1. Introduction

2. Lump formation in cement silos

2.1 Lump formation characteristics

2.2 Cement temperatures and gypsum dehydration
2.3 Water spray cement cooling and pre hydration
2.4 Inadequate wall structures and silo roofing
2.5 Problems with moisture before first filling
2.6 Problems with condensate and inadequate
equipment maintenance

3. How lump formation can be avoided

3.1 General conditions

3.2 Silo construction and bottom aeration
3.3 Operational procedures for storage silos

4. Recommendations

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1. Introduction

It is well documented that gypsum dehydration after cement milling is a

major reason for lump formation in silos. Nevertheless with partial
replacement of gypsum by anhydrite, improved mill flow sheets, mill
venting, water spray techniques and cement cooling the effect on lump
formation can be significantly reduced. Additionally, with the trend to
vertical roller mills (VRM) in cement grinding the gypsum dehydration is
further reduced, because VRMs are more energy efficient and dissipate
less heat into the product.
On the other hand in the last few years, other problems such as inade-
quate silo roofing, cracks in the wall structure, insufficient concrete drying
after erection may have increased due to the overall success of large
concrete silos for the storage of cement, and perhaps the more widespread
erection by none specialist contractors.
With some newcomers to the cement production industry and their very
ambitious time schedules to get plants operational, maybe in some cases
also the written procedures by the silo equipment suppliers have not
completely followed and the formation of lumps in silos has been endorsed.

When the formation of lumps in silos is not a structural process problem,

than lump breakers at the discharge equipment can eliminate some of the
problems, but if the problems are more severe and the formation of lumps
increases, than the silo extraction rates will decline, until at the end the
discharge equipment is completely blocked and the cement in the silo has
to be mechanically removed. This is rather costly and may also cause
severe problems in plant operation. Operational procedures by the
equipment suppliers also foresee a structured filling of the silo after the first
operation with a complete emptying after the first 20% filling with following
complete emptying procedures after each year. Here the silo operator has
to provide a time schedule to come to a safe operation and frequent
complete silo emptying.

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2. Lump formation in cement silos

2.1 Lump formation characteristics

Lumps have different sizes and colours. Their size can be just a few
centimetres or larger than a meter, depending how they have formed. Their
constitution can also be very different from relatively weak to relatively
hard. Although lumps can already be transported into the silo, e.g. by
bucket elevators and condensate formation within a bucket elevator or from
cement ships and barges that had leaking hatch covers or ballast tanks,
this is relatively seldom. Normally, lumps are formed within the silo.

(Fig. 1) indicates the different reasons of lump formation in cement silos.

Silo feeding from the cement mill with a too high cement temperature and
too high moisture (after water spraying), can cause gypsum dehydration
and cement pre-hydration within the silo. Under specific circumstances the
aeration air for the silo discharge can have an effect as well. Free water
penetration into the silo is mainly via the silo roof, cracks in the silo wall
and from insufficient drying of the concrete after silo erection. Other water
penetration possibilities are from inadequate water drainage and drying of
silo discharge equipment before first silo filling or through feeding lines or
pipes/filters interfering the silo. It should be noted that for avoiding dust
emissions during operation there is a small under-pressure within the silo
that will intensify any water penetration into the silo.

Coatings and lumps at the silo wall are mainly due to the dehydration of the
gypsum contents or cement prehydration within the silo. Irregular lumps in
specific sections or all over the silo are mainly due to a coating peeling at
the silo walls or water penetration into the silo, especially from the silo roof.

2.2 Cement temperature and gypsum dehydration

In the cement grinding process, about 3-5% calcium sulfate is added as a

set regulator, usually in the form of gypsum dihydrate (CaSO4 + 2H2O) /1/.
Most of the energy input in the grinding process is transferred into heat and
accordingly the cement will be heated up during the grinding process and
the gypsum can be completely or partly dehydrated. It then forms
hemihydrate (CaSO4 + 1/2H2O) and with further heating in a second step
anhydrite (CaCO4 III) is formed. The dehydration starts at temperatures of
about 60 °C and the gypsum is nearly completely dehydrated at about 120
°C .

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The cement temperature strongly depends on the mill type. Traditionally
the closed circuit ball mill (Fig. 2) with high efficiency separator has been
the most common cement grinding system, despite the fact that ball mills
are not very energy efficient for the grinding of cement, when compared
e.g. with vertical roller mills (VRM). Accordingly today VRM increasingly
substitute ball mills. Compared to ball mills, that dissipate about 75% of the
power consumption into heat, VRM dissipate “only” about 50% of the
power as the retention time of the cement in the mill is shorter and the
grinding principle is different. The degree of dehydration is a function of mill
discharge temperature as illustrated in (Fig. 3) for two different ball mills
with different temperature profile, retention time and humidity of the air in
the mill /2/.

When the cement temperature is high and the cement still contains a lot of
gypsum that is not dehydrated, dehydration of gypsum may also take place
during the cement storage in the silo, where the cement temperature will
remain almost constant over a long period of time (Fig. 4). There are
several investigations /3-4/ that came to a conclusion that from the
dehydration of gypsum at temperatures above 80° C water vapor
condenses on the wall of the silo, because there is a temperature gradient
from the cement in the middle of the silo to the cement at the silo walls.
The water vapor results in a partial pre-hydration of C3A in the silo. The
reaction products include beside tabular hydrated aluminates, substantially
acicular ettringite (K2SO4 * CaSO4 * H2O) and syngenite (3 CaO * Al2O3
*3CaSO4 * 32 H2O), which form a rigid structure. Accordingly lumps and
coatings are formed at the silo wall. Coating formation in cement silos can
be considerably reduced by low SO3 content in the cement or replacement
of gypsum by Anhydrite or Hemihydrite /5-6/.

The water amount from the gypsum dehydration is significant /7/. One ton
of cement that contains about 3% gypsum leads to 4,4 kg water from the
difference in mass percentages of the crystal water in the gypsum
dehydrate and gypsum hemihydrate (Table 1). In a silo with 5000 t storage
capacity about 22 t of water can be set free, when the complete
dehydration is in the silo. If the cement temperature leaving the cement mill
and entering the silo is above 90°C then almost all remaining gypsum
dihydrate will be transferred to gypsum hemihydrate. (Fig. 5) shows the
results of on online XRD cement mill product analysis. Accordingly with an
average gypsum contents of about 1.5 weigh% in a 5000 t silo more than 5
t of water will be set free when 50% of the dehydration is in the silo. This
will increase the water content in the cement silo by 0.1% and will have a
large effect on lump formation, especially, if the water content (humidity) of
the cement is already above 0.5%.

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2.3 Water spray cement cooling and prehydration

In cement ball mills the cement temperature is often above 120 °C.
Accordingly ball mills need to be cooled to limit the temperature rise of the
cement /8/. This is mainly done by direct water-cooling or a mixture of air-
and water cooling. While water injection for temperature control is usually
not required for vertical roller mills, the water cooling method is broadly
used in the finish ball mills of the cement plant. The primary purpose of
spraying water into the finish cement mill is:

1) optimise mill temperature resp. cement product temperature to

control gypsum hydration
2) optimise cement temperature for storage in cement silo.

Water spray conditions can have multiple influences on cement storage,

but also on the cement properties such as setting time and strength (Fig.
6). If too much water is added, cement minerals may prehydrate, resulting
in a decreased cement reactivity or reduced strength. In large operating
cement ball mills, because of the relatively low mill air volume and a large
water injection the partial water vapor pressure can strongly increase and
the cement water content can exceed 0.6% /9/. It has to be noted, that a
too high cement humidity above 0.5% can lead to prehydration and
formation of lumps in the cement silo.

2.4 Inadequate wall structures and silo roofing

Principally, if the silo buildings are properly installed, there is no problem

from silo structures or absorption of humidity by the cement with lump
formation in silos, even in heavy rain climate zones. On the other hand a
non-adequate silo slip forming and roof construction is often found as a
reason for water penetration into a silo.

Today, the silo wall of a reinforced concrete or post-tensioned silo is

normally performed as a slipform concrete structure (Fig. 7). This means
that a formwork of about 1.2 m height permanently has to be moved
upwards with an average hourly rate of about 10 – 20 cm. The rate of
concreting and installing of reinforcement has to be adapted to this speed
as well as the concrete mix, because hardening of the concrete governs
the progress of the slipform procedure. Slipform concrete needs both –
skilled planners and skilled personnel on site, otherwise there will be
severe quality problems. During the slipforming procedure a permanent

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supervision is strongly recommended because there is no possibility for
amendments later. If all is done properly the concrete strength is
corresponding to a cast-in situ concrete. There can be minor deficiencies of
the concrete cover, which are starting points for water penetration.

Water penetration problems from an inadequate silo roofing are larger than
from the silo walls. Often loose cladding panels, leakages at the silo roof
mounting frame, defects in bridge adjustments between silos, defect
manholes and filter dust return openings can be found. But apart from
leakages that are easily to be seen, there are also structural problems in
silo roofing with inadequate roof reinforcement and missing galvanisation
against corrosion of steel reinforcement and fittings, so that cracks on the
silo roof occur, that give room for the penetration of water into the silo. The
silo under-pressure that is necessary for silo dedusting still intensifies the
problem, so that rain water on the silo roof is drawn through cracks or
leakages into the silo. For large storage silos, safety practises such as
heavy roof reinforcements and roof steel galvanisation are common /10/.

2.5 Problems with moisture before first filling

Sometimes, the residual moisture content of the concrete after silo erection
sometimes has been found as the reason for lumps in silos. First silo filling
may only take place after sufficient drying of the concrete structure. This is
worth below 5.0 mass %, and depending on the concrete thickness,
relative air humidity and temperature and ventilation conditions at the site
and can take several weeks. Such a dryness may only be reached in time
by additional heating of the silo bottom an walls and/or aeration of the
fluidslides at the silo bottom for air ventilation and open manholes before
filling. If the residual moisture in the concrete is still above 5% and the silo
is filled with cement, the moisture resp. vapor is released into the cement.
This normally leads to coating effects at the silo wall and corresponding
lump formation, when the coating is peeling off.

Another effect is from moisture/water that has been formed during erection
and that is still within the aeration system. If this water is not drained before
first filling and if the aeration fabrics are not dried, the aeration fabrics will
become encrusted and there is no controlled aeration all over the silo
bottom possible. As a result, no complete silo emptying is possible and
lumps will be formed.

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2.6 Problems with condensate and inadequate equipment
maintenance

During normal operation from the silo aeration with compressors and
blowers no condensate formation is possible. This is a little different during
a standstill time of the silo, when condensate within the aeration system
might have accumulated. This is especially the case when compressed air
is taken from the cement factory pipework. Here, condensate formation
within the pipework is common, so that the aeration system has to be
equipped with condensate traps and before silo aeration the water in the
system has to be blown free.

If there is no proper maintenance of the silo system, then several mis-

functions can occur. The aeration cycle can be interrupted, so that during a
cycle not all sections of the silo will be aerated, or aeration of silo sections
is without any discharge. Such cases will lead to a lump formation within
the silo. Other problems that might occur because of inadequate
maintenance are leakage problems with aeration slides, or that water
penetrates into the aeration system through unsealed components.

3. How lump formation can be avoided

3.1 General conditions

If the dehydration of the gypsum during cement grinding is not complete

and the cement going into the silo is too hot (above 70 °C), gypsum may
dehydrate in the silo. Cement temperature is mainly controlled by water
injection. If water cooling is difficult to control prehydration can arise.
Alternative methods of avoiding problems with hot cement include

1) cooling with mill air

2) partial replacement of gypsum with anhydrite
3) external cement cooling

Cooling efficiency of mill air is relatively low, but air cooling can be
sufficient in open-circuit mills up to 3.3 m diameter and in closed circuit
mills of to 3.9 m diameter /9/. Generally, the ball mill cement grinding plant
should be operated in a way, that maximum dehydration of the gypsum in
the mill circuit is obtained, however not to such an extend that false set
occurs. Anhydrite as some of the sulphate source is helpful when the C3A
content of the cement is less than 8% /9/.

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Another option is an indirect cooling with a separate cement cooler (Fig. 8).
Cement coolers are working on the counter-flow principle. An inside rotor
conveys the hot cement from the bottom of the cooler to the top. The
indirect heat exchange is effected through the contact of the cement with
the water-cooled cylinder. The method allows cement temperatures below
60 °C, which are recommended for trouble-free cement storage in silos.

3.2 Silo construction and bottom aeration

Although the silo structure must be water-proof and the inner silo concrete
structures must have dried out completely, the silo roof often is a weak-
point in the silo construction with the possibility of water penetration
through leaks. To overcome problems of inadequate construction there are
at least two possibilities. A very cost effective measure is to apply a coating
on the silo roof with an adequate sealing of manholes, flaps and other
openings. Some operators have made good experience with a penthouse
on the silo roof that houses all openings.

Often the compressed air for the silo aeration is regarded as a source for
moisture in the silo. This is due to the effect, that normally no air dryer is
foreseen and the induction air for the compressor can be 100% water
saturated. This will lead with normal pressures and compressed air
temperatures of about 90 °C in fact to a relative compressed air humidity
of only 5-6%, but when the compressed air cools down to ambient
temperatures, condensate will be formed. Nevertheless the moisture or
condensate from the compressed air is extracted from the silo with the
material discharge and as long as the cement within the silo is not aerated
without cement discharge, no moisture accumulation is possible. Moisture
from the condensate will increase the humidity of the extracted cement by
only 0.0025 % at ambient temperatures of about 20 °C and extraction rates
of about 150 t/h. Finally, a proper functioning silo discharge system has no
effect on lump formation, also when no air dryer is foreseen. In the same
way as a lump breaker (Fig. 9), an air dryer is only a safety device, if a
proper silo system functioning is not possible.

3.3 Operational procedures for storage silos

IBAU silos have one of the highest availabilities in the cement industry.
Nevertheless, for trouble-free operation and almost 100% emptying rate a
proper maintenance is necessary and some silo procedures have to be
followed. The first (initial) filling of the silo shall not exceed 20% of the

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maximum possible filling height and after 3-5 days a complete emptying
with a discharge of all residual quantities has to be done. This is a safety
reason, so that when some moisture is in the silo structure and aeration
system this is removed with the cement of the first filling. Normally, in this
short time period no large lumps will be formed and the aeration system
can be expected on behalf of coatings. It is further recommended, that after
each year the complete silo emptying and inspection of the aeration
system is repeated. If any lumps will be found in an inspection they have to
be completely removed and possible reasons for lump formation have to
be analysed.

4. Recommendations

• Generally, cement humidity shall always be kept below 0.5%, so that

water injection at the cement mills has to be limited.
• To prevent dehydration in the silo, the cement feed temperature shall
not exceed 70 °C, when the dehydration of the gypsum after cement
milling is not complete. On the other hand, a cement temperature of
100 °C and more can be tolerated, if the gypsum dehydration has
already been finished in the grinding circuit. A permanent cement mill
product temperature and XRD-analysis is a good indicator how much
dehydrate will be formed within the silo.
• A proper functioning of silo feed and discharge equipment is a must.
• Water penetration into the silo because of what reason however
described has to be strictly avoided, which means that manholes and
other openings on the silo roof have to be closed.
• Silo inspections should be followed according to IBAU instructions.

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5. Literature:

/1/ Jorgensen, S.W.: Cement Grinding – A comparison between Vertical

Roller Mill and Ball Mill. Cement International, 2/2005, pp. 54-63.

/2/ Jorgensen, S.W.: Effect of Mill Venting Arrangements on Cement

Quality. Presentation at Portland Cement Association Manufacturing
Technical Meeting, 1988.

/3/ Matouschek, F.: Beitrag zur Erklärung der Knollenbildung im Zement

(Contribution to Explaining the Formation of Lumps in Silos). ZKG
International (8/1978), pp. 395-396.

/4/ Sprung, S.: Einfluß der Lagerungsbedingungen auf die

Zementeigenschaften
(Effect of Storage Conditions on the Properties of Cement). ZKG
International 31(1978), pp. 305-309.

/5/ Rott, Chr.: Untersuchungen zur Verminderung der Ansatzbildung und

Verbesserung der Fließfähigkeit von Zement in Silos (Investigations for
Reducing Incrustation Build-up and Improving the Flowability of Cement in
Silos). ZKG International 4/1987, pp. 196-203.

/6/ Hallich, K.: Messungen zur Ansatzbildung in Zementsilos (Measurement

of Coating Formation in Cement Silos). ZKG International 33 (1978), No. 9,
pp. 443-445.

/7/ Dreizler, I.: Bildung von Klumpen und Anbackungen in Zementsilos und
Maßnahmen zu deren Beseitigung (Formation of Lumps and Coatings in
Cement Silos and Appropriate Reduction Measures). Presentation at 4th
Technical Meeting of AUCBM, October 1984 in Libya.

/8/ Hills, L.M.: Water Spray in Cement Finish Mills: A Literature Review.
Research and Development Information by the Portland Cement
Association, PCA R&D Serial No. 2889, Skokie, Illinois, USA 2006.

/9/ Ellerbrook, H.-G.: Mühlentemperatur und Zementeigenschaften (Mill

Temperature and Cement Properties) ZKG International 01/1988, pp. 1-12.

/10/ Buschmann, H.: Safety Practises for Large Cement Silos. World
Cement, November 2008, pp. 97-102.

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6. Figures/Tables:

Fig. 1. Illustration of lump formation in cement silos (Source IBAU

HAMBURG)
Fig. 2: Ball mill for cement grinding (Source: Chr. Pfeiffer Beckum)
Fig. 3: Gypsum dehydration in different ball mills /2/
Fig. 4: Gypsum dehydration depending on cement temperature /2/
Fig. 5: Cement mill product XRD analysis (Source: FCT)
Fig. 6: Influence of water spray on cement properties and storage /8/
Fig. 7: Slipforming of a cement silo (Source: Peter & Lochner)
Fig. 8: Illustration cement cooler (Source: Chr. Pfeiffer Beckum)
Fig. 9: Silo discharge with lump breaker (Source IBAU HAMBURG)

Table 1: Gypsum phases (Source: Gypsum Data Book, Bundesverband

der Gipsindustrie e.V., Germany)

HDR
05.01.2009

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Fig. 1. Illustration of lump formation in cement silos
(Source IBAU HAMBURG)

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 Fig. 2: Ball mill for cement grinding
(Source: Chr. Pfeiffer Beckum)

Fig. 3: Gypsum dehydration in different ball mills /2/

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Fig. 4: Gypsum dehydration depending on cement temperature /2/

Fig. 5: Cement mill product XRD analysis (Source: FCT)

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 Fig. 6: Influence of water spray on cement properties
and storage /8/

Fig. 7: Slipforming of a cement silo (Source: Peter & Lochner)

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Fig. 8: Illustration cement cooler (Source: Chr. Pfeiffer Beckum)

Fig. 9: Silo discharge with lump breaker

(Source IBAU HAMBURG)

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Table 1: Gypsum phases (Source: Gypsum Data Book,
(Bundesverband der Gipsindustrie e.V., Germany)

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