PUBLIC KEY CRYPTOGRAPHY/ASYMMETRIC KEY CRYPTOGRAPHY

 Cryptography is a method of storing and transmitting data in a particular form.

 Cryptography techniques are-

Asymmetric Key Cryptography-

In this technique,
 Sender and receiver use different keys to encrypt and decrypt the message.
 It is called so because sender and receiver use different keys.
 It is also called as public key cryptography.

Working-

The message exchange using public key cryptography involves the following steps-
 Step-01:

At sender side,
 Sender encrypts the message using receiver’s public key.
 The public key of receiver is publicly available and known to everyone.
 Encryption converts the message into a cipher text.
 This cipher text can be decrypted only using the receiver’s private key.

Step-02:

 The cipher text is sent to the receiver over the communication channel.

Step-03:

At receiver side,
 Receiver decrypts the cipher text using his private key.
 The private key of the receiver is known only to the receiver.
 Using the public key, it is not possible for anyone to determine the receiver’s private key.
 After decryption, cipher text converts back into a readable format.

Advantages-

The advantages of public key cryptography are-

 It is more robust.
 It is less susceptible to third-party security breach attempts.

Disadvantages-

The disadvantages of public key cryptography are-

 It involves high computational requirements.
 It is slower than symmetric key cryptography.
Number of Keys Required-
 To use public key cryptography,
 Each individual requires two keys- one public key and one private key.
 For n individuals to communicate, number of keys required = 2 x n = 2n keys.

Asymmetric Encryption Algorithms-

The famous asymmetric encryption algorithms are-

RSA Algorithm-

Let-
 Public key of the receiver = (e , n)
 Private key of the receiver = (d , n)

Then, RSA Algorithm works in the following steps-

Step-01:

At sender side,
 Sender represents the message to be sent as an integer between 0 and n-1.
 Sender encrypts the message using the public key of receiver.
 It raises the plain text message ‘P’ to the eth power modulo n.
 This converts the message into cipher text ‘C’.
 C = Pe mod n

Step-02:

 The cipher text ‘C’ is sent to the receiver over the communication channel.

Step-03:

At receiver side,
 Receiver decrypts the cipher text using his private key.
 It raises the cipher text ‘C’ to the dth power modulo n.
 This converts the cipher text back into the plain text ‘P’.

P = Cd mod n
 NOTE-

‘e’ and ‘d’ must be multiplicative inverses modulo Ø(n)

After decryption, receiver must have-

P = Cd mod n
P = (Pe mod n)d mod n
P = Ped mod n
For this equation to be true, by Euler’s Theorem, we must have-
ed = 1 mod Ø(n)
OR
ed = kØ(n) + 1
Thus, e and d must be multiplicative inverses modulo Ø(n).

Steps to Generate Public Key And Private Key-

An individual can generate his public key and private key using the following steps-

Step-01:

Choose any two prime numbers p and q such that-

 They are different.
 They are very large.

Step-02:

Calculate ‘n’ and toilent function Ø(n) where-

 n=pxq
 Ø(n) = (p-1) x (q-1)
 Step-03:

Choose any value of ‘e’ such that-

 1 < e < Ø(n)
 gcd (e, Ø(n)) = 1

Step-04:

Determine ‘d’ such that-

 You already know the value of ‘e’ and Ø(n).

 Choose the least positive integer value of ‘k’ which gives the integer value of ‘d’ as a
result.
 Use trial and error method.
 Start substituting different values of ‘k’ from 0.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS BASED ON RSA ALGORITHM-

Problem-01:

In a RSA cryptosystem, a participant A uses two prime numbers p = 13 and q = 17 to

generate her public and private keys. If the public key of A is 35, then the private key of A is
_______.
 Solution-

Given-
 Prime numbers p = 13 and q = 17
 Public key = 35

Step-01:

Calculate ‘n’ and toilent function Ø(n).

Value of n,
n=pxq
n = 13 x 17
∴ n = 221

Toilent function,
Ø(n) = (p-1) x (q-1)
Ø(n) = (13-1) x (17-1)
∴ Ø(n) = 192

Step-02:

 We are already given the value of e = 35.

 Thus, public key = (e , n) = (35 , 221)

Step-03:

Determine ‘d’ such that-

 Here,
 The least value of ‘k’ which gives the integer value of ‘d’ is k = 2.
 On substituting k = 2, we get d = 11.

Thus, private key of participant A = (d , n) = (11, 221).

Problem-02:

In the RSA public key cryptosystem, the private and public keys are (e, n) and (d, n)
respectively, where n = p x q and p and q are large primes. Besides, n is public and p and q
are private. Let M be an integer such that 0 < M < n and f(n) = (p-1)(q-1).

Now consider the following equations-

I. M’ = Me mod n and M = (M’)d mod n
II. ed ≡ 1 mod n
III. ed = 1 mod f(n)
IV. M’ = Me mod f(n) and M = (M’)d mod f(n)

Which of the above equations correctly represent RSA cryptosystem?

1. I and II
2. I and III
3. II and IV
4. III and IV
 Solution-

Clearly, Option (B) is correct.

1. RSA Algorithm
2. Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange
RSA Algorithm-

Let-
 Public key of the receiver = (e , n)
 Private key of the receiver = (d , n)

Then, RSA Algorithm works in the following steps-

Step-01:

At sender side,
 Sender represents the message to be sent as an integer between 0 and n-1.
 Sender encrypts the message using the public key of receiver.
 It raises the plain text message ‘P’ to the eth power modulo n.
 This converts the message into cipher text ‘C’.

C = Pe mod n

Step-02:

 The cipher text ‘C’ is sent to the receiver over the communication channel.

Step-03:
 At receiver side,
 Receiver decrypts the cipher text using his private key.
 It raises the cipher text ‘C’ to the dth power modulo n.
 This converts the cipher text back into the plain text ‘P’.

P = Cd mod n

NOTE-

‘e’ and ‘d’ must be multiplicative inverses modulo Ø(n)

After decryption, receiver must have-

P = Cd mod n
P = (Pe mod n)d mod n
P = Ped mod n
For this equation to be true, by Euler’s Theorem, we must have-
ed = 1 mod Ø(n)
OR
ed = kØ(n) + 1
Thus, e and d must be multiplicative inverses modulo Ø(n).

Steps to Generate Public Key And Private Key-

An individual can generate his public key and private key using the following steps-

Step-01:

Choose any two prime numbers p and q such that-

 They are different.
 They are very large.

Step-02:

Calculate ‘n’ and toilent function Ø(n) where-

 n=pxq
 Ø(n) = (p-1) x (q-1)

Step-03:

Choose any value of ‘e’ such that-

 1 < e < Ø(n)
 gcd (e, Ø(n)) = 1

Step-04:

Determine ‘d’ such that-

 You already know the value of ‘e’ and Ø(n).

 Choose the least positive integer value of ‘k’ which gives the integer value of ‘d’ as a
result.
 Use trial and error method.
 Start substituting different values of ‘k’ from 0.
 PRACTICE PROBLEMS BASED ON RSA ALGORITHM-

Problem-01:

In a RSA cryptosystem, a participant A uses two prime numbers p = 13 and q = 17 to

generate her public and private keys. If the public key of A is 35, then the private key of A is
_______.

Solution-

Given-
 Prime numbers p = 13 and q = 17
 Public key = 35

Step-01:

Calculate ‘n’ and toilent function Ø(n).

Value of n,
n=pxq
n = 13 x 17
∴ n = 221

Toilent function,
Ø(n) = (p-1) x (q-1)
Ø(n) = (13-1) x (17-1)
∴ Ø(n) = 192

Step-02:

 We are already given the value of e = 35.

 Thus, public key = (e , n) = (35 , 221)

Step-03:

Determine ‘d’ such that-

Here,
 The least value of ‘k’ which gives the integer value of ‘d’ is k = 2.
 On substituting k = 2, we get d = 11.

Thus, private key of participant A = (d , n) = (11, 221).

Problem-02:

In the RSA public key cryptosystem, the private and public keys are (e, n) and (d, n)
respectively, where n = p x q and p and q are large primes. Besides, n is public and p and q
are private. Let M be an integer such that 0 < M < n and f(n) = (p-1)(q-1).

Now consider the following equations-

I. M’ = Me mod n and M = (M’)d mod n
II. ed ≡ 1 mod n
III. ed = 1 mod f(n)
IV. M’ = Me mod f(n) and M = (M’)d mod f(n)

Which of the above equations correctly represent RSA cryptosystem?

1. I and II
2. I and III
3. II and IV
4. III and IV

Solution-
Clearly, Option (B) is correct.