12

Fundamentals of Alternating Current

In this chapter, we lead you through a study of the mathematics and physics of
alternating current (AC) circuits. After completing this chapter you should be able to:

‰ Develop a familiarity with sinusoidal functions.

‰ Write the general equation for a sinusoidal signal based on its amplitude,
frequency, and phase shift.
‰ Define angles in degrees and radians.
‰ Manipulate the general equation of a sinusoidal signal to determine its amplitude,
frequency, phase shift at any time.
‰ Compute peak, RMS, and average values of voltage and current.
‰ Define root-mean-squared amplitude, angular velocity, and phase angle.
‰ Convert between time domain and phasor notation.
‰ Convert between polar and rectangular form.
‰ Add, subtract, multiply, and divide phasors.
‰ Discuss the phase relationship of voltage and current in resistive, inductive, and
capacitive loads.
‰ Apply circuit analysis using phasors.
‰ Define components of power and realize power factor in AC circuits.
‰ Understand types of connection in three-phase circuits.

FOCUS ON MATHEMATICS

This chapter relates the application of mathematics to AC circuits, covering complex

numbers, vectors, and phasors. All these three concepts follow the same rules.

REFERENCES
• Stephan J. Chapman, Electric Machinery Fundamentals, Third Edition, McGraw-Hill,
1999.
• Stephan J. Chapman, Electric Machinery and Power System Fundamentals, McGraw-
Hill, 2002.
• Bosels, Electrical Systems Design, Prentice Hall.
• James H. Harter and Wallace D. Beitzel, Mathematics Applied to Electronics,
Prentice Hall.

1
2 Chapter 12

12.1 INTRODUCTION

The majority of electrical power in the world is generated, distributed, and

consumed in the form of 50- or 60-Hz sinusoidal alternating current (AC) and
voltage. It is used for household and industrial applications such as television
sets, computers, microwave ovens, electric stoves, to the large motors used in the
industry.
AC has several advantages over DC. The major advantage of AC is the fact
that it can be transformed, however, direct current (DC) cannot. A transformer
permits voltage to be stepped up or down for the purpose of transmission.
Transmission of high voltage (in terms of kV) is that less current is required to
produce the same amount of power. Less current permits smaller wires to be used
for transmission.
In this chapter, we will introduce a sinusoidal signal and its basic
mathematical equation. We will discuss and analyze circuits where currents i(t)
and voltages v(t) vary with time. The phasor analysis techniques will be used to
analyze electric circuits under sinusoidal steady-state operating conditions.
Single-phase power will conclude the chapter.

12.2 SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORMS

AC unlike DC flows first in one direction then in the opposite direction. The
most common AC waveform is a sine (or sinusoidal) waveform. Sine waves are
the signal whose shape neither is nor altered by a linear circuit, therefore, it is
ideal as a test signal.
In discussing AC signal, it is necessary to express the current and voltage in
terms of maximum or peak values, peak-to-peak values, effective values, average
values, or instantaneous values. Each of these values has a different meaning and
is used to describe a different amount of current or voltage. Figure 12-1 is a plot
of a sinusoidal wave. The correspondence mathematical form is

v(t ) = V p cos(wt + θ ) (12.1)

Where Vp is the peak voltage, ω = 2πf is the angular speed expressed in

radians per second (rad/s), f is the frequency expressed in Hertz (Hz), t is the time
expressed in second (s), and θ is phase of the sinusoid expressed in degrees.
The function (Figure 12-1) starts at a value of 0 at 0o, and rise smoothly to a
maximum of 1 at 90o. They then fall, just as they rose, back to 0o at 180o. The
negative peak is reached three quarters of the way at 270o. The function then
returns symmetrically to 0o at 360o.
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 3

RMS value
Peak value

Peak-to-peak

1 cycle

Figure 12-1 Sinusoidal wave values.

12.2.1 Radian and Degree

A degree is a unit of measurement in degree (its designation is ° or deg), a turn

of a ray by the 1/360 part of the one complete revolution. So, the complete
revolution of a ray is equal to 360 deg.
A radian is defined as the central angle, for which lengths of its arc and radius
are equal (AB = A0). An arc length is the distance along the arc of a circle from
the origin to the end of the angle. These terms are shown in Figure 13-8.
Following Equation (12.1), a length of a circumference C and its radius r can
be expressed as:

C
2π = (12.2)
R

So, a round angle, equal to 360° in a degree measure, is simultaneously 2π in

a radian measure. Hence, we receive a value of one radian:

360
1 rad = ≈ 57.3o (12.3)
2π

and,

2π
1 deg = ≈ 0.017453 rad (12.4)
360
4 Chapter 12

The following comparative table of degree and radian provides measure for
some angles we often deal with:

0 A

Figure 12-2 Radian and arc length.

Table 12-1 Angles in Degree and Radian

Angle (deg) 0 45 90 180 270 360

Angle (rad) 0 π/4 π/2 π 3π/2 2π

12.2.2 Peak and Peak-to-Peak Values

During each complete cycle of AC signal there are always two maximum or
peak values, one for the positive half-cycle and the other for the negative half-
cycle.
The peak value is measured from zero to the maximum value obtained in
either the positive or negative direction.
The difference between the peak positive value and the peak negative value is
called the peak-to-peak value of the sine wave. This value is twice the maximum
or peak value of the sine wave and is sometimes used for measurement of ac
voltages. The peak value is one-half of the peak-to-peak value.

12.2.3 Instantaneous Value

The instantaneous value of an AC signal is the value of voltage or current at
one particular instant. The value may be zero if the particular instant is the time in
the cycle at which the polarity of the voltage is changing. It may also be the same
as the peak value, if the selected instant is the time in the cycle at which the
voltage or current stops increasing and starts decreasing. There are actually an
infinite number of instantaneous values between zero and the peak value.
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 5

12.2.4 Average Value

The average value of an AC current or voltage is the average of all the
instantaneous values during one alternation. They are actually DC values. The
average value is the amount of voltage that would be indicated by a DC voltmeter
if it were connected across the load resistor.
Since the voltage increases from zero to peak value and decreases back to zero
during one alternation, the average value must be some value between those two
limits. It is possible to determine the average value by adding together a series of
instantaneous values of the alternation (between 0° and 180°), and then dividing
the sum by the number of instantaneous values used. The computation would
show that one alternation of a sine wave has an average value equal to 0.636
times the peak value. The formula for a average voltage is

Vav = 0.636Vmax (12.5)

Where Vav is the average voltage for one alteration, and Vmax is the maximum
or peak voltage. Similarly, the formula for average current is

I av = 0.636 I max (12.6)

Where Iav is the average current for one alteration, and Imax is the maximum or
peak current.

12.2.5 Effective Value

This is the value of AC signal that will have the same effect on a resistance as
a comparable value of direct voltage or current will have on the same resistance.
It is possible to compute the effective value of a sine wave of current to a good
degree of accuracy by taking equally spaced instantaneous values of current
along the curve and extracting the square root of the average of the sum of the
squared values. For this reason, the effective value is often called the “root-mean-
square” (RMS) value. Therefore,

I eff = Average of the sum of the squares of I ins

(12.7)

The effective or rms value (Ieff) of a sine wave of current is 0.707 times the
maximum value of current (Imax). Thus, I eff = 0.707 × Imax. When I eff is known, we
may find Imax by using the formula Imax = 1.414 × Ieff. We might wonder where the
constant 1.414 comes from. To find out, examine Figure and read the following
explanation. Assume that the DC in Figure is maintained at 1 A and the resistor
6 Chapter 12

temperature at 100°C. Also assume that the AC in Figure is increased until the
temperature of the resistor is 100° C. At this point it is found that a maximum AC
value of 1.414 A is required in order to have the same heating effect as DC.
Therefore, in the AC circuit the maximum current required is 1.414 times the
effective current.
When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to a resistance, the resulting current is
also a sinusoidal. This follows Ohm’s law which states that current is directly
proportional to the applied voltage. Ohm’s law, Kirchhoff’s law, and the various
rules that apply to voltage, current, and power in a DC circuit also apply to the
AC circuit. Ohm’s law formula for an AC circuit may be stated as

Veff
I eff = (12.8)
R

Importantly, all AC voltage and current values are given as effective values.

12.2.6 Frequency

If the signal in the Figure makes one complete revolution each second, the
generator produces one complete cycle of AC during each second (1 Hz).
Increasing the number of revolutions to two per second will produce two
complete cycles of ac per second (2 Hz). The number of complete cycles of
alternating current or voltage completed each second is referred to as the
“frequency, f” or “event frequency”. Event frequency is always measured and
expressed in hertz. Because there are 2π radians in a full circle, a cycle, the
relationship between ω, f, and period, T, can be expressed as

2π
ω = 2πf = radians/second (12.9)
T

Where ω is the angular velocity in radians per second (rad/s). The dimension
of frequency is reciprocal second. The frequency is an important term to
understand since most AC electrical equipment requires a specific frequency for
proper operation.
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 7

Example 12-1

Express each of the following frequencies in Hertz

a) 40 cycles in 4.0 seconds

b) 80 cycles in 200 milliseconds
c) 1000 revolutions in 0.5 seconds
d) 600 rotations in 1 minute

Solution:

a) 40/4.0 = 10 cycles per second = 10 Hz

b) 80/0.2 = 400 cycles per second = 400 Hz
c) 1000/0.5 = 2000 cycles per second = 4000 Hz (4 kHz)
d) 600/60 = 10 cycles per second = 10 Hz

Example 12-2

Express each of the following as angular velocity in radians per second

a) 80 rad in 10 s
b) 2.5 krad in 50 s
c) 400 rad in 200 s
d) 40 Mrad in 10 s

Solution:

a) ω = 80/10 = 8 rad/s
b) ω = 2500/50 = 500 rad/s
c) ω = 400/200 = 2.0 rad/s
d) ω = (40×106)/10 = 4.0 rad/s

Example 12-3

Express each of the following frequencies as angular velocity in radians per

second

a) 60 Hz
b) 500 Hz
c) 10 kHz
d) 1 MHz
8 Chapter 12

Solution:

a) ω = 2π×60 = 377 rad/s

b) ω = 2π×500 = 3141.5 rad/s
c) ω = 2π× (10×103) = 62.83 krad/s
d) ω = 2π× (1.0×106) = 6.28 Mrad/s

12.2.7 Period

The period of a waveform is the time required for completing one full cycle. It
is measured in seconds. In Figure 15-1, the sinusoidal waveform is plotted as a
function of the argument ωt, and the periodic nature of the sine wave is evident.
The function repeats itself every 2π radians, and its period is therefore 2π radians.
The relationship between time (T) and frequency (f) is indicated by the formulas

1
T= (12.10)
f

Example 12-4

Express each of the following periods in seconds

a) 500 Hz
b) 90 kHz
c) 900 MHz
d) 5 Hz

Solution: Use Equation (12.10)

a) T = 2 ms
b) T = 1/(90×103) = 11.11 µs
c) T = 1/(900×106) = 1.11 ps
d) T = 0.2 s

12.2.8 Phase
When two sinusoidal waves, such as those represented by Figure 12-3, are
precisely in step with one another, they are said to be in phase. To be in phase,
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 9

the two waves must go through their maximum and minimum points at the same
time and in the same direction.
To further describe the phase relationship between two sinusoidal waves, the
terms lead and lag are used. The amount by which one sine wave leads or lags
another sine wave is measured in degrees. According to Figure 12-3, the sinusoid
VP sin (ωt + θ) occur θ rad, θ degrees seconds, earlier. In this case we say VP sin
(ωt + θ) leads VP sin ωt by θ. Also, we may say that VP sin ωt lags VP sin (ωt + θ)
by θ.
In general, it is possible for one sine wave to lead or lag another sine wave by
any number of degrees, except 0° or 360°. When the latter condition exists, the
two waves are said to be in phase. Thus, two sine waves that differ in phase by
45o, for example, are actually out of phase with each other, whereas two sine
waves that differ in phase by 360° are considered to be in phase with each other.
To determine the phase difference between two sine waves, locate the points
on the time axis where the two waves cross the time axis traveling in the same
direction. The number of degrees between the crossing points is the phase
difference. The wave that crosses the axis at the later time (to the right on the
time axis) is said to lag the other wave.

12.2.9 Sine and Cosine

The sine and cosine are essentially the same function, but with a 90o phase
difference. For example, sin ω t = cos (ωt – 90o). Multiples of 360o may be added
to or subtracted from the argument of any sinusoidal function without changing
the value of the function. To realize this, let us consider

v1 = VP1 cos (10t + 20 o )

= VP1 sin (10t + 90 o + 20 o ) (12.11)
= VP1 sin (10t + 110 o )

leads

v2 = VP2 sin (10t - 40 o ) (12.12)

by 150o. It is also correct to say that v1 lags v2 by 210o, since v1 may be written as

v1 = VP1 sin (10t - 250 o ) (12.13)

10 Chapter 12

VP

VP sin (ωt + θ) VP sin ωt

ωt
θ

-VP

Figure 12-3 The sine wave VP sin (ωt + θ) leads VP sin ωt.

12.3 PHASORS
We have learnt from the previous section how to define and express in a single
equation the magnitude, frequency, and phase shift of a sinusoidal signal. Any
linear circuit that contains resistors, capacitors, and inductors do not alter the
shape of this signal, nor its frequency. However, the linear circuit does change the
amplitude of the signal (amplification or attenuation) and shift its phase (causing
the output signal to lead or lag the input). The amplitude and phase are the two
important quantities that determine the way the circuit affects the signal.
Accordingly, signal can be expressed as a linear combination of complex
sinusoids. Phase and magnitude defines a phasor (vector) or complex number.
The phasor is similar to vector that has been studied in mathematics.
Figure 12-4 shows how AC sinusoidal quantities are represented by the
position of a rotating vector. As the vector rotates it generates an angle. The
location of the vector on the plane surface is determined by the magnitude
(length) of the vector and by the generated angle.
Representing sinusoidal signals by phasors is useful since circuit analysis laws
such as KVL and KCL and familiar algebraic circuit analysis tools, such as series
and parallel equivalence, voltage and current division are applicable in the phasor
domain, which have been studied in DC circuits can be applied. We do not need
new analysis techniques to handle circuits in the phasor domain. The only
difference is that circuit responses are phasors (complex numbers) rather than DC
signals (real numbers).
In order to work with these complex numbers without drawing vectors, we
first need some kind of standard mathematical notation. There are two basic
forms of complex number notation: polar and rectangular.
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 11

3 3

4 4 2
2
9 5 1
1 5
9
6 6
7
7
(a) (b)

Figure 12-4 (a) Magnitude of a sine wave. (b) A vector with its end fixed at the
origin and rotating in a counterclockwise (CCW) direction representing the
varying conditions of the AC signal.

12.3.1 Polar Form

Polar form is where the length (magnitude) and the angle of its vector denote a
complex number. Standard orientation for vector angles in AC circuit
calculations defines 0o as being to the right (horizontal), making 90o straight up,
180o to the left, and 270o straight down. Vectors angled “down” can have angles
represented in polar form as positive numbers in excess of 180 or negative
numbers less than 180 (Figure 12-5). For example, a vector angled ∠ 270o
(straight down) can also be said to have an angle of -90o.
90o

180o 0o

270o

Figure 12-5 Standard orientation for vector angles.

12 Chapter 12

(a) (b)

Figure 12-6 (a) A vector (5.4 ∠ 326o) (b) A vector 5.4 ∠ -34o.

A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction. Figure 12-6a shows a
vector with positive angle (5.4 ∠ 326o), while Figure 12-6b shows a vector (5.4 ∠
-34o) with negative angle.
In electrical circuits, a sinusoidal voltage may be represented by

V = Vrms ∠θ (12.14)

Where the uppercase V, indicates that the quantity is a phasor, having both
magnitude and phase. The magnitude is usually RMS. The phase angle is in
degrees. The polarity is very important: + means that the signal leads the
reference; while – means that the signal lags the reference.

Example 12-5

Write the phasor form for the following signal and draw the phasor diagram. Use
a scale of 1 cm = 100 Vrms.

(
v = 300 V p sin 377t- 45o )
Solution:
Vp
Vrms =
2
300
= = 212.16 V
2

V = 212.16 ∠ - 45o

The phasor diagram is shown in Figure 12-7.

Fundamentals of Alternating Current 13

-45o

Figure 12-7 Phasor diagram of Example 12-5.

12.3.2 Rectangular Form

The horizontal and vertical components denote a complex number. The angled
vector is taken to be the hypotenuse of a right triangle, described by the lengths of
the adjacent and opposite sides. These two dimensional figures (horizontal and
vertical) are symbolized by two numerical figures. In order to distinguish the
horizontal and vertical dimensions from each other, the vertical is prefixed with a
lower-case “i” (in pure mathematics) or “j” (in electronics). Figure 12-8 shows
that a point on a complex plane located by a phasor could be described in
rectangular form.

+Imaginary

4+j3

-Real +Real

-Imaginary

Figure 12-8 A point on the complex plane located by the phasor 4+j3 expressed
in the rectangular form.
14 Chapter 12

Focus on Mathematics

Complex Algebra

A complex number is the sum of a real number and an imaginary

number [A = Real (A) + j Imaginary (A)]. We know what real
numbers are since we use them very often. What are imaginary
numbers? The answer to this question is related to another question.
What is the square root of minus one ( − 1 )? The answer is j! Any
number of the form j is called imaginary number. Sometimes, the
letter i is used to define the imaginary number. Electrical engineers
use j because i is used for instantaneous current.

Example 12-6

Express − 16 as an imaginary number.

Solution: Write

− 16 = - 1 × 16

Replace − 1 with j, then

− 16 = j 4

15.3.3 Transforming Forms

Consider the triangle in Figure 12-9. The hypotenuse is labeled as C. The

angle is θ. A represents the real value and B represents the imaginary value of the
rectangular form.

V = C ∠θ = A + jB (12.15)
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 15

C
B

A
Figure 12-9 Relation between polar and rectangular forms.

To convert from the polar to the rectangular form of a phasor, you must
convert C∠θ into A and B. From trigonometry, the cosine of an included angle
relates the length of the adjacent side and the length of the hypotenuse.

Adjacent A
cos θ = =
Hypotenuse C
(12.16)
Opposite B
sin θ = =
Hypotenuse C

To convert from rectangular form to polar form requires a different set of

trigonometric relationships.

C = A2 + B 2
(12.17)
B
tan θ =
A

Taking the inverse tangent of each side leaves θ as

B
θ = tan -1   (12.18)
 A

In general, any load in rectangular form may be converted into polar form as
the following

Z = R + jX L
(12.19)
X 
Z = R 2 + X L ∠ tan −1  L 
2

 R 
16 Chapter 12

Example 12-7

Convert each of the following polar phasors into their rectangular form.

a) V = 100 Vrms ∠60 o , and

b) V = 100 Vrms ∠ - 60 o

Solution:

a) V = 50 Vrms + j 86.6 Vrms

b) V = 50 Vrms - j 86.6 Vrms

Example 12-8

Convert each of the following polar phasors into their rectangular form.

a) V = 2 Vrms ∠45o
b) V = 240 Vrms ∠ - 160 o

Solution:

a) V = 1.414 Vrms + j 1.414 Vrms

b) V = - 225.526 Vrms - j 82.084 Vrms

12.3.4 Euler’s Identity

Euler’s identity forms the basis of phasor notation. It is named after the Swiss
Mathematician Leonard Euler. It states, the identity defines the complex
exponential ejθ as a point in the complex plane. It may be represented by real and
imaginary components:

e jθ = cosθ + jsinθ (12.20)

Figure 12-10 shows how the complex exponential may be visualized as a point
(or vector, if referenced to the origin) in the complex plane. The magnitude of ejθ
is equal to 1
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 17

sin θ

cos θ

Figure 12-10 Euler’s identity.

e jθ = 1 (12.21)

since

cosθ + sin θ = cos 2θ + sin 2θ = 1 (12.22)

Remember that writing Euler’s identity corresponds to equating the polar form
of a complex number to its rectangular form

Ae jθ = A cosθ + jAsinθ = A∠θ (12.23)

Simply, Euler’s identity is a trigonometric relationship in the complex form.

To see how complex numbers are used to represent sinusoidal signals, we may
rewrite the expression for a generalized sinusoid using Euler’s equation:

(
A cos (wt + θ ) = Re A e j (wt + θ ) ) (12.24)

Equation (12.24) is simplified as

( ) (
A cos (wt + θ ) = Re A e j (wt + θ ) = Re A e jθ e jwt
) (12.25)
18 Chapter 12

Example 12-9

Draw the phasor digram of the following signal. Use a scale of 1 cm = 100 Vrms.

V = 300 Vrms - j 150 Vrms

Solution: See Figure 12-11.

300 Vrms

150 Vrms

Figure 12-11 Rectangular phasor plot of Example 12-9.

Focus on Mathematics

Adding Phasors

To add phasor quantities, express each in rectangular form and:

1. Add the real parts of the phasors.

2. Add the imaginary parts of the phasors.
3. Form the sum as a phasor written in rectangular form.

Example 12-10

Add 5 + j4 and 5 + j6

Solution: Follow steps 1 to 3

5 + j4
5 + j6
10 + j10

The answer is 10 +j10

Fundamentals of Alternating Current 19

Focus on Mathematics

Subtracting Phasors

To subtract phasor quantities, express each in rectangular form

1. Change the sign of both the real and the imaginary part of the
phasor to be subtracted.
2. Add the phasors following the steps in the previous box.

Example 12-11

Subtract 10 - j4 from 15 + j8

Solution: Change the signs of 10 – j4. Accordingly the answer is

-(10- j4) = -10 + j4, Now add

15 + j8
− 10 + j 4
5 + j12

The answer is 5 + j12

20 Chapter 12

Focus on Mathematics

Multiplying Phasors

Rectangular Form

To multiply phasor quantities in rectangular form, multiply the

numbers as if they were two binomials

1. Distribute the real part of the first complex number over the
second complex number.
2. Distribute the imaginary part of the first complex number over
the second complex number.
3. Replace j2 with –1.
4. Combine like terms.
5. Form the product as a phasor written in rectangular form.

Example 12-12

Multiply 3 + j2 and 4 – j5

Solution: Follow steps 1 to 5

Distribute (3 + j2) over (4- j5). This means

(3 + j2)(4- j5) = 12 – j15 + j8 – j210

Replace j2 with –1. This yields

12 – j15 + j8 + 10

Combine like terms to obtain the answer

22 – j7
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 21

Focus on Mathematics

Multiplying Phasors

Polar Form

To multiply phasor quantities in polar form

1. Multiply the magnitudes.

2. Add the angles.
3. Form the products as a phasor written in polar form.

Example 12-13

Multiply 4∠15o and 6∠25o

Solution: Follow steps 1 to 3

Multiply by magnitudes:

4 × 6 = 24

Add the angles:

15o + 25o = 40o

The answer is 24∠40o

22 Chapter 12

Focus on Mathematics

Dividing Phasors

Rectangular Form

To divide phasor quantities in rectangular form

1. Multiply the denominator and the numerator by the complex

conjugate of the denominator.
4. Divide the real number and the imaginary number of the
numerator by the denominator.
5. Form the quotient as a phasor written in rectangular form.

Example 12-14

Divide (15 + j10) by (2 +j1)

Solution: Follow steps 1 to 5

15 + j10
2 + j1

Multiply numerator and denominator by 2 - j1, the complex

conjucate of 2 + j1. This is represented as

(15 + j10)(2 − j1)

(2 + j1)(2 − j1)
30 − j15 + j 20 − j 210
=
4 − j 21
40 + j 5
=
5

Divide the real and the imaginary number of the numerator

40 j 5
+
5 5

The answer is 8 + j1
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 23

Focus on Mathematics

Dividing Phasors

Polar Form

To divide phasor quantities in polar form

1. Divide the magnitudes.

2. Subtract the angle of the denominator from the angle of the
numerator.
3. Form the quotient as a phasor written in polar form.

Example 12-15

Divide 30∠40o by 6∠20o

Solution: Follow steps 1 to 3

30
=5
6

Subtract 20o from 40o. That is 40o – 20o = 20o

The answer is 5∠20o

24 Chapter 12

Focus on Mathematics

Power of a Phasor

To raise a phasor to a power, express the phasor in polar form, first

and then:

1. Raise the magnitude to the specified power.

2. Multiply the angle by the exponent.
3. Form the solution

Example 12-16

Solve (30∠25o)2

Solution: Follow steps 1 to 3

Raise 30 to the second power: 302 = 900

Multiply 25o by 2: 25o × 2 = 50o
Form the equation to find the answer: 900∠50o.

Example 12-17

Solve (3 + j4)2

Solution: Follow steps 1 to 3

First, express (3 + j4) in polar form:

3 + j4 = 5∠53.13o

Raise 5 to the second power: 52 = 25

Multiply 53.13 by 2: 53.13 × 2 = 106.26o

The answer is: 25∠106.26o

Fundamentals of Alternating Current 25

12.4 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS OF PHASORS

Phasors may be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided. Those operations

can be applied to electrical systems. They provide significant meaning to the
systems under study. The most insightful phasor operation is addition.

Vtotal = V1 + V2 (12.26)

To add phasors manually, convert the phasors into rectangular form

V1 = A1 + jB1
V2 = A 2 + jB2

To complete the process, add the real parts together and the imaginary parts
together

Vtotal = (A1 + A 2 ) + j (B1 + B2 )

12.4.1 Simple Vector Addition

If the current in an AC circuit is described as 50 mA at –60 o, it means that the
current waveform has amplitude of 50 mA, and it lags 60o behind the reference
waveform, usually assumed to be the main source voltage waveform.

Example 12-18

Find the total voltage across the terminals of the circuit shown in Figure 12-12.
The circuit contains two sources connected in series: 3 V with 0o and 4 V with 0o.

Solution: Total length = 3 + 4 = 7 V (angle is 0o)

26 Chapter 12

3 V, 0o 4 V, 0o

+ 7 V, 0o -

Figure 12-12 Two sources connected in series.

Example 12-19

Find the total voltage across the terminals of the circuit shown in Figure 12-13.
The circuit contains two sources connected in series: 3 V with 0o and 4 V with
180o.

Solution:

Total length = 3 - 4 = -1 V (at 0o), or

Total length = 4 - 3 = 1 V (at 180o)

3 V, 0o 4 V, 180o

+ 1 V, 180o -

Figure 12-13 Two sources connected in series.

Fundamentals of Alternating Current 27

12.4.2 Complex Vector Addition

If vectors with uncommon angles are added, their magnitudes (lengths) add up
quite differently than that of scalar magnitudes:

5 V, 53.13o
4 V, 90o

3 V, 0o
Figure 12-14 Addition of two complex values.

If two AC voltages, 90o out of phase, are added together by being connected in
series, their voltage magnitudes do not directly add or subtract as with scalar
voltages in DC. Instead, these voltage quantities are complex quantities, and just
like the above vectors, which add up in a trigonometric fashion. For example, in
Figure 12-14, a 3 V source at 0o added to a 4 V source at 90o results in 5 V at a
phase angle of 53.13o.
There is no suitable DC analogy for what we're seeing here with two AC
voltages slightly out of phase. DC voltages can only directly aid or directly
oppose, with nothing in between. With AC, two voltages can be aiding or
opposing one another to any degree between fully-aiding and fully-opposing,
inclusive. Without the use of vector (complex number) notation to describe AC
quantities, it would be very difficult to perform mathematical calculations for AC
circuit analysis.

Example 12-20

Add the following phasors in rectangular form and then express the total in polar.

Z1 = 2 + j 3 Ω
Z 2 = 3 - j2 Ω

Solution: Z total = 5 + j1 = 5.099 ∠78.7 o

28 Chapter 12

Example 12-21

Subtract the following phasors and express the result in polar form.

(250 A rms ∠ - 45 o ) - (100 A rms ∠75 o )

Solution:

250 A rms ∠ - 45 o = 176.77 A rms - j176.77 A rms

100 A rms ∠75 o = 25.88 A rms + j 96.60 A rms
(176.77 A rms - j176.77 A rms ) - (25.88 A rms + j 96.60 A rms )
150.89 A rms - j 80.17 A rms = 171 A rms ∠ - 28 o

12.3 RESISTIVE LOADS

In a DC circuit, there is one basic type of load, which is resistive. This is not
true in AC circuit. AC circuits have three different types of loads: resistive,
inductive, and capacitive. Each of these loads produces a different circuit
condition. Voltage divided by current in DC circuits is called resistance.
However, for AC circuits it is called impedance. The impedance is the opposition
an element offers to a sinusoidal current. It is a phasor quantity.
A circuit having pure resistance would have the AC through it and the voltage
across it rising and failing together. The current and voltage may not have the
same amplitude, but they are in phase. Any time that a circuit contains resistance,
heat will be produced.
Voltage and current are in phase with each other in a pure resistive circuit as
shown in Figure 12-15 (a). True power can be produced only when both current
and voltage are either positive or negative. When like signs are multiplied, the
product is positive and when unlike signs are multiplied the product is negative.
Since the current and voltage are either positive or negative at the same time, the
product, watts, will always be positive.
The impedance in AC circuits is defined through Ohm’s law

V
Z= (12.26)
I

The impedance diagram of a resistor is a phasor whose length is R (along the

+x axis) as shown in Figure 12-15 (b).
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 29

Voltage

Current

IP VP

(a) (b)

Figure 12-15 (a) Voltage in phase with current. (b) Phase angle between voltage
and current is 0o.

When sinusoidal current flows through the impedance, we have

v(t ) = i (t ) × R (12.27)

where

i(t ) = I P sin (wt )

then

v(t ) = RI P sin (wt )

Now convert the above equation from time domain form into phasors

V = R × ( I rms ∠0 o )

Substitute into Equation (12.26), we obtain

Z=
(R × I ∠0 )
rms
o

(I ∠0 )
rms
o
30 Chapter 12

To divide phasors, divide the magnitudes and subtract the angles

Z = R∠0 o (12.28)

The impedance of a resistor has the magnitude of the resistor. Therefore, its
units are ohms. The voltage across the resistor is in phase with the current
through the resistor since the phase angle is 0o. The 0o phase shift indicates that
the voltage across the resistor is in phase with the current through it. The
impedance of resistor has no imaginary part.

Z R = R + j0

Example 12-22

Calculate the phasor current through a 100-Ω resistor assuming a voltage of (100
Vrms∠0o) applied across it.

Solution: Apply Ohm’s law

I =
(100 V ∠0 ) = 1 A
rms
o
∠0 o
(100Ω∠0 ) o rms

12.6 INDUCTIVE LOADS

12.6.1 Inductance
The inductance of an inductor (L) is measured in henries (H). It depends upon
the physical make up of the coil such as the length (l), cross-sectional area (A),
number of turns of wire (N), and the permeability of the material contained in the
core (µ). This is expressed mathematically as

N2µ A
L= (12.29)
l

Inductance is a primary load in AC circuits. Some amount of inductance is

present in all AC circuits because of the continually changing magnetic field.
Circuits are generally considered to contain inductance when any type of load
that contains a coil is used. Loads such as motors, transformers, and chocks all
contain coils of wire.
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 31

It is known that whenever current flows through a coil, a magnetic field is

created around the wire. If the amount of current decreases, the magnetic field
will collapse. In the case of a circuit having inductance, the opposing force of the
counter EMF would be enough to keep the current from remaining in phase with
the applied voltage. In a DC circuit containing pure inductance the current takes
time to rise to maximum even though the full-applied voltage is immediately at
maximum.

12.6.2 Inductive Reactance

The inductor in Figure 12-16 is connected to an AC voltage source. This
causes the magnetic field to continually increase, decrease, and reverse polarity.
Since the magnetic field changes magnitude and direction, a voltage is induced in
the coil as shown in Figure 12-17. This induced voltage is 180o out of phase with
the applied voltage. The induced voltage can limit the flow of current through the
circuit in a manner similar to resistance. This current-limiting property of the
inductor is called reactance (X). Since this reactance is caused by inductance, it is
called inductive reactance (XL). It is measured in ohms just as the resistance is

(a)

(b)
Figure 12-16 (a) Magnetic field increases around the coil as current flows
through the coil. (b) Magnetic field decreases as current flow decreases.
32 Chapter 12

Applied Induced
voltage voltage

Figure 12-17 Applied voltage and induced voltage across a coil.

X L = ω L = 2πfL (12.30)

The voltage and current relationship for an inductor involves a derivative.

The voltage across the inductor depends on how rapidly the current through it
changes

di
vL = L (12.31)
dt

where

i = I P sin (ω t ) = I rms ∠0 o

The derivative of a sinusoidal current is calculated as

di
dt
(
= ω I P sin ω t + 90 o )
Substitute this into Equation (12.31)

(
v L = (ω L ) I P sin ω t + 90 o )
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 33

Voltage (v)
v
Current (i)

i
∠θ = 90 o

Figure 12-18 (a) Voltage leads the current when AC current passes through an
inductor. (b) Phasor diagram shows the lead by 90o.

The above equation shows that there is a phase shift of 90o. Figure 12-18 (a)
shows the voltage leading the current when AC current passes through an
inductor The current is at 0o and the voltage drop across the inductor is at + 90o
(leads) as shown in Figure 12-18 (b). The equation may be expressed as a phasor

(
v L = (ω L ) × I rms ∠90 o )
Applying Equation (12.26) to find the impedance

ZL =
(X L I rms ∠90 o )
( )
I rms ∠0 o

Divide the magnitude and subtract the angle

(
Z L = X L ∠90 o ) (12.32)

Equation (12.32) indicates that the opposition an inductor presents to a

sinusoidal current is proportional to the size of the inductor (L) and the value of
the frequency. The voltage is shifted 90o ahead of the current.
In rectangular form, the impedance of the inductor contains a real and
imaginary component.

Z L = (0 + j X L )
34 Chapter 12

The impedance diagram of an inductor is shown in Figure 12-19. The length

of the phasor XL lies entirely along the imaginary (+y) axis.

XL

Figure 12-19 Impedance diagram of an inductor.

12.6.3 Power in Inductive Load

In a pure resistive circuit, the true power is equal to the product of the voltage
and current. In a pure inductive circuit, however, no true power is produced. In
order to produce true power, voltage and current must both be either positive or
negative. Since the voltage and current are 90o out of phase with each other in a
pure inductive circuit, the current and voltage will be at different polarities 50%
of the time and the same polarity 50% of the time.

Example 12-23

The inductor shown in Figure has an inductance of 1 H and is connected to a 120

V 60 Hz line. How much current will flow in this circuit?

Solution:

X L = 2πfL
X L = 2 × 3.1416 × 60 × 1
X L = 377 Ω

XL may be substituted for R in Ohm’s law

V 120
I= = = 0.398 A
X L 377
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 35

15.7 CAPACTIVE LOADS

An inductor opposes a change in current. A capacitor does the opposite. It
opposes a change in voltage. Capacitors are used to block DC in electronic
circuits. They are formed whenever two customers run side-by-side.
The current through a capacitance depends on how rapidly the voltage across
it changes.

dv
iC = C
dt (12.33)
where

v = VP sin (ω t ) = Vrms ∠0 o

Taking the derivative of a sinusoidal voltage

dv
dt
(
= ω VP sin ω t + 90 o )

Substitute this into the basic equation for the capacitor

[
iC = C ω VP sin (ω t + 90 o ) ]
Rewriting this equation, we get

(
iC = (ω t ) VP sin ω t + 90 o ) (12.34)

Equation (12.34) shows that there is a phase shift of 90o. The voltage is at 0o
but the resulting current through the capacitance is at +90o (leads).
The current may be expressed in a phasor form

(
I C = (ω C ) × Vrms ∠90 o ) (12.35)

The capacitive reactance is defined as

1
XC =
ωC (12.36)
36 Chapter 12

Equation (12.36) may be rewritten as

IC =
(V ∠90 o
rms )
XC

Using Equation (12.26) to find the impedance, we get

Vrms ∠0 o
ZC = (12.37)
Vrms
∠90 o
XC

Divide the magnitudes and subtract the angles

Z C = X C ∠ - 90 o
-j 1 (12.38)
= =
ωC jω C

1
where = e -jπ / 2 = -j . Therefore, the impedance of a capacitor is a
j
frequency-dependent complex quantity, with the impedance of the capacitor
varying as an inverse function of frequency. The capacitor acts as a short circuit
at high frequencies, whears it behaves more as an open circuit at low frequencies.
Equation (12.28) indicates that the opposition a capacitor presents to a sinusoidal
voltage is inversely proportional to the size of the capacitor (C) and the value of
the frequency. The current is shifted 90o ahead of the voltage.
In rectangular form, the impedance of the capacitor contains a real and
imaginary component.

Z C = (0 - j X L ) (12.39)

The impedance diagram of a capacitor is shown in Figure 12-20. The length of

the phasor XC lies entirely along the imaginary (-y) axis.
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 37

XC

Figure 12-20 Impedance diagram of a capacitor.

Example 12-24

Compute the reactance of a 10 µF capacitor at a frequency of (a) 0 Hz, (b) 10

kHz. (c) 1 MHz.

Solution: Use Equation (12.36)

1
XC =
2π f C

(a) When f = 0 Hz

1
XC = =∞
( )
2 π (0 ) 10 × 10 −6

(b) When f = 10 kHz

1
XC = = 1.59 Ω
( )(
2 π 10 × 103 10 × 10 −6 )
(c) When f = 1 MHz

1
XC = = 0.016 Ω
( )(
2 π 1.0 × 10 6 10 × 10 −6 )
38 Chapter 12

12.8 AC CIRCUIT ANALAYSIS

The impedance parameters defined in the previous sections are very useful in
solving AC circuit analysis problems, because it makes possible to take
advantage of most of the network theorems developed for DC circuits by
replacing resistances with complex-valued impedances. Figure 12-21 depicts the
impedances of R, L, and C in the complex plane.

Imaginary

ωL

ZL
R
Real

ZC

1
-
ωC

Figure 12-21 Impedances of R, L, and C in the complex plane.

All the rules and laws learned in the study of DC circuits apply to AC circuits
including Ohm's law, Kirchhoff's laws, and network analysis methods. The only
qualification is that all variables must be expressed in complex form, taking into
account phase as well as magnitude, and all voltages and currents must be of the
same frequency (in order that their phase relationships remain constant).
It is necessary to emphasize that although the impedance of circuit elements is
either purely real (for resistors) or purely imaginary (for inductors and
capacitors), the general definition of impedance for an arbitrary circuit should
allow for the possibility of having both a real and imaginary part, since practical
circuits are made up of more or less complex interconnections of various circuit
elements.
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 39

Example 12-25

Consider three AC voltage sources in series (Figure 12-22) and use complex
numbers to determine additive voltages.

22 V, -64o 12 V, 35o 15 V, 0o

Figure 12-22 Circuit for Example 12-25.

Solution:

Vtotal = V1 + V2 + V3
Vtotal = 22∠ − 64 + 12∠35 + 15∠0

Graphically, the vectors add up in this manner: The sum of these vectors will
be a resultant vector originating at the starting point for the 22 V vector and
terminating at the ending point for the 15 V vector. This is shown in Figure 12-
23.

Resultant
Vector

22∠-64o
15∠0o

12∠35o

Figure 12-23 Phasor diagram of Example 12-25.

In order to determine what the resultant vector's magnitude and angle are
without resorting to graphic images, we can convert each one of these polar-form
complex numbers into rectangular form and add. Remember. These figures are
40 Chapter 12

added together because the polarity marks for the three voltage sources are
oriented in an additive manner:

22∠ − 64 = 9.65 − j19.8

12∠35 = 9.8 + j 6.9
15∠0 = 15 + j 0
Etotal = (9.65 − j19.8) + (9.8 + j 6.9 ) + (15 + j 0 )
Etotal = 34.50 − j12.90V

In polar form, this equates to 36.80 V ∠ -20.50o. What this means in real
terms is that the voltage measured across these three voltage sources will be
36.80 V, lagging the 15 volt (0o phase reference) by 20.50o. A voltmeter
connected across these points in a real circuit would only indicate the polar
magnitude of the voltage (36.80 V), not the angle. An oscilloscope could be used
to display two voltage waveforms and thus provide a phase shift measurement,
but not a voltmeter. The same principle holds true for AC ammeters: they indicate
the polar magnitude of the current, not the phase angle.
This is extremely important in relating calculated figures of voltage and
current to real circuits. Although rectangular notation is convenient for addition
and subtraction, and was indeed the final step in our sample problem here, it is
not very applicable to practical measurements. Rectangular figures must be
converted to polar figures (specifically polar magnitude) before they can be
related to actual circuit measurements.

Example 12-26

Change the polarity of the three AC voltage sources given in Example 12-25
(Figure 12-24) and use complex numbers to determine additive voltages.

22 V, -64o 12 V, 35o 15 V, 0o

Figure 12-24 Circuit for Example 12-26.

Fundamentals of Alternating Current 41

Solution: See Figure 12-25. Note how the 12 V supply’s phase angle is still
referred to as 35o, even though the leads have been reversed. Remember that the
phase angle of any voltage drop is stated in reference to its noted polarity. Even
though the angle is still written as 35o, the vector will be drawn 180o opposite of
what it was before: The resultant (sum) vector should begin at the upper-left point
(origin of the 22 volt vector) and terminate at the right arrow tip of the 15-V
vector: The connection reversal on the 12-V supply can be represented in two
different ways in polar form: by an addition of 180o to its vector angle (making it
12 V ∠ 215o), or a reversal of sign on the magnitude (making it -12 V ∠ 35o).

22∠-64o Resultant
Vector

-12∠35o

15∠0o

Figure 12-25 Phasor diagram for Example 12-26.

Etotal = E1 + E 2 + E 3
Etotal = (15 + j 0 ) + (− 9.82 − j 6.9 ) + (9.65 − j19.80) = 14.81 − j 26.65

In polar form, this equates to 30.4964 V ∠ -60.9368o.

12.9 POWER AND POWER FACTOR

An understanding of load characteristics in electrical power systems involves

the concept of power and power factor. The power consumed by a load will be
comprised of several individual power components. These components are
apparent power, reactive power, and active or real power.

12.9.1 Power Components

The active or real power component of the load is that portion of the load that
performs real work. The reactive power component of the load is used to supply
42 Chapter 12

energy that is stored in either a magnetic or electrical field. An example of

reactive power being used to supply a magnetic field is the magnetizing current
consumed by a transformer or an electric motor. An example of a device that
supplies reactive power is the capacitor. Whether or not a load consumes or
supplies reactive power is a characteristic of the load itself.
The relationship between these electrical power quantities is best realized by
using the power triangle shown in Figure 12-26 (a). In addition Figure 12-26
shows the related impedance triangle.
When an AC power is applied to a reactive load, the voltage is 90o out of
phase with the current. When the instantaneous amplitudes of the voltage and
current are multiplied, the resultant wave represents the instantaneous power of
the reactor. Accordingly, the average power is zero, which means that reactive
loads do not dissipate power.
In reference to Figure 12-26 (a), it may be seen that the base of the power
triangle represents the real power component, while the vertical component
represents the reactive power component. The hypotenuse of the triangle
represents the apparent power component, which is calculated as

S = P2 + Q2 (12.40)

Where:

S = magnitude of power apparent in VA

P = magnitude of real (active) power in W
Q = magnitude of reactive power in VAR

12.9.2 Power Factor

The ratio of real power to apparent power provides us with an important
quantity called power factor. It is expressed as

P
PF = = cos (θ ) (12.41)
S

The ratio of reactive power to apparent power is referred to as the reactive

factor of the load. It is expressed as

Q
RF = = sin (θ ) (12.42)
S

The power factor is a measure of how well the load is converting the total
power consumed into real work. A power factor equal to 1.0 indicates that the
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 43

load is converting all the power consumed into real work. However, power factor
of 0.0 indicates that the load is not producing any real work. In general, the power
factor of a load will be between 0.0 and 1.0.
Because only the resistive portion of an AC circuit dissipates power, we are
interested in the resistive part of the impedance. The ratio of the circuit resistance
to the amplitude of the circuit impedance is called power factor. This is expressed
mathematically as

S
Q

θ
P
(a)

Z
X

θ
R
(b)

Figure 12-26 (a) Power triangle. (b) Impedance triangle.

R
Power factor = (12.43)
Z

According to Equation (12.28), the impedance of an AC circuit is resistive ( Z

= R). Therefore, the power factor is 1. When the impedance is reactive (Z = jX),
the power factor is zero. In general, the power factor is related to the phase angle
through the impedance diagram (Figure 12-26). This is expressed as

Power factor = cos (θ ) = R/ Z

12.9.3 Leading and Lagging Power Factor

A load in which the current lags the applied voltage is said to have a lagging
power factor. However, a load in which the current leads the applied voltage is
said to have a leading power factor. The current in an inductive load will lag the
44 Chapter 12

applied voltage by certain angle as shown in Figure 12-27 (a). Therefore, an

inductive load will have a lagging power factor. Good examples of inductive
loads are transformers, motors, generators, and typical residential loads.
A leading power factor is one in which the current leads the applied voltage by
certain angle as shown in Figure 12-27 (b). A power factor correction capacitor is
an example for a load having a leading power factor.

S
Q

θ
P
(a)
P
θ

Q
S

(b)

Figure 12-27 (a) Power triangle for lagging power factor. (b) Power triangle for
leading power factor.

Example 12-27

Compute the power factor for each of the following cases.

a) Z = 100 ∠ -30o
b) 100 + j50 Ω

Solution:

a) θ = -30o
cos (θ) = cos (-30o) = 0.866
Power factor is 0.866.
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 45

b) Convert 100 +j50 to polar form

100 +j50 = 111.8 ∠ 26.56o
cos (θ) = cos (26.56o) = 0.894
Power factor is 0.894.

Example 12-28

A three-phase load consumes 100 kW, and 50 kVAR. Determine the apparent
power, reactive factor, and the power factor angle.

Solution: Use Equation (12-40) to find the apparent power

S= (100,000)2 + (50,000)2 = 111.8 kVA

Now, use Equation (12-41) to find the power factor

100,000
PF = = 0.8944
111,803

Use Equation (12-42) to find the reactive power

50,000
RF = = 0.4472
111,803
46 Chapter 12

12.10 THREE-PHASE AC CIRCUITS

Nearly all-electric power generation and most of power transmission in the

world today are in the form of three-phase AC circuits. However, the single-
phase supply is the most common supply for domestic premises and other single-
occupier premises where the load demand is relatively small. The three-phase
system is the usual type of supply for commercial and industrial premises of
medium size: schools, hotels, blocks of apartments, hospitals, etc. A three-phase
circuit is a combination of three single-phase circuits.
A three-phase power system consists of three-phase generators, transmission
lines, and loads. Three-phase systems have two major advantages over single-
phase systems: (1) More power is obtained per kilogram of metal from three-
phase system, and (2) the power delivered to a three-phase load is constant all the
times, instead of pulsing as it does in single-phase system.

12.10.1 Wye-Connected System

A three-phase system consists of three AC sources, with voltages equal in

magnitude but differing in phase angle from the others by 120o, and connected at
a common point called neutral as shown in Figure 12-28. The current flowing to
each load can be found from the following equation

V
I= (12.44)
Z

Accordingly, the currents flowing in the three phases are

V∠0 o
IA = = I∠ − θ
Z∠θ
V∠ - 120 o (12.45)
IB = = I∠ − 120 o − θ
Z∠θ
V∠ - 240 o
IC = = I∠ − 240 o − θ
Z∠θ
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 47

iA(t)

vA(t) Z=Z∠θ

iB(t)

vB(t) Z=Z∠θ

iB(t)

vB(t) Z=Z∠θ

Volts

vA(t) vB(t) vC(t)

Figure 12-28 (a) Three phases of a generator with their loads. (b) Voltage
waveforms of each phase of the generator.
48 Chapter 12

It is possible to connect the negative ends of these three single-phase

generators and loads together, so they share a common neutral. This type of
connection is called wye or Y. In this case four wires are required to supply
power from the three generators to resistive load as shown in Figure 12-29.

Ia IL
a
Iφ

IN
N
Resistive
load

Ib
b

IC
c

Figure 12-29 Y-connected generator with a resistive load.

The voltages between any two line terminals (a, b, or c) are called line-to-line
voltages, and the voltages between any line terminal and the neutral terminal are
called phase voltages.
Since the load connected to this generator is assumed to be resistive, the
current in each phase of the generator will be at the same angle as the voltage.
Therefore, the current in each phase will be given by

I a = Iφ ∠0o
I b = Iφ ∠ − 120o (12.46)

I c = Iφ ∠ − 240 o

It is obvious that the current in any line is the same as the current in the
corresponding phase. Therefore, for a Y connection
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 49

I L = Iφ (12.47)

The relationship between line voltage and phase voltage is given by the
following equation

VL = 3 Vφ (12.48)

12.10.2 Delta (∆) Connection

Another possible connection is the delta (∆) connection, in which the three
generators are connected head to tail as shown in Figure 12-30. The ∆ connection
is possible because the sum of the three voltages VA + VB + VC = 0.

Ia IL
a

Vφ∠0o
Resistive
Ib load
b

Ic
c

Figure 12-30 ∆-connected generator with a resistive load.

In the case of the ∆ connection, it is obvious that the line-to-line voltage

between any two lines will be the same as the voltage in the corresponding phase.
In a ∆ connection

VL = Vφ (12.49)

The relationship between line current and phase current can be found by
applying Kirchhoff’s current law at a nodes of the ∆

I L = 3Iφ (12.50)
50 Chapter 12

SUMMARY
1. A sinusoidal signal is mathematically represented in one of two ways: a time-
domain forms ( v (t ) = A cos (ω t + θ ) and a frequency-domain (phasor) form
( V ( jω ) = A e jθ = A∠θ ).
2. A phasor is a complex number, expressed in rectangular form and polar form.
3. In rectangular form, the phasor has both real and imaginary parts.
4. In polar form, the phasor consists of a magnitude equal to the peak amplitude
of the sinusoidal signal and a phase angle equal to the phase shift of the
sinusoidal signal referenced to a cosine signal.
5. The three basic types of AC loads are resistive, inductive, and capacitive.
6. In AC resistive load, the current and voltage are in phase with each other.
7. True power can be produced only during periods of time that both the voltage
and current have the same polarity.
8. The impedance of a resistor is simply its resistance.
9. Induced voltage is proportional to the rate of change of current.
10. Induced voltage is always opposite in polarity to the applied voltage.
11. Pure inductive load contains no true power.
12. The impedance of an inductor is jωL Ω.
13. The impedance of an inductor is 1/jωC Ω.
14. Once a circuit is represented in phasor-impedance form, all analysis
techniques practiced in resistive circuits (Chapter 11) apply once all elements
are replaced by their frequency-domain equivalents.
15. Phasor analysis can only be performed on single-frequency circuit.
Otherwise, principles of superposition must be followed.
16. The power factor is a measure of how well the load is converting the total
power consumed into real work.
17. The majority of electricity production is in the form of three-phase power.
18. Three-phase sources or loads can be either Y- or ∆-connected. Both types of
sources have three terminals, one for each phase; Y-connected sources have a
neutral connection as well.
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 51

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the difference between AC and DC electricity?
2. Find 5 electrical appliances around the house and determine their voltage,
current, and power requirements.
3. Identify an AC electrical device in an automobile.
4. How many degrees are the current and voltage out of phase with each other
in a pure resistive circuit?
5. How many degrees are the current and voltage out of phase with each other
in a pure inductive circuit?
6. To what is inductive reactance proportional?
7. What two factors determine the capacitive reactance of a capacitor?
8. What is power factor and reactive factor?
9. What is meant by a leading and lagging power factor?
10. What types of connections are possible for three-phase generators and loads?
 52 Chapter 12

PROBLEMS
12-1 Express each of the following frequencies in Hertz.

a. 40 cycles in 5.0 s.
b. 120 cycles in 100 ms.
c. 1000 revolutions on 0.5 s.
d. 500 rotations in 2.0 min.

12-2 Determine the value of the resistive load for a circuit having the phasor
diagram shown in Figure 12-31.

I = 1.0 A V = 120 V

Figure 12-31 Phasor diagram of Problem 16-2.

12-3 Determine the inductance of the inductor in henries whose phasor diagram is
given in Figure 12-32. Assume the frequency as 2.4 kHz.

E = 100 V

I = 800 mA

Figure 12-32 Circuit for problem 12-3.

12-4 Determine the capacitance of the capacitor in farads whose phasor diagram is
given in Figure 12-33. Assume the frequency as 2 MHz.
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 53

I = 20 mA

E = 40 V

Figure 12-33 Circuit for Problem 16-4.

12-5 Construct the phasor diagram for the circuit shown in Figure 12-34. Find the
value of E.

VR = 100 V

E VL = 150 V

VC = 120 V

Figure 12-34 Circuit for Problem 16-5.

12-6 Consider a series circuit consisting of a 2.0-µF capacitor and a 500-Ω

resistance. An AC source is powering the circuit with a current of 50∠0o
mA. Draw the circuit and find the source voltage.

12-7 Repeat Problem 16-6. Find the voltage across the capacitor and resistor, then
draw the voltage phasor diagram.

12-8 A 100∠0o-V (200 kHz) is applied across a parallel circuit consisting of 5.2-
kΩ resistance and a 3.2-H inductor. Find the current through each branch
component and find the source current.
 54 Chapter 12

12-9 Repeat Problem 12-8. Replace the 5.2-kΩ resistance with a 3-µF capacitor.

12-10 Determine the circuit components used in each of the four series circuits

60 ∠ 30o
60 ∠ -30o
60 ∠ 0o
60 ∠ -90o

12-11 Determine the power dissipated in an AC circuit having a peak source

voltage of EP = 120 V and an impedance of Z = 120∠110o.

12-12 Determine the power factor for each of the following circuit conditions and
state if it is leading or lagging

a. R = 30 Ω; |Z| = 90 Ω
b. Z = 13 – j6 Ω
c. Z = 32∠-60o

12-13 Write the instantaneous equations for voltage and current for the phasor
diagram shown in Figure 12-35 at a frequency of 800 Hz.

I=2A

θ = -50o

E = 20 V

Figure 12-34 Circuit for Problem 12-35.

12-14 Calculate the magnitude of the line current for the following loads:

a. 10 kVA, unity power factor, 120 V, single-phase system.

b. 100 kW, 0.9 lagging power factor, 480Y/260 V, three-phase system.
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 55

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

• The peak value of a sine wave occurs

a. Once each cycle at the positive maximum value.

b. Once each cycle at the negative maximum value.
c. Twice each cycle at the positive and negative maximum value.
d. Twice each cycle at the positive maximum value.

• One of the following is not a right format to express the sinusoid V cos ωt.

a. V cos (2πft)
b. V cos (2πt/T)
c. V cos (t – T)
d. V sin (2πft – 80o)

• − 36 can be expressed as the following imaginary number

a. 6
b. j6
c. –6
d. -j6

• - − 36 can be expressed as the following imaginary number

e. 6
f. j6
g. –6
h. -j6

• Total opposition to current flow in a circuit with resistance and reactance is

a. Resistance
b. Reactance
c. Impedance
d. Inductance

• The imaginary part of an impedance is called:

a. Resistance
b. Reactance
c. Admittance
d. Conductance
56 Chapter 12

• In a purely inductive circuit

a. Current leads voltage by 90o.

b. Voltage leads current by 90o.
c. Voltage leads current by 180o.
d. Current and voltage are in phase.

• In a purely capacitive circuit

a. Current leads voltage by 90o.

b. Voltage leads current by 90o.
c. Voltage leads current by 180o.
d. Current and voltage are in phase.

• In the circuit shown in Figure 12-36, what is the voltage across the
capacitor?

16 sin (5000 t + 10o) 2.2 kΩ 0.001 µF 150 mH

Figure 12-36 Circuit for Problem 1.

a. 16∠10o
b. 12.7∠10o
c. 16∠-80o
d. 12.7∠100o
e. None of the above. The answer is

• Is the ratio of true power to apparent power

a. Reactive power
b. Power ratio
c. Power factor
d. Phase angle
 RC Charging Circuit Tutorial & RC Time Constant

RC Charging Circuit

RC Charging Circuit
When a voltage source is applied to an RC circuit, the capacitor, C charges up through the resistance, R

All Electrical or Electronic circuits or systems suffer from some form of “time-delay” between its input and
output, when a signal or voltage, either continuous, ( DC ) or alternating ( AC ) is rstly applied to it.

This delay is generally known as the time delay or Time Constant of the circuit and it is the time response of
the circuit when a step voltage or signal is rstly applied. The resultant time constant of any electronic circuit
or system will mainly depend upon the reactive components either capacitive or inductive connected to it
and is a measurement of the response time with units of, Tau – τ

When an increasing DC voltage is applied to a discharged Capacitor, the capacitor draws a charging current
and “charges up”, and when the voltage is reduced, the capacitor discharges in the opposite direction.
Because capacitors are able to store electrical energy they act like small batteries and can store or release
the energy as required.

The charge on the plates of the capacitor is given as: Q = CV. This charging (storage) and discharging
(release) of a capacitors energy is never instant but takes a certain amount of time to occur with the time
taken for the capacitor to charge or discharge to within a certain percentage of its maximum supply value
being known as its Time Constant ( τ ).

If a resistor is connected in series with the capacitor forming an RC circuit, the capacitor will charge up
gradually through the resistor until the voltage across the capacitor reaches that of the supply voltage. The
time also called the transient response, required for the capacitor to fully charge is equivalent to about 5
1/9
time constants or 5T.
8/29/2019 RC Charging Circuit Tutorial & RC Time Constant

This transient response time T, is measured in terms of τ = R x C, in seconds, where R is the value of the
resistor in ohms and C is the value of the capacitor in Farads. This then forms the basis of an RC charging
circuit were 5T can also be thought of as “5 x RC”.

RC Charging Circuit
The gure below shows a capacitor, ( C ) in series with a resistor, ( R ) forming a RC Charging Circuit
connected across a DC battery supply ( Vs ) via a mechanical switch. When the switch is closed, the capacitor
will gradually charge up through the resistor until the voltage across it reaches the supply voltage of the
battery. The manner in which the capacitor charges up is also shown below.

RC Charging Circuit

Let us assume above, that the capacitor, C is fully “discharged” and the switch (S) is fully open. These are the
initial conditions of the circuit, then t = 0, i = 0 and q = 0. When the switch is closed the time begins at t = 0
and current begins to ow into the capacitor via the resistor.

Since the initial voltage across the capacitor is zero, ( Vc = 0 ) the capacitor appears to be a short circuit to
the external circuit and the maximum current ows through the circuit restricted only by the resistor R.
Then by using Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL), the voltage drops around the circuit are given as:

The current now owing around the circuit is called the Charging Current and is found by using Ohms law as:
i = Vs/R.

RC Charging Circuit Curves

https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/rc/rc_1.html 2/9
 8/29/2019 RC Charging Circuit Tutorial & RC Time Constant

The capacitor now starts to charge up as shown, with the rise in the RC charging curve steeper at the
beginning because the charging rate is fastest at the start and then tapers off as the capacitor takes on
additional charge at a slower rate.

As the capacitor charges up, the potential difference across its plates slowly increases with the actual time
taken for the charge on the capacitor to reach 63% of its maximum possible voltage, in our curve 0.63Vs
being known as one Time Constant, ( T ).

This 0.63Vs voltage point is given the abbreviation of 1T, (one time constant).

The capacitor continues charging up and the voltage difference between Vs and Vc reduces, so to does the
circuit current, i. Then at its nal condition greater than ve time constants ( 5T ) when the capacitor is said
to be fully charged, t = ∞, i = 0, q = Q = CV. Then at in nity the current diminishes to zero, the capacitor
acts like an open circuit condition therefore, the voltage drop is entirely across the capacitor.
https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/rc/rc_1.html 3/9
So8/29/2019
mathematically we can say that the time required
RC Chargingfor a capacitor
Circuit Constant up to one time constant, ( 1T )
to charge
Tutorial & RC Time

is given as:

RC Time Constant, Tau

This RC time constant only speci es a rate of charge where, R is in Ω and C in Farads.

Since voltage V is related to charge on a capacitor given by the equation, Vc = Q/C, the voltage across the
value of the voltage across the capacitor ( Vc ) at any instant in time during the charging period is given as:

Where:
Vc is the voltage across the capacitor
Vs is the supply voltage
t is the elapsed time since the application of the supply voltage
RC is the time constant of the RC charging circuit

After a period equivalent to 4 time constants, ( 4T ) the capacitor in this RC charging circuit is virtually fully
charged and the voltage across the capacitor is now approx 98% of its maximum value, 0.98Vs. The time
period taken for the capacitor to reach this 4T point is known as the Transient Period.

After a time of 5T the capacitor is now fully charged and the voltage across the capacitor, ( Vc ) is equal to
the supply voltage, ( Vs ). As the capacitor is fully charged no more current ows in the circuit. The time
period after this 5T point is known as the Steady State Period.

Then we can show in the following table the percentage voltage and current values for the capacitor in a RC
charging circuit for a given time constant.

RC Charging Table

Percentage of Maximum
Time
RC Value
Constant
Voltage Current

0.5 time constant 0.5T = 0.5RC 39.3% 60.7%

0.7 time constant 0.7T = 0.7RC 50.3% 49.7%

https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/rc/rc_1.html 4/9
 8/29/2019 RC Charging Circuit Tutorial & RC Time Constant
1.0 time constant 1T = 1RC 63.2% 36.8%

2.0 time constants 2T = 2RC 86.5% 13.5%

3.0 time constants 3T = 3RC 95.0% 5.0%

4.0 time constants 4T = 4RC 98.2% 1.8%

5.0 time constants 5T = 5RC 99.3% 0.7%

Note that as the charging curve for a RC charging circuit is exponential, the capacitor in reality never
becomes 100% fully charged due to the energy stored in the capacitor. So for all practical purposes, after ve
time constants a capacitor is considered to be fully charged.

As the voltage across the capacitor Vc changes with time, and is a different value at each time constant up to
5T, we can calculate this value of capacitor voltage, Vc at any given point, for example.

RC Charging Circuit Example No1

Calculate the RC time constant, τ of the following circuit.

The time constant, τ is found using the

formula T = R x C in seconds.

Therefore the time constant τ is given as: T =

R x C = 47k x 1000uF = 47 Secs

a) What value will be the voltage across the capacitor at 0.7 time constants?

At 0.7 time constants ( 0.7T ) Vc = 0.5Vs. Therefore, Vc = 0.5 x 5V = 2.5V

b) What value will be the voltage across the capacitor at 1 time constant?

At 1 time constant ( 1T ) Vc = 0.63Vs. Therefore, Vc = 0.63 x 5V = 3.15V

c) How long will it take to “fully charge” the capacitor?

The capacitor will be fully charged at 5 time constants.

1 time constant ( 1T ) = 47 seconds, (from above). Therefore, 5T = 5 x 47 = 235 secs

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d)https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/rc/rc_1.html
The voltage across the Capacitor after 100 seconds?
5/9
The voltage formula is given as Vc = V(1 – e(-t/RC)) so this

Where: V = 5 volts, t = 100 seconds, and RC = 47 seconds from above.

Therefore, Vc = 5(1 – e(-100/47)) = 5(1 – e-2.1277) = 5(1 – 0.1191) = 4.4 volts

We have seen that the charge on a capacitor is given by the expression: Q = CV and that when a voltage is
rstly applied to the plates of the capacitor it charges up at a rate determined by its time constant, τ.
 Manukau Institute of Technology

Branch Current Method

Electrical Principles Shafiqur Tito

 Branch Current Method Manukau Institute of Technology

Loop/Mesh: A loop is a complete current path in a circuit.

Node: Node of a circuit is a point where two or more circuit elements
are connected
Branch: Branch is a path that connects two nodes (of three element).
Node
A branch usually carry same current.
R1=1kΩ

Branch Branch
Branch
Branch R2=1kΩ
RL 1kΩ
V2=24V
V2=9V

Electrical Principles Shafiqur Tito

Branch Current Method Manukau Institute of Technology

Steps to follow for analysing a circuit using branch current method.

Step 1: Assign currents in each branch in an arbitrary direction.

Step 2: Show the polarities of the resistor voltages according to the assigned
branch directions.
Step 3: Write the required equations in each loop/mesh using Kirchhoff’s
Voltage law
Step 4: Write an equation in each node using Kirchhoff’s current law

Step 5: Solve the equations of step 3 and 4 to find the required current or
voltage

Electrical Principles Shafiqur Tito

Branch Current Method Manukau Institute of Technology

Use branch current Method to find current through RL

R1=12kΩ

R2=10kΩ
RL=15kΩ
Vs1=24V
Vs2=9V

Electrical Principles Shafiqur Tito

Branch Current Method Manukau Institute of Technology

Step 1: Assign currents in each branch in an arbitrary direction.

R1=12kΩ

I2 I3

R2=10kΩ
RL=15kΩ
Vs1=24V
Vs2=9V
I1

Electrical Principles Shafiqur Tito

Electrical Principles Manukau Institute of Technology

Step 2: Show the polarities of the resistor voltages according to the

assigned branch directions.
I1 R1=12kΩ

+ V1 ‐ I2 I3
+
V2 R2=10kΩ +
‐ V3 RL=15kΩ
Vs1=24V ‐
VS2=9V

Shafiqur Tito
Electrical Principles Manukau Institute of Technology

Step 3: Write the required equations in each loop/mesh using Kirchhoff’s

Voltage law
I1 R1=12kΩ N
Applying KVL in Loop 1
0 + V1 ‐ I2 I3
+
24 9 0 V2 R2=10kΩ +
12 10 15 ... … … … … (1) ‐ V3 RL=15kΩ
Applying KVL in Loop 2 Vs1=24V ‐
0 VS2=9V
9 0
9 10 15 0
10 15 9…………… 2

Shafiqur Tito
Electrical Principles Manukau Institute of Technology

Step 4: Write an equation in each node using Kirchhoff’s current

law
I1 R1=12kΩ N
Applying KCL in Node N
+ V1 ‐ I2 I3
…………………… 3 +
V2 R2=10kΩ +
‐ V3 RL=15kΩ
Vs1=24V ‐
VS2=9V

Shafiqur Tito
Electrical Principles Manukau Institute of Technology

Step 5: Solve the equations of step 3 and 4 to find the required current or
voltage

Shafiqur Tito
Electrical Principles Manukau Institute of Technology

Step 5: Solve the equations of step 3 and 4 to find the required current or
voltage

Shafiqur Tito
Electrical Principles Manukau Institute of Technology

Use branch current Method to find current through each branch.

[138mA, 160mA & 21.8mA]
R1=47Ω R3=68Ω

Vs2=5V
Vs1=10V R2=22Ω

Shafiqur Tito
Electrical Principles Manukau Institute of Technology

Use branch current Method to find current through R2. [1A]

R1=12Ω R3=3Ω

Vs2=21V
Vs1=84V R2=6Ω

Shafiqur Tito
 Manukau Institute of Technology

Mesh/Loop Current Method

Electrical Principles Shafiqur Tito

 STEPS to follow in Mesh/Loop Current Method Manukau Institute of Technology

Step#1: Assume current in Each loop of the circuit in an arbitrary direction.

Step# 2: Identify the polarities of the voltages across each of the resistor according to the
direction of the current.

Step# 3: Apply Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law in each loop around the closed loop to write the
required equation.

Step# 4: Use Ohm’s law to simplify the equation in terms current and resistor. If you have
already done it, then ignore this step.

Step# 5: Use any method to solve the simultaneous equations.

Electrical Principles Shafiqur Tito

Electrical Principles Manukau Institute of Technology

Use Mesh/Loop current Method to find current through R2.

R1=47Ω R1=82Ω

R2=22Ω
V2=10V V2=5V

Shafiqur Tito
Electrical Principles Manukau Institute of Technology

Step#1: Assume current in Each loop of the circuit in an arbitrary direction.

R1=47Ω R1=82Ω

I2

I1 R2=22Ω
V2=10V V2=5V

Shafiqur Tito
Electrical Principles Manukau Institute of Technology

Step# 2: Identify the polarities of the voltages across each of the resistor according to the
direction of the current.
R1=47Ω R1=82Ω

+ V1 ‐ + V1 ‐
+ I2
I1 V1 R2=22Ω
V2=10V V2=5V
‐

Shafiqur Tito
Electrical Principles Manukau Institute of Technology

Step# 4: Use Ohm’s law to simplify the equation in terms current and resistor. If you have
already done it, then ignore this step.
R1=47Ω R1=82Ω

69 22 10 … … … … … … … … … 1 + V1 ‐ + V1 ‐
+ I2
22 104 ‐5 … … … … … … … … (2) I1 V1 R2=22Ω
V2=10V V2=5V
‐

Shafiqur Tito
Electrical Principles Manukau Institute of Technology

Step# 5: Use any method to solve the simultaneous equations.

69 22 10 … … … … … … … … … 1
R1=47Ω R1=82Ω
22 104 ‐5 … … … … … … … … (2)
+ V1 ‐ + V1 ‐
+ I2
I1 V1 R2=22Ω
V2=10V V2=5V
‐

139mA

18.7mA

Shafiqur Tito
Electrical Principles Manukau Institute of Technology

Course: DE4401 Electrical Principles

Lecturer: Saad Aslam

Acknowledgement: Slides are prepared by Dr. Shafiqur Tito

Lecture# 1

Shafiqur Tito
 Electrical Principles Manukau Institute of Technology

Voltage Current Resistance

h2ρg
• Water height (h1) of the left tank is higher that the water h1ρg
height (h2) of the tank on the right.
• Potential energy on the top of the water in each tank is given
be, h1 h2

Left Tank, ℎ1 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 Right Tank, ℎ2 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌

Fig.01: Voltage and current analogy
where, 𝜌𝜌 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑔𝑔 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

• If the tap in between the tank is opened, water flows from

Potential Energy Difference
left tank to the right.
=h1ρg-h2ρg
• Water flows due the potential (energy) difference between
the tanks.

Voltage Current Resistance Shafiur Tito

Analogy with voltage and current: Manukau Institute of Technology

Water Rate of water flow can be measured and quantified. h1ρg

Potential Energy Difference

Rate of water flow is dependent on both potential energy difference
as well as the radius of the pipe.

In Electricity:
Water  Charge

Rate of Water flow  Rate of Charge flow (Current)

h2ρg
Potential energy  voltage
H1ρg greater than h2ρg
Radius of the pipe  Resistance
Water flows from higher potential energy
Current flows through a continuous circuit to lower potential energy
unlike the water flow

Electrical Principles
 Potential (Energy) Difference(PD) Manukau Institute of Technology

• In Electrical circuit Potential (Energy) Difference is created by placing a source (battery or Generator) so that current
(charge) flows.

Negative terminal (Lower voltage)

Positive terminal (higher voltage)

+ve

Voltage Difference
-ve

Voltage Difference, V and unit is volt

Battery Symbol
Electrical Principles Shafiqur Tito
Resistance: Manukau Institute of Technology

In Electrical circuit, current passes through a Amount of water flow is determined grossly
conductor. by the radius of the pipe.
Resistance is the property of a conductor. It
resists the flow of current. Radius is the property of the pipe.
l

𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 By reducing the resistance water flow can

𝑅𝑅 =
𝑎𝑎 be reduced.
𝜌𝜌 is resistivity of the conductor
Normally the resistance of the current Thus, radius resist the flow of water can be
carrying conductor is very small and consider as resistance.
considered to be zero.

Electrical Principles Shafiqur Tito

Resistance: Manukau Institute of Technology

In any electrical circuit, a larger value of resistor may be required

to reduce the flow of current.

Commercial resistor as shown in Figure is used in this circuit.

Symbol of resistor and unit or resistance is Ohm(Ω)

Electrical Principles Shafiqur Tito

Circuit Manukau Institute of Technology

Conductor considered zero

resistance

I
I

V
R

I I

Electrical circuit.

Electrical Principles Shafiqur Tito

 Ohm’s Law: Manukau Institute of Technology

Ohm’s law provide the relationship between voltage (V), current (I) and resistance (R).

The current (I) through any conductor is directly proportional to the voltage difference (V) across the any two points of the
conductor.

Fig. 01: Ohm’s law

Let the current I(A) is flowing between the points A and B. The points A and B have the potential V1 and V2 and
resistance is R(Ω).
𝐼𝐼 ∝ 𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉2
𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼 = 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅
𝑉𝑉 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼

Electrical Principles Shafiqur Tito

 Ohm’s Law: Manukau Institute of Technology

Unit of V is volt (V) 1mA= 10-3 A M= 106 n= 10-9

Unit of I is ampere (A) 1mV= 10-3 V p= 10-12
Unit of R is Ohm (Ω) G= 109
1kΩ= 103 Ω T= 1012 f= 10-15

Electrical Principles Shafiqur Tito

 Determine the resistance from the plot of Ohm’s law: Manukau Institute of Technology

The unknown resistance of a plot can be determined at any point on the plot by using Ohm’s law.

𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
𝐼𝐼

Ohm’s law can be related to the basic straight-line equation:

1
𝐼𝐼 = . 𝑉𝑉 + 0
𝑅𝑅

𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚. 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐

The slope, m of the straight line is equal to the 1 divided by

the resistance.
1 ∆𝑦𝑦 ∆𝐼𝐼
𝑚𝑚 = = =
𝑅𝑅 ∆𝑥𝑥 ∆𝑉𝑉

Electrical Principles Shafiqur Tito

 Ohm’s Law: Manukau Institute of Technology

Calculate the current through the resistor:

10V
10V 4.7kΩ
Solution: 𝑉𝑉 10 𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼 = = = 2.13 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑅 4.7𝐾𝐾

If the voltage across the resistor is increased to 20V, what would be the current through the resistor.

Solution: 𝑉𝑉 20 𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼 = = = 4.26 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑅 4.7𝐾𝐾

If the resistance of the resistor becomes 20Ω, what would be the current through the resistor.

Solution: 𝑉𝑉 20 𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼 = = = 1𝐴𝐴
𝑅𝑅 20

Electrical Principles Shafiqur Tito

 Electrical Principles Manukau Institute of Technology

Refer to the circuit besides,

Calculate (i) current i3,

(ii) Voltage V1 and V2
(iii) Resistance, R.
Answer: R=16Ω, i3=2A, V1=12V and V2=36V

An Electric heating element has a resistance of 16Ω and is connected to 240V. Calculate the current through it.

Answer: 15A

A 480V circuit has a current flow of 3A. What amount of resistance is connected in the circuit.
Answer:
160Ω

Shafiqur Tito
Electrical Principles Manukau Institute of Technology

Determine the current resulting from the application of a 9V battery across a network with a resistance of 2.2Ω 4.09A
Calculate the resistance of a 60W bulb if a current of 500mA results from an applied voltage of 120V 240Ω

Calculate the current through the 2kΩ resistor if the voltage drop across it is 16V 8mA

Calculate the voltage that must be applied across the soldering iron to establish a current of 1.5A through the iron 120V
If its internal resistance is 80Ω

Determine the resistance associated with the curve of Fig. 01. 2kΩ

Fig. 01

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Electrical Principles Manukau Institute of Technology

Determine R1, R2 and R3 from the graph.

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Electrical Principles Manukau Institute of Technology

Fig. 2 shows the characteristics of a diode. On the 1st quadrant, the diode works as resistor just above the voltage
of 0.7V. From the linear graph of voltage and current calculate the internal resistance of the diode.

20Ω

Fig. 02

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Short circuit & Open circuit: Manukau Institute of Technology

Short circuit:
Two terminals A and B are called short, if they are connected with a conductor having zero resistance.
Voltage across the shorted terminals is equal to zero as the resistance is zero

A B

Open circuit:

A B Two terminals A and B are called Open, if they have no connection

between them.

The resistance between the open terminal is infinite.

Thus, the current through the open terminal is equal to zero.

Electrical Principles Shafiqur Tito

Short circuit & Open circuit: Manukau Institute of Technology

What would be voltage V in the circuit?

Answer: 0V and 0V

Find the current for the circuit below.

Answer: 0 A and 0 A

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Power Manukau Institute of Technology

Power is the rate of work done. Power is an indication of how much work (the conversion of energy from one form to
another) can be done in a specified amount of time.

𝑊𝑊
𝑃𝑃 =
𝑡𝑡

𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄
𝑃𝑃 =
𝑡𝑡
𝑄𝑄
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉
𝑡𝑡
2
𝑉𝑉 2
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑃𝑃 = 𝐼𝐼 𝑅𝑅 𝑃𝑃 =
𝑅𝑅

Unit of electrical work is Watt and symbol is W.

Most of the mechanical work is measured as horsepower. 1 ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ≅ 746 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊

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Power: Manukau Institute of Technology

Find the power delivered to the dc motor as shown in figure. 0.6kW

What is the power dissipated by a 5Ω resistor if the current is 4A 80W

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Energy: Manukau Institute of Technology

Energy: is the total work done over a period of time.

𝑊𝑊 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃

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 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law: Manukau Institute of Technology

It states that the algebraic sum of voltages across each element around a closed path (loop) is equal to zero.

� 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 = 0
𝑖𝑖
Step 1: Identify/calculate voltage across each element in a closed path/loop.
+ V1 -
Step 2: Identify the polarity of voltages between the terminals of each
element in a closed path/loop.
Source: +
+
Current leaves from the positive terminal and current enters
E V2
into the negative terminal. -
-
Passive element:
Current enters into the positive terminal and leaves from the
negative terminal. - V3 +
Step 3: Write down the equation considering sign of the polarity of
voltages.
−𝐸𝐸 + 𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑉𝑉2 + 𝑉𝑉3 = 0

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 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law: Manukau Institute of Technology

• Write down KVL in the following circuit • Determine the voltage Vx.
V1 V2
12V 6V

E1 I E2
32 V
VX 14V

V3

• Determine the voltage V of the circuit below.

V 4.2V

16V 9V

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 Kirchhoff’s Voltage law: Manukau Institute of Technology

Find V1 and V2 for the network of the figure 1. V1=40V and V2=-20V

Determine the unknown voltages of the circuits in Figure 2.

V3=17V

Figure 1
Figure 2

VR=43V

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Electrical Principles Manukau Institute of Technology

Refer to the circuit of Figure 1:

(a) Find RT
(b) Find I,
(c) Find V1 and V2
(d) Find the power to the 4Ω and 6 Ω resistors
(e) Find the power delivered by the battery and compare it to the Figure 1:
dissipated by the 4 Ω and 6 Ω resistor,
(f) Verify Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
Refer to the circuit of Figure 2:

(a) Determine V2 using KVL,

(b) Determine I,
(c) Find R1 and R2

Figure 1:

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Electrical Principles Manukau Institute of Technology

Determine I and the voltage across the 7Ω resistor for the network of the Figure 1

I=2.5 A and V=17.5V

Figure 1

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Equivalent Resistance: Manukau Institute of Technology

Let a voltage source of V volt is connected across R1, R2 and R3 as shown in the Figure results in I current in the
circuit. The voltages across R1, R2 and R3 are V1, V2 and V3 respectively.

(a) Equivalent circuit

(a) Series Circuit
Ohm’s Law:
𝑉𝑉1 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅1 𝑉𝑉2 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅2 𝑉𝑉3 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅3 Ohm’s Law:
KVL: 𝐸𝐸 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇
−𝐸𝐸 + 𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑉𝑉2 + 𝑉𝑉3 = 0
𝐸𝐸 = 𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑉𝑉2 + 𝑉𝑉3 = 𝐼𝐼(𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅3 ) 𝐸𝐸
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 =
𝐸𝐸 𝐼𝐼
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅3 =
𝐼𝐼
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅3 = 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇

𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅3 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛 = 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇

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 Series Circuit: Manukau Institute of Technology

Characteristics of Series Connection:

-Two elements have only one terminal in common and
-The common point between the two element is not connected to another current carrying element.

R1 and R2 are in series R1 and R2 are not in series

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Series Circuit: Manukau Institute of Technology

Refer to the circuit in Figure: R1 =2Ω

(i)Find the total resistance, RT(8Ω)
(ii) Calculate the source current, IS(2.5A) + V1 -
(iii) Determine the voltage, V1, V2 and V3. (5V, 2.5V, 12.5V) I +
(iV) Calculate the power dissipated by the Resistors.(12.5W, 6.25W and + R2 =1Ω
20V V2
31.25W) E
-
(V) Determine the power delivered by the source and compare it to the -
sum of the power levels of part (iV) (50W)
100Ω

R1 =7Ω R1 =4Ω
I
- V1 +
+ V1 - + V2 - RT
+
+
R2 =7Ω
Refer to the circuit in Figure:
500V V3
E
- (i)Find the total resistance, RT(25Ω)
-
(ii) Calculate the source current, IS(2A)
7Ω
(iii) Determine the voltage, V2 . (8V)

RT

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Series Circuit Manukau Institute of Technology

R1
For the circuit in the Figure, Calculate R1 and E 2kΩ and 72V
+ V1 -

I=6mA +
+ R2 =4Ω
V2
E
-
-

R3=6kΩ

- V1 +
RT=12kΩ

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Voltage Divider Rule: Manukau Institute of Technology

Let us consider a series circuit having two resistors R1 and R2. Thus, the equivalent resistance,
+
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 = 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2
V1 R1
-
The current delivered by the source, E to the resistor R1 and R2 is given by,
I 𝐸𝐸
+ 𝐼𝐼 =
E + 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇
- V2 R2 𝐸𝐸
- 𝐼𝐼 =
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2
The voltage across the resistor, R1, is V1 can be calculated as, 𝑉𝑉1 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅1
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸1
RT 𝑉𝑉1 =
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2
𝑅𝑅1
𝑉𝑉1 = × 𝐸𝐸
𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2
Similarly, voltage across, R2 is given by, 𝑉𝑉2 = × 𝐸𝐸
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2

The voltage across the resistive elements will divide as the magnitude of the resistance level.,

Electrical Principles Shafiqur Tito

Voltage Divider Rule: Manukau Institute of Technology

Refer to the circuit in Figure 1 determine the voltage V1. 16V

Figure 1
Refer to the circuit in Figure 2 determine the voltage V1 and V3

V1 =6V and V3=24V

Figure 2 Refer to the circuit in Figure 2 determine the voltage V’.

V’=21V

Design the voltage divider of the circuit of Figure 3 such that 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅1 = 4𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅2

Figure 3

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Electrical Principles Manukau Institute of Technology

Using voltage divide rule determine the voltages V1 and V2 of Figure 1.

V1 =16V and V2 =8V

For the network of Figure 2:

(a) Calculate Vab. [2V]

(b) Determine Vb and [8V]
(C) Calculate Vc[0]
Figure 2 Figure 1

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 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) Manukau Institute of Technology

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

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 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) Manukau Institute of Technology

At any node (junction) in an electrical circuit, total entering currents is equal to total leaving current.

A node (junction) is any point or junction in a circuit

where two or more components are connected. 𝐼𝐼1 + 𝐼𝐼3 + 𝐼𝐼4 = 𝐼𝐼2

I1 I1 I1
R1

IT I3
I2 R1 I2 I2

I3
Node
IT I3 R3
+ I4
E
-
IT

𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇 = 𝐼𝐼1 + 𝐼𝐼2 + 𝐼𝐼3 Figure:

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 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) Manukau Institute of Technology

Figure: KCL

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 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) Manukau Institute of Technology

The branch current are shown in Figure 1. Determine the total

current entering Node A and total current leaving Node B

Refer to the Figure 2, Determine the current I2 through R2

Figure 1

Figure 2

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 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) Manukau Institute of Technology

Use KCL to find the current measured by

ammeter A3 and A5 in the figure.

Electrical Principles Shafiqur Tito

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) Manukau Institute of Technology

Apply Kirchhoff’s current law at nodes A, B, C and find I2, I4 and I5 in the given circuit. [2A, -1A & 2A]

Electrical Principles Shafiqur Tito

 Parallel Resistors: Manukau Institute of Technology

Let a source of E (V) is connected three resistors as shown in Figure 1.

As per KVL it can be shown that:

I1 I2 I3 IT
𝐸𝐸 = 𝑉𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑉3 IT IT
+ + + +
+
Current in each branch can be calculate V1 R1 V2 R2 V3 R3 E RT
E
using Ohm’s law: - - - -
-
𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸
𝐸𝐸 𝐼𝐼3 =
𝐼𝐼1 = 𝐼𝐼2 = 𝑅𝑅3
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2

Parallel Circuit. Equivalent Circuit.

Electrical Principles Shafiqur Tito

 Parallel Resistors: Manukau Institute of Technology

According to KCL 𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇 = 𝐼𝐼1 + 𝐼𝐼2 + 𝐼𝐼3

𝑉𝑉1 𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉3 I3
𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇 = + +
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3 I1 I2
IT + + +
IT
If all the three resistors are replaced with only one V1
IT R1 V2 R2 V3
+ resistor and connected to the same source of E(V)
such that the resistor draws the same current IT,
- - -
E
then the resistor is called equivalent to those three
- resistor.

𝐸𝐸
The current through the circuit is given by, 𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇 =
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇
𝐸𝐸 𝑉𝑉1 𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉3 𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸 1 1 1 1
Thus, = + + = + + = + +
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3

Electrical Principles Shafiqur Tito

 Parallel Resistors: Manukau Institute of Technology

If n resistors are connected in similar way, then the equation can be expanded s follows:

1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ⋯+
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3 𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁

I1 I2 I3 IN
IT + +
+
V1 R1 V2 R2 R3 RN
E
- -
-

Electrical Principles Shafiqur Tito

 Parallel Resistors: Manukau Institute of Technology

Connections of these type is called Parallel connections.

Characteristics:
• Elements or branches or network have two common points.

Effect:
• Voltage across the elements are equal.
• Current divied.

Electrical Principles Shafiqur Tito

 Manukau Institute of Technology

Determine Equivalent resistors.

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 Current Divider Rule: Manukau Institute of Technology

Let two resistors R1 and R2 are connected in parallel across a voltage source E. They are drawing a total current of IT from the
source. The current flowing through R1 and R2 are I1 and I2.

Resistors R1 and R2 are connected in parallel. Thus total equivalent resistance

of the circuit is: I1 I2
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 =
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 IT + +
+
Total current (IT) drawn from the source is given by, V1 R1 V2 R2
E
𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸(𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 ) - -
𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇 =
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇
=
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2
=
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 -
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2
𝐸𝐸 = × 𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2
Current(I1) through the branch 1 can be calculated as follows
𝑉𝑉1 𝐸𝐸 As per KVL, 𝑉𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑉2 = 𝐸𝐸
𝐼𝐼1 = =
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅1

Electrical Principles Shafiqur Tito

 Current Divider Rule: Manukau Institute of Technology

Thus the current, I1 can be written as follows:

I1 I2
𝑅𝑅2
𝐼𝐼1 = × 𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 IT + +
+
Similarly, the current, I2 can be expressed as: V1 R1 V2 R2
E
- -
𝐼𝐼2 =
𝑅𝑅1
× 𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇 -
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2

Electrical Principles Shafiqur Tito

Current Divider Rule: Manukau Institute of Technology

For the circuit in Figure 1:

I1 I2
(i) Calculate, RT, [6Ω]
(ii)Determine IT,[4.5A] IT + +
+
(iii) Calculate I1 and I2 [3A and 1.5A] E=27V V1 9Ω V2 18Ω
(iv) Determine the power delivered by the source [121.5W] and - - -
(v) Compare it to the total power dissipated by the resistive element
[40.8W & 81W].

RT
I1 4A I2 I3
Figure 1
IT
+ R1 R2 For the circuit in Figure 2:
E R3
10Ω 20Ω
- (i) Determine R3, [10Ω]
(ii) Calculate E, [40V]
(iii) Find IT [10A]
(iv) Find I2 and [2A]
(v) Deteminte, P2 [80W]
Figure 2
RT=4Ω

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 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) Manukau Institute of Technology

R2=47Ω R3=47Ω
Find the total resistance between the positive and negative terminals of
the battery. R1=100Ω
R4=68Ω
RT=148.40Ω
I R6=75Ω
+
Calculate total current of the circuit if supply voltage is 100V.
E R5=39Ω
0.6739A -

RT
Figure 1

Calculate total resistance. [34.88]

Calculate total current drawn from the supply. [2.86A]
Calculate both current and voltage across R4. [1.89A & 56.7V]
Figure 1
Calculate voltage across R3. [21.12V]

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Electrical Principles Manukau Institute of Technology

A potential divider circuit has three resistances of 1Ω, 2Ω and 3Ω and is connected in series across 6V battery.
Determine power dissipated.

(i) In the entire circuit. [6 W]

(ii) When the 3Ω resistor is short circuited. [12 W]

Calculate the total resistance. [5.69]

Calculate the total current drawn from the supply. [2.1A]

Calculate the voltage drop across the 2 Ω resistor. [2.4V]

Calculate the current through the 12Ω resistor. [0.54A]

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Electrical Principles Manukau Institute of Technology

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