RELATIVITY

36
Conceptual Questions
36.1. (a) u1i = 6 m/s u2i = −3 m/s v = 6 m/s
u1i′ = u1i − v = 6 m/s − 6 m/s = 0 m/s
′ = u2i − v = − 3 m/s − 6 m/s = − 9 m/s (to the left)
u2i
(b) u1i = 6 m/s u2i = −3 m/s v = − 3 m/s
u1i′ = u1i − v = 6 m/s − (−3 m/s) = 9 m/s (to the right)
′ = u2i − v = − 3 m/s − ( −3 m/s) = 0 m/s
u2i

36.2. (a) c because the speed of light is the same for all experimenters in inertial reference frames.
(b) c because the speed of light is the same for all experimenters in inertial reference frames.

36.3. Event 1 occurs after event 2. The flash of light from event 2 has to travel twice as far as the flash of light from
event 1 and will take twice as long to travel that longer distance.

36.4. Your lab partner is in the same reference frame as you are and so, with appropriate calculations and allowances
for light travel time, will conclude, as you do, that the two events are simultaneous.

36.5. (a) Yes, they are simultaneous in Peggy’s reference frame because she and the firecrackers are at rest relative
to one another and she is halfway between them and saw the explosions at the same time.
(b) No, the left one occurred first because it had a farther distance for its light to reach Peggy since she was moving
toward the right one.

36.6. (a) Yes. In the rocket’s frame, the events “lightning hits tree 1” and “lightning hits tree 2” are both
simultaneous and equally distant. Whether the lightning bolts were moving relative to the rocket is not relevant since
light travels at speed c in all frames, including the rocket frame. Light travels equal distances in equal times to reach
the pilot simultaneously.
(b) No. Simultaneous arrival of the flashes at the pilot is a well-defined event—like the simultaneous arrival of the
flashes at Ryan in Figure 36.17a. Thus the student on the ground agrees that the light flashes arrive simultaneously at
the pilot. Because in this frame the rocket will be closer to the right tree than to the left when the flashes arrive, the
light from the left tree had to travel farther and thus had to start earlier. To the student, the left tree was hit first.

36.7. (a) Event 1 is your friend leaving Los Angeles; event 2 is your friend arriving in New York.
(b) Your friend.
(c) Your friend.

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36-1
36-2 Chapter 36

36.8. (a) No, you measured the left end first.

(b) Yes, experimenters in S′ are at rest relative to the meter stick so they are measuring the proper length and the
proper time.

36.9. (a) No, events simultaneous in your frame are not simultaneous in the stick’s frame. Suppose you measure the
length by adjusting two parallel laser beams to graze the ends of the stick when you fire the lasers simultaneously.
“Graze the stick” is a well-defined event. The distance between the lasers—call it L—is your measurement of the
length of the meter stick. It’s less than 1 m. Now in the stick’s frame, it’s you and the lasers that are moving, from
right to left, so the distance between the lasers will be length contracted to less than L. The only way for the laser
beams to graze the ends of the 1-m-long stick is if the right laser fires first, grazing the right end, then the lasers move
to the left a little, then the left laser fires to graze the left side of the stick. If the lasers were simultaneous, or if the
left laser fired first, then one laser would blast through the stick rather than grazing the end, and that’s not what
happens. Thus in the stick’s frame, the right measurement is made first.
(b) Yes, because in the meter stick’s frame, your two measurements aren’t simultaneous. If your lasers were 1 m
apart, and if the right laser beam grazes the right end of the stick, then the motion of the lasers would carry the left
laser past the stick before it fires and it wouldn’t graze the end. Both ends get grazed by moving, non-simultaneous
lasers only if the distance between the lasers is less than 1 m.

36.10. Yes, the experimenters on the ground will measure the train as length contracted, and if it is going fast
enough L < 80 m.

36.11. Classically they are equal, but using the formula for relativistic momentum gives
⎛1 ⎞
γ pA ⎜ mB ⎟ (2uB )
pA ⎝2 ⎠ γ pA
= = > 1 so pA > pB
pB γ pBmBuB γ pB

Exercises and Problems

Exercises
Section 36.2 Galilean Relativity
36.1. Model: S and S′ are inertial frames. S′ moves relative to S with speed v.
Solve: (a) Using the Galilean transformations of position,
x1′ = x1 − vt1 ⇒ 4.0 m = x1 − v (1.0 s) ⇒ x1 = 4.0 m + v (1.0 s)
x′2 = x2 − vt2 ⇒ −4.0 m = x2 − v (3.0 s) ⇒ x2 = − 4.0 m + v (3.0 s)
Because x1 = x2 ,
4.0 m + v (1.0 s) = − 40 m + v(3.0 s) ⇒ v = 4.0 m/s
(b) The positions of the two explosions in the S frame are
x1 = 4.0 m + (4.0 m/s)(1.0 s) = 8.0 m x2 = −4.0 m + (4.0 m/s)(3.0 s) = 8.0 m

36.2. Model: S and S′ are inertial frames that overlap at t = 0. Frame S′ moves with a speed v = 5.0 m/s along the
x-direction relative to frame S.

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 Relativity 36-3

Visualize:

The figure shows a pictorial representation of the S and S′ frames at t = 1.0 s and 5.0 s.
Solve: From the figure, the observer in S′ finds the position of the first explosion at x1′ = − 5.0 m at t = 1.0 s. The
position of the second explosion is x2′ = − 5.0 m at t = 5.0 s. We can get the same answers using the Galilean
transformations of position:
x1′ = x1 − vt = 10 m − (5.0 m/s)(1.0 s) = 5.0 m at 1.0 s
x′2 = x2 − vt = 20 m − (5. 0 m/s)(5. 0 s) = − 5. 0 m at 5 . 0 s

36.3. Model: The boy on a bicycle is frame S′ and the ground is frame S. S′ moves relative to S with a speed
v = 5.0 m/s. The frames S and S′ overlap at t = 0.
Visualize:

The figure shows a pictorial representation of the two frames.

Solve: (a) When the newspaper is thrown forward, u′x = 8.0 m/s. The Galilean transformation of velocity is
u x = u′x + v = 8.0 m/s + 5.0 m/s = 13 m/s
(b) When the newspaper is thrown backward, u y = u′y = 8.0 m/s. In this case

u x = u′x + v = −8.0 m/s + 5.0 m/s = − 3.0 m/s

Thus the speed is 3.0 m/s.
(c) When the newspaper is thrown to the side, u y = u′y = 8.0 m/s. Also,

u = u x2 + u 2y = (5.0 m/s) 2 + (8.0 m/s) 2 = 9.4 m/s

Thus the newspaper’s speed is

u = u x2 + u 2y = (5.0 m/s) 2 + (8.0 m/s) 2 = 9.4 m/s

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36-4 Chapter 36

36.4. Model: You are on the ground in frame S and the baseball pitcher is in the pickup in frame S′. S′ moves
relative to S with velocity v.
Visualize:

The figure shows a pictorial representation of the two frames. The Galilean transformation uses velocities, not
speeds, so u and u′ are negative.
Solve: The speed of the baseball in the two frames is u′ = − 40 m/s and u = −10 m/s. From Equation 36.2,
u′ = u − v ⇒ v = u − u′ = (− 10 m/s) − ( −40 m/s) = 30 m/s

Section 36.3 Einstein’s Principle of Relativity

36.5. Model: Assume the spacecraft is an inertial reference frame.
Solve: Light travels at speed c in all inertial reference frames, regardless of how the reference frames are moving
with respect to the light source. Relative to the spacecraft, the starlight is approaching at the speed of light
c = 3.0 × 108 m/s.

36.6. Model: Assume the starship and the earth are inertial reference frames.
Solve: It has been found that light travels at 3.0 × 108 m/s in every inertial frame, regardless of how the reference
frames are moving with respect to each other. An observer on the earth will measure the laser beam’s speed as
3.00 × 108 m/s.

Section 36.4 Events and Measurements

Section 36.5 The Relativity of Simultaneity
36.7. Model: The clocks are in the same reference frame.
Visualize:

Solve: The speed of light is c = 300 m/μs = 0 . 30 m/ns. The distance from the origin to the point (x, y, z ) =

(30 m, 40 m, 0 m) is (30 m)2 + (40 m)2 = 50 m. So, the time taken by the light to travel 50 m is
50 m
= 167 ns
0.30 m/ns
The clock should be preset to 167 ns.

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 Relativity 36-5

36.8. Model: Bjorn and firecrackers 1 and 2 are in the same reference frame. Light from both firecrackers travels
toward Bjorn at 300 m/µs.
Visualize:

Solve: Bjorn is 600 m from the origin. Light with a speed of 300 m/µs takes 2.0 µs to reach Bjorn. Since this flash
reaches Bjorn at t = 3.0 μs, it left firecracker 1 at t1 = 1.0 μs. The flash from firecracker 2 takes 1.0 μs to reach
Bjorn. So, the light left firecracker 2 at t2 = 2.0 μs. Note that the two events are not simultaneous although Bjorn
sees the events as occurring at the same time.

36.9. Model: Bianca and firecrackers 1 and 2 are in the same reference frame. Light from both firecrackers travels
toward Bianca at 300 m/μs.
Visualize:

Solve: The flash from firecracker 1 takes 2. 0 μs to reach Bianca (600 m ÷ 300 m/ μ s). The firecracker exploded at
t1 = 1.0 μs because it reached Bianca’s eye at 3.0 μs. The flash from the firecracker 2 takes 1 . 0 μs to reach Bianca.
Since firecrackers 1 and 2 exploded simultaneously, the explosion occurs at t2 = 1.0 μs. So, the light from
firecracker 2 reaches Bianca’s eye at 2.0 μs. Although the events are simultaneous, Bianca sees them occurring at
different times.

36.10. Model: You and your assistant are in the same reference frame. Light from the two lightning bolts travels
toward you and your assistant at 300 m/μs. You and your assistant have synchronized clocks.
Visualize:

Solve: Bolt 1 hits 9.0 km away, so the light takes 30 µs to reach you (9000 m ÷ 300 m/ μs). You see this flash at
t = 50 μs, so the lightning hit at t1 = 20 μs. Light from bolt 2, which hits 3.0 km away, takes 10 µs to reach you. You
see it at 10 μs, so the lightning hit at t2 = 0 μ s. The strikes are not simultaneous. Bolt 2 hits first, 20 μs before bolt 1.
Your assistant is in your inertial reference frame, so your assistant agrees that bolt 2 hits first, 20 μs before bolt 1.
Assess: A simple calculation would show that your assistant sees the flashes at the same time. When the flashes are
seen is not the same as when the events happened.

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36-6 Chapter 36

36.11. Model: You and your assistant are in the same reference frame. Light from the two lightning bolts travels
toward you and your assistant at 300 m/μs. You and your assistant have synchronized clocks.
Visualize:

Solve: Bolt 1 is 9.0 km away, so it takes 30 μ s for the light to reach you (9000 m ÷ 300 m/ μs). Bolt 2 is 3.0 km
away from you, so it takes 10 μs to reach you. Since both flashes reach your eye at the same time, event 1 happened
20 μs before event 2. If event 1 happened at time t1 = 0 then event 2 happened at time t2 = 20 μs. For your assistant,
it takes light from bolt 1 10 μ s to reach her and light from bolt 2 30 μs to reach her. She sees the flash from bolt 1
at t = 10 μs and the flash from bolt 2 at t = 50 μs. That is, your assistant sees flash 2 40 μs after she sees flash 1.

36.12. Model: Your personal rocket craft is an inertial frame moving at 0.9c relative to stars A and B.
Solve: In your frame, star A is moving away from you and star B is moving toward you. When you are exactly
halfway between them, both the stars explode simultaneously. The flashes from the two stars travel toward you with
speed c. Because (i) you are at rest in your frame, (ii) the explosions are equally distant, and (iii) the light speed is c,
independent of the fact that the stars are moving in your frame, the light will arrive simultaneously.

Section 36.6 Time Dilation

36.13. Model: The earth is in reference frame S and the cosmic ray is in reference frame S′. Frame S′ travels with
velocity v relative to frame S.
Solve: Two events are “cosmic ray enters the atmosphere” and “cosmic ray hits the ground.” These can both be
measured with a single clock in the cosmic ray’s frame, frame S′, so the time interval between them in S′ is the
proper time interval: ∆t′ = ∆τ. The time interval measured in the earth’s frame, frame S, is ∆t = 400 μs. The time-
dilation result is

Δτ = 1 − β 2 Δt
The cosmic ray’s speed in frame S is simply
ΔL 60,000 m v
v= = = 1. 5 × 108 m/s ⇒ β = = 0.50
Δ t 400 × 10−6 s c
Thus the time interval measured by the cosmic ray is

Δ τ = 1 − (0.50) 2 (400 μs) = 346 μs

36.14. Model: Let the moving clock be in frame S′ and an identical at-rest clock be in frame S.
Solve: The ticks being measured are those of the moving clock. The interval between 2 ticks is measured by the
same clock in S′—namely, the clock that is ticking—so this is the proper time: Δ t ′ = Δ τ . The rest clock measures a
longer interval ∆t between two ticks of the moving clock. These are related by

Δτ = 1 − β 2 Δt
The moving clock ticks at half the rate of the rest clock when Δ τ = 12 Δt. Thus

1 − β 2 = 1 − v 2 / c 2 = 1/2 ⇒ v = c 1 − (1/2) 2 = 0 . 866c

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 Relativity 36-7

36.15. Solve: (a) The starting event is the astronaut leaving earth. The finishing event is the astronaut arriving at
the star system. The time between these events as measured on earth is
4.5 ly 4.5 ly
Δt = = = 5.0 y
0 . 9c 0.9 ly/y
(b) For the astronaut, the two events occur at the same position and can be measured with just one clock. Thus, the
time interval in the astronaut’s frame is the proper time interval.
2
v2 ⎛ 0 . 9c ⎞
Δτ = 1 − 2
Δt = 1 − ⎜ ⎟ 5 . 0 y = 0 . 19 5 .0 y = 2 . 2 y
c ⎝ c ⎠
(c) The total elapsed time is the time for the astronaut to reach the star system plus the time for light to travel from
the star system to the earth. The time is
Δt + 4.5 y = 5.0 y + 4.5 y = 9.5 y

36.16. Model: Let S be the earth’s reference frame and S′ the rocket’s reference frame.
Solve: (a) The astronauts measure proper time i . Δ t ′ = Δτ . Thus
Δτ 10 y
Δt = ⇒ 120 y = ⇒ v = 0 . 9965c
2
1 − (v / c ) 1 − (v / c ) 2
(b) In frame S, the distance of the distant star is
Δ x = vΔ t = (0 .9965c)(60 y) = (0 . 9965 ly/y)(60 y) = 59 . 8 ly

36.17. Visualize: For the astronaut to “lose” 1/25 of the elapsed time, Δτ /Δt = 24/25.
Solve: Solve the time dilation equation for β = v /c.
2 2
Δτ ⎛ Δτ ⎞ ⎛ 24 ⎞
= 1− β 2 ⇒ β = 1− ⎜ ⎟ = 1 − ⎜ 25 ⎟ = 0.28
Δt ⎝ Δt ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Assess: The answer seems reasonable; this speed is generally considered in the relativistic regime.

36.18. Model: The ground’s frame is S and the moving clock’s frame is S′.
Visualize: Δ t = 1.0 d + 1.0 ns = 86400.000000001 s and Δ t ′ = 1.0 d = 86,400 s.
Solve: We want to solve for v in
Δt = γ Δt′
Using the binomial approximation for γ:
Δt 1v 2
≈1+ 2 .
Δt ′ 2c
Δt 1 v2 ⎛ Δt ⎞
−1 ≈ 2
⇒ 2c 2 ⎜ − 1⎟ = v 2
Δt ′ 2c ⎝ Δt′ ⎠
⎛ Δt ⎞ ⎛ 1 . 0 d + 1 . 0 ns ⎞ ⎛ 1 . 0 ns ⎞
v = c 2⎜ − 1 = c 2⎜ − 1⎟ = c 2 ⎜
⎝ Δt ′ ⎟⎠ ⎝ 1 .0 d ⎠ ⎝ 1 . 0 d ⎠⎟

⎛ 1 . 0 × 10−9 s ⎞
v = (3 . 0 × 108 m/s) 2 ⎜ ⎟ = 46 m/s
⎜ 86,400 s ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Assess: This speed is about 100 mph, which is certainly doable. The calculation would be difficult without the
binomial approximation due to limited calculator precision; fortunately, the approximation is excellent in this case.

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36-8 Chapter 36

36.19. Model: The earth’s frame is S and the airliner’s frame is S′. S′ moves relative to S with velocity v. Also,
assume zero acceleration/deceleration times.
The first event is when the airliner takes off and almost instantly attains a speed of v = 250 m/s. The second event is
when the airliner returns to its original position after 2 days. It is clear that the two events occur at the same position in
frame S′ and can be measured with just one clock. This is however not the case for an observer in frame S.
Solve: (a) You have aged less because your proper time is less than the time in the earth frame.
(b) In the S frame (earth),
2 × 5 × 106 m
Δt = = 4 . 0 × 104 s
250 m/s
In the S′ frame (airliner),
1 ⎛ v2 ⎞
Δ τ = Δt (1 − v 2 / c 2 ) 2 ≈ Δ t ⎜1 − 2 ⎟
⎜ 2c ⎟
⎝ ⎠
2
v2 1 ⎛ 250 m/s ⎞
⇒ Δt − Δτ ≈ Δt = (4 . 0 × 104 s) ⎜ = 1. 4 × 10−8 s = 14 ns
2c 2 2 ⎝ 3 . 0 × 108 m ⎟⎠
You age 14 ns less than your stay-at-home friends.

Section 36.7 Length Contraction

36.20. Model: S′ is the rocket’s frame (Jill’s frame) and S is the ground’s frame (your frame). In the S′ frame,
which moves with a velocity v relative to S, the length of the rocket is the proper length because it is at rest in this
frame. So, L′ = A.
Solve: You measure a length-contracted rocket

L = 1 − β 2 A ⇒ 80 m = 1 − β 2 (100 m) ⇒ β = 0.6
She did exceed the 0.5c speed limit.

36.21. Model: The ground is frame S and the moving rod is frame S′. The length of the rod in S′ is the proper
length A because the rod is at rest in S′. The rod is length contracted in S to

L = 1− β 2A
The length is contracted to 60% when L = 0.60 A. Thus

1 − β 2 = 1 − v 2 / c 2 = 0 .60 ⇒ v = c 1 − (0 . 60)2 = 0.80c

36.22. Model: The length of an object is contracted when it is measured in any reference frame moving relative to
the object. The contraction occurs only along the direction of motion of the object.
Visualize:

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 Relativity 36-9

Solve: The cube at rest has a density of 2000 kg/m3. That is, a cube of 1 m × 1 m × 1 m dimensions has a mass of
2000 kg. As the cube moves with a speed of 0.9c, its dimension along the direction of motion is contracted according
to Equation 36.14:
L′ = 1 − (v / c) 2 L = 1 − (0.9) 2 (1 m) = 0 .436 m
Because the other dimensions of the cube are not affected by the cube’s motion, the new density will be
2000 kg
ρ= = 4600 kg/m3
0 . 436 m × 1 m × 1 m

36.23. Model: S′ is the muon’s frame and S is the ground’s frame. S′ moves relative to S with a speed of 0.9997c.
Solve: For an experimenter in the ground’s frame, a distance of 60 km (or L) is always there for measurements. That is,
L is the atmosphere’s proper length A. The muon measures the thickness of the atmosphere to be length contracted to

L′ = 1 − β 2 A = 1 − (0.9997) 2 (60 km) = 1.47 km

36.24. Model: S is the galaxy’s reference frame and S′ is the spaceship’s reference frame. S′ moves relative to S
with a speed v.
Solve: (a) For an experimenter in the galaxy’s reference frame, the diameter (or length) of the galaxy is 105 ly. This
is the proper length A = L because it is at rest and is always there for measurements. However, in the spaceship’s
reference frame S′, the galaxy moves toward him/her with speed v. S′ measures the galaxy to be length contracted to
L′ = 1.0 ly. Thus

L′ = A 1 − β 2 ⇒ 1 . 0 ly = (105 ly) 1 − β 2

⇒ β = 1 − 10−10 ≈ 1 − 12 × 10−10 ⇒ v = (1 − 5 .0 × 10−11 )c = 0 . 99999999995c

(b) In S, the spaceship travels 100,000 ly at speed v = 0.99999999995c, taking

L
Δt = ≈ 100,000 y
v

36.25. Model: S is the ground’s reference frame and S′ is the meter stick’s reference frame. In the S′ frame, which
moves with a velocity v relative to S, the length of the meter stick is the proper length because the meter stick is at
rest in this frame. So L′ = A.
Solve: An experimenter on the ground measures the length to be contracted to
⎛ 1 ⎞ 1
L = 1 − β 2 A ≈ ⎜1 − β 2 ⎟ A ⇒ shrinking = A − L = β 2A
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
Thus the speed is

2(A − L) 2(50 × 10−6 m)

β= = = 0 . 01 ⇒ v = β c = 3.0 × 106 m/s
A 1.00 m

Section 36.8 The Lorentz Transformations

36.26. Solve: We have γ = [1 − (v / c)2 ]− 2 = [1 − (0.60)2 ]− 2 = 1.25. In the earth’s reference frame, the Lorentz
1 1

transformations yield
x = γ ( x′ + vt ′) = 1.25[3 . 0 × 1010 m + (0.60)(3.0 × 108 m/s)(200)] = 8.25 × 1010 m ≈ 8.3 × 1010 m
⎛ vx′ ⎞ ⎡ (0.60)(3.0 × 108 m/s)(3.0 × 1010 m) ⎤
t = γ ⎜ t ′ + 2 ⎟ = 1 . 25 ⎢ 200 + ⎥ = 325 s ≈ 330 s
⎝ c ⎠ ⎢⎣ (3 .0 × 108 m/s) 2 ⎥⎦

36.27. Visualize: At t = t ′ = t′′ = 0 s, the origins of the S, S′, and S″ reference frames coincide.
−1 −1
Solve: We have γ = [1 − (v / c) 2 ] 2 = [1 − (0.80) 2 ] 2 = 1.667. (a) Using the Lorentz transformations,

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36-10 Chapter 36

x′ = γ ( x − vt ) = 1.667[1200 m − (0.80)(3 × 108 m/s)(2.0 × 10−6 s)] = 1200 m

⎛ vx ⎞ ⎡ (0.80)(3 × 108 m/s)(1200 m) ⎤
t ′ = γ ⎜ t − 2 ⎟ = 1.667 ⎢ 2.0 × 10−6 s − ⎥ = − 2.0 μs
⎝ c ⎠ ⎣⎢ (3 . 0 × 108 m/s) 2 ⎦⎥
(b) Using v = − 0.80 c, the above equations yield x′′ = 2800 m and t ′′ = 8.67 μ s.

36.28. Model: S is the ground’s frame and S′ is the rocket’s frame. S′ moves with velocity v = 0.5c relative to S.
−1 −1
Solve: (a) We have γ = [1 − (v / c) 2 ] 2 = [1 − (0.50) 2 ] 2 = 1.155. Applying the Lorentz transformations to the
lightning strike at x = 0 m and t = 10 μs,
x′ = γ ( x − vt ) = (1 . 155)[0 m − (0.5)(3 . 0 × 108 m/s)(1 × 10−5 s)] = −1732 m ≈ − 1700 m
⎛ vx ⎞
t ′ = γ ⎜ t − 2 ⎟ (1 . 155)(1 × 10−5 s − 0 s) = 11 . 55 μs ≈ 12 μs
⎝ c ⎠
For the lightning strike at x = 30 km and t = 10 μs,
x′ = (1 . 155)[3.0 × 104 m − (0. 50)(3 .0 × 108 m/s)(1 × 10−5 s)] = 32 . 91 m ≈ 33 m
⎡ (0 . 50)(3 . 0 × 108 m/s)(3. 0 × 104 m) ⎤
t ′ = (1 . 155) ⎢1 × 10−5 s − ⎥ = − 46 . 2 μs ≈ − 46 μs
⎢⎣ (3 . 0 × 108 m/s) 2 ⎥⎦
(b) The events in the rocket’s frame are not simultaneous. The lightning is observed to strike the pole before the tree
by 46 + 12 = 58 μs.

36.29. Model: The rocket and the earth are inertial frames. Let the earth be frame S and the rocket be frame S′. S′
moves with v = 0.8c relative to S. The bullet’s velocity in reference frame S′ is u′ = − 0.9c.
Solve: Using the Lorentz velocity transformation equation,
u′ + v − 0 . 9c + 0.8c
u= 2
= = − 0.36c
1 + u′v / c 1 + (− 0.9c )(0 . 8c)/ c 2
The bullet’s speed is 0.36c. Note that the velocity transformations use velocity, which can be negative, and not speed.

36.30. Model: The earth and the other galaxy are inertial reference frames. Let the earth be frame S and the other
galaxy be frame S′. S′ moves with v = +0.2c. The quasar’s speed in frame S is u = +0.8c.
Solve: Using the Lorentz velocity transformation equation,
u −v 0 . 8c − 0 . 2c
u′ = 2
= = 0 . 71c
1 − uv / c 1 − (0. 8c)(0. 2c)/ c 2
Assess: In Newtonian mechanics, the Galilean transformation of velocity would give u′ = 0.6c.

36.31. Model: The proton and the earth are inertial frames. Let the earth be frame S and the proton be frame S′. S′
moves with v = 0.9c. The electron’s velocity in the laboratory frame is − 0.9c.
Solve: Using the Lorentz velocity transformation equation,
u −v −0 .9c − 0 . 9c
u′ = 2
= = −0 . 994c
1 − uv / c 1 − (− 0.9c)(0.9c)/ c 2
The electron’s speed is 0.994c.
Section 36.8 The Lorentz Transformations
36.32. Solve: (a) The relativistic momentum is
mu (1. 67 × 10−27 kg)(0 . 999)(3. 0 × 108 m/s)
p= = = 1. 12 × 10−17 kg m/s
2 2 2
1 − u /c 1 − (0. 999)

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 Relativity 36-11

(b) The ratio of the relativistic momentum and the Newtonian momentum is
prelativistic mu 1 1
= = = 22.4
pclassical 1 − u / c mu
2 2
1 − u 2 /c 2
36.33. Solve: The Newtonian momentum is pNewton = mu. We have
mu 1 3
p= = 2mu ⇒ 1 − u 2 / c 2 = ⇒u = c = 0 . 866c
1 − u 2 /c 2 4 2

36.34. Solve: The relativistic momentum is

mu (1 . 0 × 10−3 kg)u
p= ⇒ 400,000 kg m/s =
1 − u 2 /c2 1 − u 2 /c 2
u2 1 . 0 × 10−3 kg ⎛ u ⎞ 3⎛u ⎞ u2 9 u2
⇒ 1− = c = ⇒ 1 − = ⇒ u = 0.80c
c2 400,000 kg m/s ⎜⎝ c ⎟⎠ 4 ⎜⎝ c ⎟⎠ c 2 16 c 2
Assess: In Newtonian mechanics, the momentum would be p = mu = (1.0 × 10−3 kg)(0.80)(3.0 × 108 m/s) =
240,000 kg m/s.

36.35. Solve: We have

mu u 2u 2 c
p= = mc ⇒ 1 − u 2 / c 2 = ⇒1= 2 ⇒ u = = 0 . 707c
1 − u 2 /c 2 c c 2
Assess: The particle’s momentum being equal to mc does not mean that the particle is moving with the speed of
light. We must use the relativistic formula for the momentum as the particle speeds become high.

Section 36.10 Relativistic Energy

36.36. Model: The hamburger is a classical particle whose rest energy is E0 = mc 2 .
Solve: (a) We have
E0 = mc 2 = (200 × 1023 kg)(3. 0 × 108 m/s)2 = 1. 8 × 1016 J
(b) The ratio of the energy equivalent to the food energy is
1 .8 × 1016 J
= 9 . 0 × 109
2 × 106 J

36.37. Model: The particle is highly relativistic since u = 0.8c.

Solve: We have
1 1 5 5 2
γp = = = ⇒ γ p −1 = −1 =
1 − u /c2 2
1 − (0.80) 2 3 3 3

The kinetic energy is K = (γ p − 1) E0 , where E0 is

E0 = mc 2 = (1. 0 × 10−3 kg)(3 . 0 × 108 m/s)2 = 9 . 0 × 1013 J

⎛2⎞
⇒ K = ⎜ ⎟ (9. 0 × 1013 J) = 6. 0 × 1013 J
⎝3⎠
The rest energy is E0 = mc 2 = 9 . 0 × 1013 J.
The total energy is E = E0 = + K = 9 .0 × 1013 J + 6.0 × 1013 J = 1.5 × 1014 J.

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36-12 Chapter 36

36.38. Solve: The rest energy and the total energy are given by Equations 36.43 and 36.42. We have
1
γ p mc 2 = 1. 1mc 2 ⇒ γ p = 1. 1 = ⇒ u = 0.417c
1 − u 2 /c2
36.39. Solve: Equation 36.42 is E = γ p mc 2 = E0 + K . For K = 2 E0 ,
1 u2 1 8
γ p mc 2 = E0 + 2 E0 = 3mc 2 ⇒ γ p = = 3 ⇒1− 2
= ⇒u = c = 0. 943c
2
1 − u /c 2 c 9 3

36.40. Solve: The total energy is E = γ p mc 2 . For E = 2 E0 , 2 E0 = γ p mc 2 = γ p E0 and γ p = 2. Hence,

1 u2 3
=2⇒ = ⇒ u = 0 . 866c
1 − u /c 2 2 c2 4

36.41. Model: In the collision all the mass of the two stars is converted to energy.
Visualize: Use E = mc 2 .
Solve: The energy given in the star-anti-star collision is
E = 2 M sun c 2 = 2(1.99 × 1030 kg)(3.0 × 108 m/s) 2 = 3.58 × 1047 J
Divide this by the energy of the supernova.
3.58 × 1047 J
= 2400
1.5 × 1044 J
Assess: Even though the supernova can outshine the whole galaxy for a few seconds, it pales compared to a matter-
anti-matter annihilation of objects with stellar masses.

36.42. Model: The Higgs was essentially at rest before decaying so the two photons have equal momenta in opposite
directions.
Visualize: Use E = mc 2 .
Solve: The equation relating momentum and energy is E 2 − ( pc) 2 = E02 , but with massless photons E0 = 0, the
energy of two of them is
E = 2 pc = 2(3.31 × 10−17 kg ⋅ m/s)(3.0 × 108 m/s) = 1.99 × 10−8 J

Use E = mc 2 to find the mass of the Higgs boson.

E 1.99 × 10−8 J
mH = = = 2.21 × 10−25 kg
c2 (3.00 × 108 m/s) 2
Now divide this by the mass of the proton to get the answer.
mH 2.21 × 10−25 kg
= = 132
mp 1.67 × 10−27 kg

So the mass of the Higgs boson is mH = 132mp .

Assess: This is very heavy by particle standards; that is why we needed the LHC to create it.

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 Relativity 36-13

Problems

36.43. Model: Let the earth be reference frame S and let the spaceship be the reference frame S′. S′ moves relative
to S with speed v.
Solve: For an observer in the earth’s frame S, the length of the solar system is 10 lh. The time interval for the
spaceship to cross is Δt = 15 hours. The time interval measured in S′ is the proper time because this can be measured
with one clock at both positions (i.e., both edges of the solar system). The velocity v is
10 lh 2 2
v= = lh/h = c
15 h 3 3
Because Δt′ = Δτ, from Equation 36.9 we have

( 23 )
2
Δ τ = Δt 1 − β 2 = (15 h) 1 − = 11 .2 h

36.44. Model: Let the earth be frame S and the train be frame S′. S′ moves with velocity v = 0.5c relative to S. The
30 m length is measured in the train’s reference frame, frame S′.
Visualize: The light flashes at t = t′ = 0 s as the origins of S and S′ coincide.

Solve: (a) For passengers on the train, light travels 15 m in both directions at speed c. The fact that the train is
moving relative to the earth doesn’t affect the speed of light. Thus the light flash arrives at both ends of the train
simultaneously, causing the bell and siren to be simultaneous. Since the light flashed at t′ = 0 s, the time of these two
simultaneous events is tB′ = tS′ = (15 m)/(300 m/ μs) = 0.050 μ s.
(b) The spacetime coordinates of the event “bell rings” are ( xB′ , tB′ ) = (15 m, 0.050 μs). The coordinates of the event
“siren sounds” are ( xS′ , tS′ ) = (− 15 m, 0.050 μs). We can use the Lorentz time transformation to find the times of
these events in frame S. To do so, we first need to calculate
1 1
γ= = = 1 . 1547
2
1 − (v / c ) 1 − (0 . 50)2
Consequently, the times are
tB = γ (tB′ + vxB′ / c 2 ) = γ (tB′ + (v / c)( x′B / c))
= 1 .1547(0 . 050 μs + (0 . 50)((15 m) / (300 m/ μs))) = 0. 087 μ s
tS = γ (tS′ + vxS′ / c 2 ) = γ (tS′ + (v / c)( xS′ / c))
= 1 .1547(0. 050 μs − ((0. 50)((15 m) / (300 m/ μs))) = 0. 029 μs
Thus the siren sounds before the bell rings. The time interval between the two is ∆t = 0.087 μs – 0.029 μs = 0.058 μs.

36.45. Model: Let S be the galaxy’s frame and S′ the alien spacecraft’s frame. The spacetime interval s between
the two events is invariant in all frames.
Solve: (a) The light from Alpha’s explosion will travel 10 ly in 10 years. Since neither light nor any other signal
from Alpha can travel 100 ly in 10 years to reach Beta, the explosion of Alpha could not cause the explosion of Beta.

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36-14 Chapter 36

(b) Because the spacetime interval s between the two events is invariant,
2 2
⎛ 1 ly ⎞ 2 ⎛ 1 ly ⎞
s 2 = c 2 ( Δt ) 2 − ( Δx)2 = c 2 (Δ t ′) 2 − ( Δx′) 2 ⇒ ⎜ 2
⎟ (10 y) − (100 ly) = ⎜
2
⎟ (Δ t ′) − (120 ly)
2
⎝ y ⎠ ⎝ y ⎠
⇒ (10 y) 2 − (100 y)2 = (Δt ′) 2 − (120 y) 2 ⇒ Δ t ′ = 67 .1 years

36.46. Model: The spacetime interval s between the two events is invariant in all frames.
Solve: (a) Equating the two spacetime intervals,
2 2
⎛ 300 m ⎞ 2 ⎛ 300 m ⎞
c 2 ( Δt ) 2 − (Δ x) 2 = c 2 (Δ t ′) 2 − ( Δx′) 2 ⇒ ⎜ 2
⎟ (10 μ s) − (0 m) = ⎜
2
⎟ ( Δt ′) − (2400 m)
2
⎝ μs ⎠ ⎝ μs ⎠
⇒ (10 μs)2 + (8 μs) 2 = ( Δt ′) 2 ⇒ Δt ′ = 12 . 8 μs
(b) Note that Δt = Δτ because the event occurs at the same point in space. Hence,
Δτ 10 μs
Δt′ = ⇒ 12 . 8 μs = ⇒ v = 0 . 625c
2
1 − (v / c ) 1 − v2 /c2

36.47. Model: The earth is frame S and the starship is frame S′. S′ moves relative to S with a speed v.
Solve: (a) The speed of the starship is
20 ly (20 y)c
v= = = 0 . 80c
25 y 25 y
(b) The astronauts measure the proper time while they are traveling. This is

v2
Δτ = 1 − Δ t = 1 − (0 . 8)2 (25 y) = 15 y
c2
Because the explorers stay on the planet for one year, the time elapsed on their chronometer is 16 years.

36.48. Model: S′ is the electron’s frame and S is the ground’s frame. S′ moves relative to S with a speed
v = 0.99999997c.
Solve: For an experimenter in the S frame, the length of the accelerator tube is 3.2 km. This is the proper length A = L
because it is at rest and is always there for measurements. The electron measures the tube to be length contracted to

L′ = 1 − β 2 A = 1 − (0 .99999997) 2 (3200 m) = 0 . 78 m

36.49. Model: The Higgs was essentially at rest before decaying so the two photons have equal momenta in opposite
directions.
Visualize: We are given λ+ = 520 nm, λ0 = 700 nm, and L0 = 15 m.
Solve: The Doppler effect equation for light is
1− β
λ+ = λ0
1+ β
Solve this for β .
2
⎛ λ+ ⎞ ⎛ 520 nm ⎞
2
2 2 ⎛ ⎛λ ⎞ ⎜ ⎟ −
2⎞ 1 ⎜ ⎟ −1
⎛ λ+ ⎞ 1 − β ⎛ λ+ ⎞ ⎜ + ⎟ ⎝ λ0 ⎠ ⎝ 700 nm ⎠
⎜ ⎟ = ⇒ ⎜ ⎟ − 1 = − β 1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⇒ β = − = − = 0.2888
⎝ λ0 ⎠ 1 + β ⎝ λ0 ⎠ ⎜ ⎝ λ0 ⎠ ⎟ ⎛ λ ⎞
2
⎛ 520 nm ⎞
2
⎝ ⎠ +
⎜ ⎟ +1 ⎜ 700 nm ⎟ + 1
⎝ λ0 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Now we use this β in the length contraction equation.

L′ = 1 − β 2 l = 1 − 0.28882 (15 m) = 14 m

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 Relativity 36-15

Assess: Since you have to go 0.29c for the red light to look green, if you use that excuse the police will give you at
ticket for speeding instead of running a red light.

36.50. Model: Let the earth be frame S and the rocket be frame S′. S′ moves with speed v relative to S.
Solve: (a) The round-trip distance is 860 ly. If the rocket takes time ∆t to make the round trip, as measured on earth,
its speed (as a fraction of c) is
v 860 ly 860 yr
= =
c c Δt Δt
where we used c = 1 ly/y (1 light year per year). The astronaut’s elapsed time ∆t′ is the proper time, so ∆τ = 20 yr.
The time dilation equation is
Δτ 20 yr
Δt = = ⇒ 1 − (860 yr/ Δt ) 2 = (20 yr/ Δt ) 2
2
1 − (v / c ) 1 − (860 yr/ Δ t ) 2
Solving for ∆t gives ∆t = 860.2325 y, and thus
v 860 y
= = 0 . 99973 ⇒ v = 0 . 99973c
c 860 . 2325 y

(b) The rocket starts with rest energy Ei = mc 2 and accelerates to have energy Ef = γ p mc 2 . Thus the energy needed
to accelerate the rocket is
Δ E = Δ Ef − E1 = (γ p − 1)mc 2
This is just the kinetic energy K gained by the rocket. We know the rocket’s speed, so
⎛ 1 ⎞
ΔE = ⎜ − 1⎟ (20,000 kg)(3 . 0 × 108 m/s) 2 = 7 . 6 × 1022 J
⎜ 1 − (0 . 99973) 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
(c) The total energy used by the United States in 2000 was ≈ 1.0 × 1020 J. To accelerate the rocket would require
roughly 760 times the total energy used by the United States.

36.51. Model: The Higgs was essentially at rest before decaying so the two photons have equal momenta in opposite
directions.
Visualize: We are given m = 25,000 kg.
Solve: Take the derivative with respect to speed of the total energy.
(a) Here the speed is not relativistic, so we use
1 2 dE
E= mv ⇒ = mv = (25,000 kg)(30 m/s) = 750 kJ
2 dv
(b) Here the speed is definitely relativistic.
−1/ 2
dE d d d d ⎛ v2 ⎞
= (mc 2 + K ) = (mc 2 + γ p mc 2 − mc 2 ) = (γ p mc 2 ) = mc 2 ⎜1 − 2 ⎟
dv dv dv dv dv ⎜⎝ c ⎟⎠
− 3/2 −3/ 2
1 ⎞ ⎛ v2 ⎞
2⎛ ⎛ −2v ⎞ ⎛ v2 ⎞
= mc ⎜ − ⎟ ⎜1 − 2 ⎟ ⎜ 2 ⎟ = mv ⎜1 − 2 ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎜⎝ c ⎟⎠ ⎝ c ⎠ ⎜ c ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Insert v = 0.90c.
−3/ 2
dE ⎛ v2 ⎞
= mv ⎜1 − 2 ⎟ = (25,000 kg)(0.90)(3.0 × 108 m/s)(1 − 0.92 )−3/2 = 8.2 × 1013 J
dv ⎜ c ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Assess: The faster the object is going the harder it is to increase the speed further. If we apply the relativistic
formula to part (a) we get the same answer.

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36-16 Chapter 36

36.52. Model: Let S be the earth’s reference frame and S′ be the rocket’s reference frame. S′ travels at 0.5c relative
to S.
Solve: (a) For the earthlings, the total distance traveled by the rocket is 2 × 4.25 ly = 8.5 ly. The time taken by the
rocket for the round trip is
8 .50 ly 8 . 50 ly
= = 17 y
0 . 5c 0 . 5 ly/y
(b) The time interval measured in the rocket’s frame S′ is the proper time because it can be measured with a single
clock at the same position. So,
Δτ Δτ
Δt = ⇒ 17 y = ⇒ Δ τ = 14 . 7 y ≈ 15 y
2
1 − (v / c ) 1 − (0 . 5) 2
The distance traveled by the rocket crew is length contracted to

L′ = L 1 − (v / c) 2 = (8 . 50 ly) 1 − (0 .5) 2 = 7. 36 ly ≈ 7. 4 ly
Note that the speed is still the same:
L′ 7 . 36 ly
v= = = 0.5 c
Δτ 14 . 7 y
(c) Both are correct in their own frame of reference.

36.53. Model: Let S be the earth’s reference frame. Let S′, S″, and S″′ be the reference frames of the three
spaceships cruising through the galaxy in the direction from Delta to Epsilon at velocities v1 = 0.3c, v2 = 0.5c, and
v3 = 0.7c relative to the earth’s frame.
′ = tD
Solve: (a) In frame S, xD = 0 ly and tD = 0 y. Also, xE = 2 ly and tE = 1 y. In the moving frames, tD ′′ = tD
′′′ = 0 y.
We can use the Lorentz transformation to find the time at which Epsilon explodes. In frame S′,
tE − xE v1 / c 2 1 y − (2 ly)(0. 3 c)/c 2 1 y − (2 y)(0. 30)
tE′ = = = = 0 . 42 y
1 − v12 / c 2 1 − (0 . 3) 2
1 − (0 . 3) 2
For tE′′ the terms in the numerator cancel and tE′′ = 0 y. Lastly, tE′′′ = − 0.56 y.
(b) Spaceship 2 finds that the explosions are simultaneous.
(c) Spaceship 3 finds that Epsilon explodes before Delta.
(d) No. The explosions are far enough apart that Delta can have no causal influence on Epsilon. Thus there’s no
difficulty if Epsilon explodes before Delta in some reference frames.

36.54. Model: Let S be the earth’s reference frame and S′ be the reference frame of one rocket. S′ moves relative to
S with v = −0.75c. The speed of the second rocket in the frame S is u = 0.75c.
Visualize:

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 Relativity 36-17

Solve: Using the Lorentz velocity transformation equation,

u −v 0 .75c − (− 0 . 75c)
u′ = 2
= = 0.96c
1 − uv / c 1 − (0 . 75c)(−0 . 75c)/ c 2
Assess: In Newtonian mechanics, the Galilean transformation of velocity will give u′ = 0 . 75c − (− 0.75c) = 1.50c.
This is not permissible according to the theory of relativity.

36.55. Model: Let S be the earth’s reference frame, and S′ be the frame of the rocket B. S′ moves with a velocity
v = − 0.8c relative to S. In S, rocket A has a speed u = 0.8c.
Visualize:

Solve: Using the Lorentz velocity transformation equation, the speed of rocket A as observed from rocket B is
u −v 0 . 8c − (− 0 . 8c)
u′ = = = 0 . 976c
uv (0 . 8c)(− 0 . 8c)
1− 2 1−
c c2

The length of rocket A as observed from rocket B is thus L = (100 m) 1 − (0 .976) 2 = 22 m.

36.56. Model: The earth’s frame is S and the rocket’s frame is S′. S ′ (the rocket) moves relative to S (the earth)
with velocity v, which we want to know. We are given u = 0 . 90 c and u′ = 0 . 95c.
Visualize:

Solve: We want to solve for v in the Lorentz velocity transformation equation:

u−v u − u′
u′ = 2
⇒v=
1 − uv / c 1 − uu′/ c 2
u − u′ 0 . 90c − 0 . 95c
v= = = −0 . 34c
1 − uu′/ c 2 1 − (0 .90c)(0 . 95c)/ c 2
Assess: We expected the rocket to be moving to the left.

36.57. Model: Use the relativistic expression for kinetic energy in Equation 36.44: K = (γ p − 1) E0 . The electric
potential energy of the electron is transformed into its kinetic energy.

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36-18 Chapter 36

Visualize: Use the conservation of energy equation U f − U i + kf − Ki = 0 J.

Solve:
(−e)(Vf − Vi ) + K f − 0 J = 0 J ⇒ K f = eΔ V
⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ − 1⎟ (9 .1 × 10−31 kg)(3 . 0 × 108 m/s)2
K (γ p − 1) E0 (γ p − 1) mc ⎜ 1 − 0.99 2 2 ⎟
ΔV = f = = =⎝ ⎠ = 3 . 1 × 106 V
e e e 1 . 6 × 10−19 C
Assess: Three million volts is easily obtainable.

36.58. Model: Use the relativistic expression for the kinetic energy in Equation 36.44. The electric potential energy
of the proton is transformed into its kinetic energy.
Solve: The conservation of energy equation U f − U i + K f − Ki = 0 J is

(e)(Vf − Vi ) + K f − 0 J = 0 J ⇒ K f = eΔ V ⇒ (γ p − 1) mc 2 = eΔ V
eΔV (1 .6 × 10−19 C)(50 × 106 V) 1
⇒ γ p =1+ 2
=1+ −27 8 2
= 1 . 05323 =
mc (1 . 67 × 10 kg)(3 . 0 × 10 m/s) 1 − v2 /c2
⇒ 1 − v 2 / c 2 = 0 .090148 ⇒ v = 0.31c

36.59. Model: Let S be the ground’s reference frame and S′ the muon’s reference frame. S′ travels with a speed of
v relative to S.
Solve: (a) The half-life of a muon at rest is 1.5 μs. That is, the half-life in the muon’s rest frame S′ is 1.5 μs. So,
Δ t ′ = Δ τ = 1.5 μ s. The half-life of 7.5 μs, when muons have been accelerated to very high speed, means that
Δ t = 7.5 μs. Thus
Δτ 1.5 μs
Δt = 7.5 μs = = ⇒ 1 − v 2 / c 2 = 0 . 20 ⇒ v = 0.98c
2 2 2
1 − (v / c ) 1 − v /c
(b) The muon’s total energy is
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ −31
E = γ p mc 2 = mc 2 = ⎜ ⎟ (207)(9 . 11 × 10 kg)(3. 0 × 108 m/s) 2 = 8. 5 × 10−11 J
1 − v /c2 ⎝ 0 . 20 ⎠
2

36.60. Model: The principle of relativity demands that all laws of physics be the same in all inertial frames.
Solve: (a) If you are in the S frame, you see the blue paint nozzle approaching at high speed. If the perpendicular
lengths contract, then the blue nozzle will be less than 1 meter up from the x-axis and the blue nozzle will paint a line
of blue under the red nozzle. If you are in the S′ frame, you see the red nozzle approaching at a high speed. Then, the
red bar will shorten and you will see a red line under the blue nozzle.
(b) Physically you can’t have both of these happen. So, we conclude that lengths perpendicular to the motion are not
affected.

36.61. Solve: The Lorentz transformation equation for the x-direction are
x′ = γ ( x − vt ) x = γ ( x′ + vt ′)
Substituting the expression for x′ into the expression for x,
⎛ vt ′ ⎞ x ⎛ v2 ⎞ vt ′
x = γ [γ ( x − vt ) + vt ′] = γ 2 ⎜ x − vt + ⎟ ⇒ = x ⎜1 − 2 ⎟ = x − vt +
⎝ γ ⎠ γ2 ⎜ c ⎟ γ
⎝ ⎠
xv 2 vt ′ ⎛ vx ⎞
⇒− + vt − = 0 ⇒ t′ = γ ⎜ t − 2 ⎟
c2 γ ⎝ c ⎠
The equation for t is found in exactly the same way by substituting the expression for x into the expression for x′.

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 Relativity 36-19

36.62. Model: Let S be the earth’s frame and S′ the rocket’s frame. S′ moves at speed 0.8c relative to S. Also,
u′y = 0. 6c and u′x = 0.
Solve: (a) Using Equation 36.23 and making note of the relationship y = y′,
dy′ dy′ dy 1 dy / dt 1 uy
u′y = = = = =
dt ′ d [γ (t − vx / c )] γ dt − v γ dx γ 1 − v dx γ ⎛ u x v ⎞
2

c2 c 2 dt ⎜1 − 2 ⎟
⎝ c ⎠
Similarly
dy dy′ u′y
uy = = =
dt ⎛ vdx′ ⎞ ⎛ u′ v ⎞
γ ⎜ dt ′ + 2 ⎟ γ ⎜1 + x2 ⎟
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠
(b) The rocket travels past the earth at v = 0.8c. It launches the projectile with velocity components u′x = 0 and
u′y = 0.6c. In the earth’s frame, the x- and y-components of velocity are

u′x + v 0+v
ux = 2
= = v = 0 . 8c
′
1 + u xv /c 1 +0
u′y u′y 0 . 6c
uy = 2
= = = 0 . 36c
γ (1 + u′x v / c ) γ (1 + 0) 1/ 1 − (0 . 80) 2
Thus the projectile’s speed in the earth’s frame is

u = u x2 + u 2y = (0 . 80c)2 + (0 .36c) 2 = 0 . 88c

36.63. Model: Use the average distance to the moon given in the back of the book. Assume the speed is
constant.
Visualize: We are given v = 0.990c.
Solve: (a) The value for Δx is simply the distance from the earth to the moon as given in the back of the book:
Δ x = 3.84 × 108 m.
We find the time interval by dividing the distance by the speed.
Δx 3.84 × 108 m
Δt = = = 1.293 s
v (0.99)(3.00 × 108 m/s)
which we report to two significant figures as 1.29 s.
For the spacetime interval:

s = (cΔt ) 2 − (Δ x) 2 = ((3.00 × 108 m/s)(1.293 s)) 2 − (3.84 × 108 m) 2 = 5.47 × 107 m

(b) To the speeding rocket Δ x′ = 0.00 m because both launch and impact occur at the origin in the rocket’s frame.
The proper time (usually denoted Δ τ , but here is Δ t ′ ) would be in the rocket’s frame

Δ t ′ = 1 − β 2 Δ t = 1 − (0.990)2 (1.293 s) = 0.1824 s

which we report as 0.182 s.
For the spacetime interval:

s′ = (cΔ t ′) 2 − ( Δx′) 2 = ((3.00 × 108 m/s)(0.1824 s)) 2 − (0.00 m) 2 = 5.47 × 107 m

(c) For light v = c. The value for Δx is simply the distance from the earth to the moon as given in the back of the
book: Δ x = 3.84 × 108 m.
We find the time interval by dividing the distance by the speed.
Δx 3.84 × 108 m
Δt = = = 1.28 s
v (3.00 × 108 m/s)

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36-20 Chapter 36

For the spacetime interval:

s = (cΔt ) 2 − ( Δx)2 = ((3.00 × 108 m/s)(1.28 s)) 2 − (3.84 × 108 m) 2 = 0.00 m

Assess: Because the spacetime interval is an invariant the answers for s in parts (a) and (b) are the same. The
answer for s in part (c) is independent of the distance.

36.64. Model: Object A explodes into two pieces, objects B and C.

Visualize: We are given speed of the S ′ reference frame as v = c /2.
Solve: (a) Use the Lorentz velocity transformation equation.
u−v 0 − 2c c
′ =
uA = =−
1 − uv / c 2
1 − (0) ( ) /c
c
2
2 2

The Newtonian momentum would be

⎛ c⎞ 3
′ = mAuA
pA ′ = (3m) ⎜ − ⎟ = − mc
⎝ 2⎠ 2
(b) Likewise for B and C. The transformed velocities:
− 2c − 2c −c 4
c
4
− 2c − 4c 2
uB′ = = =− c uC′ = = =− c
1− ( )( ) /c
− 2c c
2
2 1 + 14 5 1− ( )( ) /c
c
4
c
2
2 1 + 18 7

And the Newtonian momenta with the transformed velocities:

⎛ 4 ⎞ 4 ⎛ 2 ⎞ 4
pB′ = (m) ⎜ − c ⎟ = − mc pC′ = (2m) ⎜ − c ⎟ = − mc
⎝ 5 ⎠ 5 ⎝ 7 ⎠ 7
(c) Add the momenta from part (b).
4 4 ⎛ 4 4⎞ 48
pB′ + pC′ = − mc − mc = ⎜ − − ⎟ mc = − mc
5 7 ⎝ 5 7 ⎠ 35
(d) Because 48/35 does not equal 3/2 the momentum is not conserved in S ′.
Assess: We expected that the Newtonian momentum would not be conserved. We need a new definition of
momentum that is conserved under the Lorentz transformations.

36.65. Model: Use Equations 36.35 and 36.42 for the momentum and total energy. Also, the quantity E0 = mc 2 is
an invariant in all inertial reference frames.
Solve: (a) The momentum and energy are
1 1
p = γ mu = mu = (1. 67 × 10−27 kg)[(0 .99)(3 × 108 m/s)] = 3 . 5 × 10−18 kg m/s
2 2 2
1 − u /c 1 − (0 .99)
1 1
E = γ mc 2 = mc 2 = (1. 67 × 10−27 kg)(3. 0 × 108 m/s)2 = 1 . 1 × 10−9 J
2 2 2
1 − u /c 1 − (0. 99)

(b) From Equation 36.45, E ′2 − p′2 c 2 = E02 = m 2c 4 . Thus,

E ′2 (5 .0 × 10−10 J) 2
p′2 = − m 2c 2 = − (1. 67 × 10−27 kg)2 (3 . 0 × 108 m/s)2
c2 (3. 0 × 108 m/s) 2
= (2. 778 × 10−36 − 0. 2510 × 10−36 ) kg 2 m 2 /s 2 ⇒ p′ = 1 . 6 × 10−18 kg m/s

36.66. Solve: Using Equation 36.45 for the relativistic kinetic energy and K = 12 mu 2 for the Newtonian kinetic
energy, we have

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 Relativity 36-21

u2
(γ p − 1)mc 2 = 2 ( 1 mu 2
2 ) = mu 2
⇒ γ p −1 =
c 2
⇒
1
1 − u 2 /c2
= 1 + u 2 / c 2 ⇒ 1 = (1 − u 2 / c 2 )(1 + u 2 / c 2 )2

−c 2 ± c 4 + 4c 4 −c 2 ± 5c 2 ( 5 − 1)c 2
⇒ u 4 + c 2u 4 − c 4 = 0 ⇒ u 2 = = ⇒ u2 = ⇒ u = 0.786 c
2 2 2

36.67. Model: Mass and energy are equivalent and given by Equation 36.43.
Solve: (a) The power plant running at full capacity for 80% of the year runs for
(0.80)(365 × 24 × 3600)s = 2.52 ×107 s
The amount of thermal energy generated per year is
3 × (1000 × 106 J/s) × (2.52 × 107 s) = 7.56 × 1016 J ≈ 7 . 6 × 1016 J
(b) Since E0 = mc 2 , the mass of uranium transformed into thermal energy is

E0 7. 56 × 1016 J
m= = = 0. 84 kg
c2 (3 . 0 × 108 m/s) 2

36.68. Model: Assume the rocket started at rest.

Visualize: Call the mass of the empty rocket M = 15,000 kg. We also know the mass of the fuel is mf = 2000 kg.
Solve: The kinetic energy of the rocket comes from the mass of the fuel.
K = mf c 2
But the kinetic energy of the rocket (after the fuel is all used up) is also
K = (γ − 1) Mc 2
Set these equal to each other and solve for γ .
mf
γ =1+
M
Use this value of γ in the length contraction formula.
l l 20 m
L′ = = = = 18 m
γ mf 2000 kg
1+ 1+
M 15,000 kg
Assess: We did not actually have to compute the speed of the rocket.

36.69. Model: Mass and energy are equivalent and given by Equation 36.43.
Solve: (a) The sun radiates energy for 3.154 × 107 s per year. The amount of energy radiated per year is

(3.8 × 1026 J/s)(3.154 × 107 s) = 1.198 × 1034 J/y

Since E0 = mc 2 , the amount of mass lost is

E0 1 . 198 × 1034 J
m= = = 1 . 33 × 1017 kg ≈ 1 .3 × 1017 kg
c2 (3 . 0 × 108 m/s) 2

(b) Since the mass of the sun is 2.0 × 1030 kg, the sun loses 6 . 7 × 10−12 % of its mass every year.
(c) The lifetime of the sun can be estimated to be
2 .0 × 1030 kg
T= = 1 . 5 × 1013 years
1 . 33 × 1017 kg/y
The sun will not really last this long in its current state because fusion only takes place in the core and it will become
a red giant when the core hydrogen is all fused.

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36-22 Chapter 36

36.70. Model: Mass and energy are equivalent and given by Equation 36.43.
Solve: The mass “lost” during each disintegration is
222.017 u + 4.003 u − 226.015 u = 0.005 u = ( 0.005)(1.661 × 10−27 kg/u) = 8.30 × 10 −30 kg
Since E0 = mc 2 , the energy produced with this mass loss is

E = mc 2 = (8.30 × 10−30 kg)(3.0 × 108 m/s) 2 = 7.5 × 10−13 J

36.71. Model: Mass and energy are equivalent and given by Equation 36.43.
Solve: (a) The mass “lost” in each reaction is
4mp − mHe = 4(1.67 × 10−27 kg) − 6.64 × 10−27 kg = 0.04 × 10−27 kg
In each fusion reaction, the energy released is
E = mc 2 = (0.04 × 10−27 kg)(3.0 × 108 m/s) 2 = 3.6 × 10−12 J

(b) The initial mass of the 4 protons is 6.68 × 10−27 kg. The percent of mass lost during each fusion reaction is

0 . 04 × 10227 kg
× 100 = 0 . 60%
6 . 68 × 10227 kg
Since m = E / c 2 , the energy released in one fusion reaction is also 0.60% of the initial rest energy.

36.72. Model: Particles can be created from energy.

Solve: (a) The total momentum is zero before the collision. The threshold situation is for the two incoming particles
to come to rest while converting their kinetic energy into an electron-positron pair at rest; thus, all four particles
would be at rest and the total momentum after the collision is still zero. But energy is also conserved, so
K min + K min + 2mec 2 = 4mec 2 ⇒ K min = mec 2 .

K = mec 2 = (9.11 × 10−31 kg)(3.0 × 108 m/s)2 = 8.20 × 10−14 J

(b) The kinetic energy of the each incoming electron is
1
K = mec 2 = (γ p − 1)mec 2 ⇒ γ p = 2 = ⇒ u = 0.866c
1 − u 2 /c 2

Challenge Problems

36.73. Model: Particles can be created from energy, and particles can return to energy. When a particle and its
antiparticle meet, they annihilate each other and create two gamma ray photons.
Solve: The energy of the electron is
1
Eelectron = γ p mec 2 = (9.11 × 10−31 kg)(3.0 × 108 m/s) 2 = 1.88 × 10−13 J
1 − (0.9) 2
The energy of the positron is the same, so the total energy is Etotal = Eelectron + Epositron = 3.76 × 10−13 J. The energy
is converted to two equal-energy photons. Thus, Etotal = 2hf = 2hc / λ . The wavelength is

2hc 2(6.62 × 10−34 J s)

λ= = = 1.06 × 10−12 m ≈ 1 pm
Etotal 3.76 × 10−13 J
Assess: This wavelength is typical of γ -ray photons.

36.74. Model: Let S be the earth’s reference frame, and S′ be the rocket Sirius’s reference frame. S′ moves relative
to S with a speed of v = 0.6c. In S, rocket Orion’s speed is u = 0.8c.

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 Relativity 36-23

Visualize:

Solve: Orion’s speed relative to Sirius is

u −v 0 . 8c − 0 . 6c
u′ = = = 0 . 385c
1 − uv / c 2 1 − (0 . 8c)(0 . 6c)/ c 2
Thus, the length of the Orion rocket as measured in S′ (Sirius rocket) is

L′ = (1000 m) 1 − (0. 385) 2 = 923 m

Now, Orion is moving at a speed of 0.385c and has to move 1923 m to completely pass Sirius. Thus, the time taken is
1923 m
Δt = = 17 μs
0 . 385(300 m/1 μs)

36.75. Model: Particles can be created from energy and particles can return to energy. When a particle and its
antiparticle meet, they annihilate each other and can create two gamma ray photons and a particle-antiparticle pair.
Solve: The energy of the proton-antiproton pair is equal to the sum of the energies of two γ -ray photons and the
electron-positron pair. Because the electron and positron are ejected with a speed of u = 0.9999995c, their energies
are equal. The relativistic energy equation is Eelectron = Epositron = γ p mc 2 with
1 1
γp = = = 1000
1 − u 2 /c 2 1 − (0 . 9999995) 2
⇒ Eelectron = 1000(9.11 × 10−31 kg)(3.0 × 108 m/s) 2 = 8.20 × 10−11 J
The energy of one of the photons is
hc (6 . 63 × 10−34 J s)(3 .0 × 108 m/s)
Egamma hf = = = 1 .99 × 10−10 J
λ 1 .0 × 10−6 × 10−9 m
Because a pair of proton-antiproton produces a pair of electron-positron and a pair of γ -ray photons, the energy of a
proton (or antiproton) is
Eproton = Eelectron + Egamma = 0.82 × 10−10 J + 1.99 × 10−10 J = 2.81 × 10−10 J
(1. 67 × 10227 kg)(3 . 0 × 108 m/s) 2
⇒ 2 .81 × 10−10 J = γ p mpc 2 = ⇒ 1 − (up / c) 2 = 0. 535 ⇒ u = 0 .85c
2
1 − (up / c)

36.76. Model:
Visualize: We are given the initial speed u = 0.80c = 45 c.
Solve: (a)
1 1 1 1 5
γp = = = = =
1 − u /c2 2
1 − (4/5) 2 1 − (16/25) 9/25 3

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36-24 Chapter 36

(b)
⎛5⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞ 4
p = γ p mu = ⎜ ⎟ m ⎜ c ⎟ = mc
⎝3⎠ ⎝ 5 ⎠ 3
(c) Add the initial energies of both balls; the second one is initially at rest.
⎛5⎞ 8
Etot = E1 + E2 = γ p mc 2 + mc 2 = ⎜ ⎟ mc 2 + mc 2 = mc 2
3
⎝ ⎠ 3
(d) Use conservation of energy and conservation of momentum to find the final M and uf. We have the initial
momentum and initial energy above. Start with energy. We use a prime symbol on γ p′ after the collision to
distinguish it from the initial γ p .
8 8 1
Ef = Ei ⇒ γ p′ Mc 2 = mc 2 ⇒ M = m
3 3 γ p′
Now plug this value of M into the conservation of momentum equation. This is one-dimensional motion so we drop
the vector notation on the momentum.

4 ⎛8 1 ⎞ 4 1
pf = pi ⇒ γ p′ Muf = mc ⇒ γ p′ ⎜ m ⎟ u = mc ⇒ uf = c
⎜ ′ ⎟ f 3
3 ⎝ 3 γp ⎠ 2

Now insert this value of uf back into the equation for M.

2
8 1 8 u2 8 ⎛1⎞ 8 3 4 3
M = m = m 1 − f2 = m 1 − ⎜ ⎟ = m = m
3 γ p′ 3 c 3 2
⎝ ⎠ 3 4 3
Assess: We did not actually have to compute the speed of the rocket.

36.77. Model: Let the farmer be frame S and the pole-vaulter be frame S′. S′ moves with velocity v = 0.888c
relative to S. The value of γ is γ = 2.
Visualize: Begin by considering the situation from the farmer’s reference frame.

Solve: The key to resolving the paradox is the fact that two events simultaneous in one reference frame are not
simultaneous in a second reference frame. The farmer does, indeed, see the pole length contracted to
L = (1 − (0.888) 2 )1/2 (16 m) = 8 m. Let event 1 be the farmer closing the left door just as the back edge of the pole
enters. Since we’re free to define the origin of our coordinate system, define this event to be at time t1 = 0 μs and at
position x1 = 0 m. Then the spacetime coordinates of event 2, the simultaneous closing of the right door, are
( x2 , t2 ) = (10 m, 0 μs). The front of the pole is at x = 8 m at t = 0 μ s, thus the right door misses the pole by 2 m. This
distance is a length because both ends of the interval are measured simultaneously at t = 0. To fully understand the
situation, it is also useful to define a third event—the front of the pole crashing through the right door. The pole has
to move 2 m at 0.866c, taking (2 m)/(0.866 × 300 m/μs) = 0.0077 μs, so the spacetime coordinates of event 3 are
( x3 , t3 ) = (10 m, 0.0077 μs).

Now use the Lorentz transformations to find the spacetime coordinates of the events in the pole-vaulter’s reference
frame. The left door of the barn is closed as it reaches the back of the pole at ( x1′ , t1′ ) = (0 m, 0 μ s). The farmer closes
the right barn door at

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 Relativity 36-25

x′2 = γ ( x2 − vt2 ) = 2(10 m − 0 m) = 20 m

⎛ vx ⎞ ⎛ 10 m ⎞
t2′ = γ ⎜ t2 − 22 ⎟ = 2 ⎜ 0 μs − (0. 866) ⎟ = − 0. 0577 μs
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ 300 m/ μs ⎠
Events 1 and 2 are not simultaneous in S′. In fact, the farmer closes the right door 0.0577 μs before closing the left
door. At the instant it closes, the right door is at x2′ = 20 m, missing the front of the pole by 4 m. Since the barn is
length contracted to 5 m, the left door of the barn is at x′ = 15 m at the instant the right door closes.

Traveling at a speed of v = 0.866c = 260 m/μs, in 0.0577 μs the left door travels Δ x′ = (260 m/ μ s)(0.0577 μs) =
15 m—exactly the correct distance to be at the back end of the pole at t1′ = 0 μs. We could also note that the 4 m
“miss distance” in the pole-vaulter’s frame is length contracted to (1 − (0.866) 2 )1/2 (4 m) = 2 m in the farmer’s
frame—exactly the amount by which the farmer thinks the right door misses the front end of the pole.
According to the pole-vaulter, the on-rushing right door of the barn—now closed—will crash into the tip of his
pole at x3′ = 16 m after traveling 4 m at 0.866c, taking (4 m)/(0.866 × 300 m/ μs) = 0.0154 μs. The door closed at
t2′ = −0.0577 μs, so the door reaches his pole at t3′ = − 0.0577 μs + 0.0154 μs = − 0.0423 μs. Thus, in S′, the
spacetime coordinates of event 3 appear to be ( x3′ , t3′ ) = (16 m, − 0.0423 μs). We can check this by transforming the
frame S spacetime coordinates to S′. We find that
x3′ = γ ( x3 − vt3 ) = 2(10 m − ( 0. 866 × 300 m/ μs )( 0 . 0077 μs )) = 16 m
⎛ vx ⎞ ⎛ 10 m ⎞
t3′ = γ ⎜ t3 − 23 ⎟ = 2 ⎜ 0. 0077 μs − (0. 866) ⎟ = −0 .0423 μs
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ 300 m/ μs ⎠
The agreement is perfect.
Thus we end up with a consistent explanation. The farmer is able to close both doors without breaking the pole
because, to the farmer, the pole is length contracted to less than the length of the barn. The pole-vaulter also finds
that the farmer can close both doors without breaking the pole because event 2 (the closing of the right door) occurs
before event 1 (the closing of the left door). The 2 m distance by which the door misses the front of the pole in the
farmer’s reference frame is the length-contracted miss distance of 4 m in the pole-vaulter’s frame. According to the
farmer, the left door is closed before the pole breaks through the right door. The order of these two events is reversed
in the pole-vaulter’s frame, where the pole breaks through the right door before the left door is closed. These two
events can occur in a different order in the two reference frames because the two events are not causally related.

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