CHAPTER 1

Introduction to plastic waste and

recycling
Trevor
1
M. Letcher1, 2
School of Chemistry, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa; 2Laurel House, Stratton on
the Fosse, United Kingdom

Contents
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Our dependence on things plastic 4
1.3 Recycling 5
1.4 What to do? 7
1.5 The book 10
References 11

1.1 Introduction
Over the past decade, plastic waste has become a major issue, both on land
and at sea. In a little over a century, plastic has gone from being hailed as a
scientific wonder to being reviled as an environmental scourge. Ocean and
river plastics have been highlighted in the media over the past year with a
special focus on the serious problems in Asia and the mass of floating plastic
found in mid-oceans. Furthermore, the media regularly presents us with
marine life being smothered by plastic and plastic bags. Plastic items and
plastic packaging are found in every ocean, in every part of every oceans,
and indeed, a recent report has highlighted the finding of a plastic bag at the
bottom of the deepest part of the Pacific ocean (Mariana Trench at 11 km
below the ocean surface) [1]. Any amount of coastal beach cleaning of
plastic waste appears to have little effect. Furthermore, little plastic (less than
20% worldwide) is being recycled worldwide today, and it is hoped that this
book will encourage new developments in both recycling and disposing of
waste plastic.
The first plastic material was produced in 1850 followed by the in-
vention of Bakelite in 1907. The beginning of the plastic revolution came
during WWII with the invention of nylon, which was used as a substitute
Plastic Waste and Recycling
ISBN 978-0-12-817880-5 © 2020 Elsevier Inc.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-817880-5.00001-3 All rights reserved. 3
4 Plastic Waste and Recycling

for silk in parachutes and for ropes. The real development of new plastics
and manufactured goods came during the 1950s and 60s. At that time, as
with many new innovative inventions, little thought went into the prob-
lems related to plastic waste, in spite of the public being aware of envi-
ronmental problems as early as the 1960s (Silent Spring, Rachel Carson in
1962). Today over 300 million tonnes of plastic are produced each year, of
which 8 million end up in the oceans [2,3]. If we continue polluting the
seas in this way, it has been estimated that by 2050, the mass of plastic in the
oceans will exceed the mass of fish [4].
It has also been reported that one in three species of marine life have
been found entangled in marine litter, and 90% of all seabirds have plastic in
their stomachs. Plastic packaging is the largest end-use market segment
accounting for almost 40% of the total worldwide plastic usage. Over 500
billion plastic bags are used worldwide annually, and the average working
life of a plastic bag is 15 min [3].

1.2 Our dependence on things plastic

We have come to depend on things made of plastic, and plastic has in many
ways made modern life.
Plastic has raised our standard of living with
• computers, smart phones, and electronic equipment that are all depen-
dent on plastic for their frames and housing,
• insulation for our houses,
• textiles and clothing,
• fresher products wrapped in plastic and from all over the world in our
supermarkets,
• plastic syringes and tubing that have revolutionized medicine,
• plastic bags and pots that, in turn, have revolutionized farming and
horticulture,
• toys, two-thirds of all toys are made of plastic and most are played with
for a few minutes and discarded,
• a vehicular industry that is totally dependent on plastic for dashboards,
seat covers, interior surfaces, electric insulation, and bumpers,
• water pipes and conduit piping for gas, electricity, and telephone cables,
to name a few.
Many of the plastic items are used only once and then discardedd
plastic bags, coffee and beverage cups, toys, cutlery, drinking straws,
and wet wipes, etc.
 Introduction to plastic waste and recycling 5

“Give-away” toys handed out as incentives at food outlets and retail

shops are becoming a real problem for landfill operators as the moun-
tains of unwanted plastic toys mount up. In most cases, the many mil-
lions of these toys produced annually are played with for only a few
minutes before being discarded. It has been estimated that two-thirds
of all toys are made of plastic.

1.3 Recycling
It has been estimated that only 9% of all the plastic ever made has been
recycled, with 12% having been burnt and the remainder ending up in soils,
oceans, and landfill [5]. The plastic industry is a rapidly growing industry,
and it has been estimated that almost half of all the plastic ever made has
been made since 2000. Today, the global average for recycling is less
than 20% with the United States recycling less that 9% of its plastic pro-
duction [5].
We have used the word “recycle” to refer to all types of useful ways of
dealing with plastic. It really should only be used for plastic waste items that
are reused or reprocessed into similar or other types of products. Indeed,
some of solutions to the plastic waste problem involve the destruction of
the polymeric material. True recycling rarely happens, and even the plastic
bottles that we, in the United Kingdom, separate for collection every week
may not end up as plastic bottles but could be hydrolyzed and turned into
monomers before being repolymerized into polyethylene terephthalate
(PET) for making many things including carpet material. PET is the most
successfully recycled plastic. One of the problems of recycling plastic waste
is the difficulty in separating the different types of plastic. To assist in the
separation, symbols are often noted on plastic packaging. The following is a
list of international labeling numbers:
#1dPET (polyethylene terephthalate)
#2dHDPE (high-density polyethylene)
#3dPVC (polyvinyl chloride) .
#4dLDPE (low-density polyethylene) .
#5dPP (polypropylene) .
#6dPS (polystyrene)
PET is used to make water and beverage bottles, of which 110 billion
bottles are made annually; HDPE is used for shampoo bottles, milk bottles,
and freezer bags; LDPE is used to make the ubiquitous plastic bags and food
packaging film; PP is used to make bottle caps and plastic bags; PS is used
6 Plastic Waste and Recycling

for plastic cups and cutlery; and expanded PS for hot drinks cups and
protective packaging [5]. Mixed plastic packaging (trays, tubs, pots) made of
plastic such as PS and polyurethane cannot easily be recycled. Plastic
collected for recycling is first sorted for polymer type, then shredded,
washed, melted, and pelletized before being made into new products that
could include refuse sacks, carrier bags, flower pots, wheel bins, drink
bottles, food trays, and even polyester fabric for clothing.
Supermarkets are responsible for much of our plastic waste. It has been
reported that almost 40% of all plastics produced is used as packaging
material [5]. Indeed, one of the symbols of the plastic waste problem is the
flimsy grocery store plastic bag. The managers of supermarkets tell us that
plastic packaging is necessary for keeping produce fresh for customers. With
this in mind, a campaign group in Holland early in 2018 called on su-
permarkets to begin introducing plastic-free packaging. In response, one
supermarket, EkoPlaza in Amsterdam, has recently created a plastic-fee aisle
for over 700 different products that include meat, sources, cereals, and
snacks [6a]. The aisle is a test bed for innovative new compostable bio-
materials and cardboard packaging. This is an important stepping stone in
the campaign to reduce plastic waste. The concept is spreading, and
shoppers around the world will soon find paper bags replacing plastic and
customers bringing their own refillable containers for fruit, vegetables,
cereals, pasta, coffee, and even wine [6b].
In order to deal with the present backlog of waste, there seems to be no
way out other than to recycle what can be recycled and burn the remainder
(and hopefully recoup the energy) with due regard to the polluting nature
of the fumes. This is largely a result of the difficulty in separating the
different types of plastic.
The recent publicity in the media surrounding plastic waste has created a
massive drive to do something about it. The Indian Government, for
example, banned the manufacture, use, storage, distribution, sale import,
and transportation of many plastic items [7]. This hasty and rash decision is
being challenged in the courts. Other governments have taken a more
cautious view; in the United Kingdom, plans are afoot to eliminate
“avoidable” plastic waste by 2042 and to extend the 5p carrier bag charge
[8]. The United Kingdom is also looking at how taxes or charges can help
in reducing waste and to make plastic packaging producers pay for waste
disposal [9]. The UK Government has also created new funds for research
into plastic innovation. In Europe, the European Commission has said that
all plastic packaging in the EU must be recyclable and reuseable by 2030. In
 Introduction to plastic waste and recycling 7

its “Plastic Strategy,” it sets out a number of measures to tackle plastic waste,
and these include a decrease in production of single-use plastic and re-
strictions on the use of microplastics. Currently, much of the 25 million
tonnes of plastic produced in the European Union each year is burnt or
landfilled with only 30% recycled [10a]. In the United States, this figure is
9.5%, and globally, it has been estimated that 86% of all plastic packaging is
never collected or recycled. In the United States, 19.5% of all plastic bottles
made from PET are recycled, making it the most recycled type of plastic.
This is followed by high-density polyethylene (made into gallon size liquid
containers) (10.3%) and low density (flimsy plastic bags) (5.3%). Other types
of plastic such as polyvinyl chloride (hose pipes), polypropylene, and
polystyrene (food packaging) have recycling levels of less and 1% [10b].
Recent reports have highlighted another serious problem related to
plastic waste. Many wealthy developed and even developing countries have
been exporting their waste to underdeveloped countries with poor or
nonexistent waste management, such as Malaysia, Turkey, Indonesia, and
India [10ae12]. In many cases, the waste is not recycled or treated but left
in enormous piles in the open. The worst export offenders are Japan, the
United States, and Germany. This problem was recently highlighted in a
TV program shown on BBC1 on June 10, 2019, showing the mountains of
plastic waste, some of it from the United Kingdom, piling up in Malaysia
creating a health hazard, especially when burnt in open fires in order to
dispose of the plastic. Probably for these reasons, China banned the import
of plastic waste in 2018.

1.4 What to do?

Plastic is not a perfect material but a necessary part of our future. We cannot
turn back the clock, and we must find ways of dealing with the problem. To
replace all plastic items with alternative materials would be highly costly and
furthermore produce vast amounts of CO2 and other greenhouse gases.
Creating new plastics that are biodegradable and made from nonfossil
feedstock is a challenging task and will require experts from a range of dis-
ciplines that include chemistry, engineering, material sciences, and biology.
With more than a third of all plastic made being used as packaging
material, perhaps this is a good starting point in reducing the amount of
plastic we use. Taking a lead from the supermarket in the Netherlands, a
few supermarkets in the United Kingdom have recently opened plastic-free
aisles.
8 Plastic Waste and Recycling

There are a number of basic things that should be done and should be
the guiding principles of governments and local authorities: the generation
of plastic waste must be reduced by increasing the recycling of plastics
perhaps by reducing the types of plastic that can be manufactured; mixed
plastic or multilayer plastic products must be reduced or better still banned
(e.g., simplify the use of plastic material); ensure that plastics are kept within
a circular economy; implement incentives with plastic producers and the
general public to reduce the environmental impacts of plastics; design
packaging material with recycling in mind; avoid plastic littering with an
incentive infrastructure; develop tracing systems to easily identify different
types of plastic to ensure better recovery and recycling of plastics; the public
should be educated into how to reduce plastic waste; and local authorities
should provide better collection facilities for plastic waste. In short, the
mantra of reduce, redesign, reuse, and recycle should be the order of
the day.
Single-use items should be kept to a minimum, and recycling of all
plastics should be the aim of all local authorities. One starting point could
be the reduction in the number of plastic bottles (most of them filled with
water) sold every day. It has been estimated that 0.5  1012 (half a trillion)
plastic bottles will be sold globally in 2020 [5]. These are largely single-use
plastic bottles, and furthermore, in the developed world, tap water is just as
good for one as the expensive bottled water. It will simply mean that
people should carry a reusable bottle to be refilled instead of buying bottled
water. This would make an enormous difference to the amount of plastic
that is discarded.
In order to incorporate more recycled plastic, packaging material needs
to be redesigned and multilayer packaging done away with. It would mean
reducing the types of plastic than are manufactured so that only recyclable
plastics are available for packaging and also for the manufacture of items we
cannot do without.
Wet wipes that contain plastic (polyester or polypropylene) have
become a major pollutant in recent years, as they do not disintegrate in
water as does toilet paper. They are used as baby wipe, cleansing pads,
industrial wipes, pet care, healthcare, and pain relief. Wet wipes are
responsible for clogging toilets (it is reported that wet wipes are responsible
for over 90% of all clogged toilets in the United Kingdom). Furthermore,
they are responsible for creating fatbergs in sewers. In the United Kingdom,
over 11 billion wet wipes are used annually.
 Introduction to plastic waste and recycling 9

A new plastic problem has recently raised it ahead and that is micro-
plastics. This is particularly important in the oceans; a recent report by the
National University of Ireland stated that 73% of deepwater fish in the
Northwest Atlantic have microplastics in their guts [13]. Human pathogens
(bacteria) have been found absorbed onto microplastics, but little is known
about whether or how microplastics affects human or animal health.
Microplastic is discussed in a number of chapters in this book.
The idea that the manufacturers of plastic or the producers of plastic
items should be responsible for collecting and recycling plastic is a good
onedthis will almost certainly result in a reduction the amount of plastic
made worldwide and moreover will limit the types of plastic made as only
some kinds plastic can be recycled.
The breakdown of plastic material by sunlight, etc., is a major research
topic today, and oxobiodegradation is high on the agenda. The bottom line
is that oxobiodegradable plastic does break down, but only into fragments
of microplastic material. This would certainly reduce the plastic collection
in mid-oceans and moreover these microplastic fragments would, as one
assumes, eventually break down faster than conventional nonbiodegradable
plastic material. This is because of their larger surface area; unfortunately,
this process could take years or even decades to chemically disintegrate into
carbon dioxide, water, and possibly methane. Research into the harmful
effects of microplastic material on human health is ongoing, and there is, as
yet, no conclusive result. Compostable and biodegradable plastics are
probably too expensive to manufacture and in most cases are very slow to
break down into its chemical components, and with the microplastic issue
with oxoplastics, it is best to limit the production of all plastics to recyclable
types of plastic. This would mean restricting the manufacture of plastics to
perhaps half a dozen typesdall of which can be collected and recycled. This
means no more mixed plastic products.
All of this indicates that perhaps there is a case to use oxoplastics in
interim period before new legislation and manufacturing processes come
into play.
There are many things that each one of us could do to make a
difference:
• Always carry a reuseable bag, coffee mug, and bottle
• Give up buying bottled water, use a reuseable bottle filled with tap wa-
ter, and persuade authorities to have filling points in public places
• Reuse plastic bagsdthey can be washed, dried, and reused
10 Plastic Waste and Recycling

• Avoid excessive food packagingdbuy food, where possible, from shops

that sell products free of plastic packaging
• Purchase food from bulk bins and fill your own reuseable container
• Stop using plastic drinking straws
• Avoid buying frozen food as the packaging is usually plastic
• Eat fresh fruit and squeeze fresh juice and do not buy juice that usually
comes in plastic bottles
• Pack picnic lunches and school lunches in reuseable containers
• Do not use disposable plastic cutlery
• Avoid items such as cosmetics that contain microbeads
• Petition governments to (a) limit the types of plastic made, (b) ban
exporting plastic waste, (c) burn plastic waste, if really necessary, in
plastic-to-energy plants fitted with filters to polluting gases and partic-
ulates, and (d) ensure no plastic is landfilled.
• Do not purchase or use wet wipes.
• Do not accept free plastic “kids” toys from retailers or food outlets.

1.5 The book

The chapters in Section A introduces the reader to the subject. The second
chapter is an overall discussion on “The production, uses, and fate of all
synthetic plastic” by Professor Roland Geyer. This is followed by “The
geography and geology of plastic: the environmental distribution and fate”
by Professor Sarah Gabbott, Professor Jan Zalasiewicz, Dr. Catherine
Russell, Sarah Key, and Yasmin Yohan. Section B focuses on innovative
plastic material; Professor Stephen Kabasci discusses “Biobased plastics”
(Chapter 4), and Dr. Maja Rujnic Havstad writes on “Biodegradable
plastics” (Chapter 5).
The end-of-life problems for plastic waste are the theme for five chapters
in Section C beginning with Professor Edward Kosior on “The current
industrial position on plastic production and recycling” (Chapter 6). This is
followed by “Plastic waste in the terrestrial environment” by Dr. Rachel
Hurley, Dr. Alice Horton Amy Lusher, and Luca Nizzetto (Chapter 7); “The
environmental impacts of plastic pollution” by Dr. Natalie Waldren (Chapter
8); “Microplastics from origin to impacts” (Chapter 9) by Dr. Natalie
Waldren and Amy Lusher; and “Textile production and end of life
management options” by Professor Andreas Bartl (Chapter 10). Solutions to
plastic waste are discussed in six chapters in Section D. They are “Mechanical
recycling of plastic waste” by Professor Alexander Feil and Professor Thomas
 Introduction to plastic waste and recycling 11

Pretz (Chapter 11); “Blast furnace feedstock” by Dr. Seiji Nomura (Chapter
12); “Chemical routes for recyclingddissolving, catalytic, and thermo-
chemical technologies” by Dr. Maija Pohjakallio and Dr. Tommi Vuorinen
(Chapter 13); “Conversion of plastic waste to fuel” by Professor Chandran
Mohanraj, Senthilkumar Tamilkolundu, and Chandrasekar Murugesan
(Chapter 14); “The treatment of plastic in automobile shredder residue” by
the late Professor Alfons Buekens and Professor Trevor Letcher (Chapter 15);
and “Solutions to plastic waste on land and in the ocean” by Professor
Edward Kosior (Chapter 16).
Plastic waste has become a societal problem, and some of the issues
related to society and the environment are discussed in Section E. Professor
Sharon George discusses “Plastics we cannot live without” (Chapter 17)
followed by “Market trends and secondary plastic products” by Dr. Maija
Pohjakallio (Chapter 18); “Ecological and health issues” by Cayla Cook and
Professor Rolf Halden (Chapter 19); and the final chapter in this section is
“Plastic waste in a circular economy” by Professor John Hahladakis
(Chapter 20). The final Section F is devoted to plastic waste around the
world. Emeka Dumbii and Professor Lesley Henderson writes on “The
challenges of plastic pollution in nigeria” (Chapter 21); Dr. Libby Peake
discusses issues related to the United Kingdom (Chapter 22); Professor
Yasuhiko Hotta on “Plastic waste in Asia” (Chapter 23), and Dr. Tim
Elliott looks at “The EU’s plastic strategy” (Chapter 24).

References
[1] https://time.com/5588691/victor-vescovo-plastic-oceans/.
[2] https://www.unenvironment.org/interactive/beat-plastic-pollution/.
[3] https://plasticoceans.org/the-facts/.
[4] Pelley J, Plastic Contamination of the Environment: sources, fate, effects and solutions,
ACS publication, :http://www.acs.org/content/dam/acsorg/membership/acs/benefits/
extra-insights/plastics.pdf.
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pollution/.
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plastic-free-supermarket-aisle-opens-in-holland.
[6b] https://www.plantbasednews.org/post/tesco-trials-plastic-free-aisle.
[7] Venkatasubramanian. Plastic bans in India expands to 18 States. Chem Eng News April
17, 2018. https://cen.acs.org/environment/pollution/Plastic-bans-India-expand-18/
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[8] Pourriahi S. UK to raise plastic bag charge extend it to all retailers. Plast News Eur
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12 Plastic Waste and Recycling

[10a] http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/headlines/society/20181212STO21610/
plastic-waste-and-recycling-in-the-eu-facts-and-figures.
[10b] Lemonick S. Recycling needs a revamp, Chemical and Engineering News. ACS J June
15, 2018. https://cen.acs.org/environment/pollution/Recycling-needs-revamp/96/
i25.
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of-us-plastic-waste-exported-to-countries-with-poor-waste-management-in-2018.
[13] Wieczorek AM, Morrison L, Croot PL, Allcock AL, Macloughlin E, Savard O,
Brownlow H, Doyle TK. Frequency of microplastics in mesopelagic fishes from the
North Atlantic. Front Mar Sci 2018. https://doi.org/10.3386/fmar.2018.00039.