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03 Processes

Processes are programs that are actively executing. A process consists of code, data, and execution state. As a process executes, it transitions between different states like running, ready, waiting, and terminated. The operating system tracks information about each process using a process control block (PCB) which contains details like the process state, memory allocation, and I/O status. When the CPU switches between processes, it performs a context switch to save the state of one process and load the state of the next process. Process scheduling aims to maximize CPU usage by selecting ready processes for execution and moving them between queues like ready and device queues. Schedulers select which process runs next using policies like first-come first-served or priority-based

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21 views11 pages

03 Processes

Processes are programs that are actively executing. A process consists of code, data, and execution state. As a process executes, it transitions between different states like running, ready, waiting, and terminated. The operating system tracks information about each process using a process control block (PCB) which contains details like the process state, memory allocation, and I/O status. When the CPU switches between processes, it performs a context switch to save the state of one process and load the state of the next process. Process scheduling aims to maximize CPU usage by selecting ready processes for execution and moving them between queues like ready and device queues. Schedulers select which process runs next using policies like first-come first-served or priority-based

Uploaded by

Raza Ahmad
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Processes

Process Concept, Address Space, Process State


Process Concept
• An operating system executes a variety of programs:
• Batch system – jobs
• Time-shared systems – user programs or tasks
• Textbook uses the terms job and process almost interchangeably
• Process – a program in execution; process execution must progress in sequential
fashion
• Multiple parts
• The program code, also called text section
• Current activity including program counter, processor registers
• Stack containing temporary data
• Function parameters, return addresses, local variables
• Data section containing global variables
• Heap containing memory dynamically allocated during run time
Process Concept (Cont.)
• Program is passive entity stored on
disk (executable file), process is
active
• Program becomes process when
executable file loaded into memory
• Execution of program started via
GUI mouse clicks, command line
entry of its name, etc
• One program can be several
processes
• Consider multiple users executing the
same program

Process in Memory
Process State
• As a process executes, it changes
state
• new: The process is being created
• running: Instructions are being
executed
• waiting: The process is waiting for
some event to occur
• ready: The process is waiting to
be assigned to a processor
• terminated: The process has
finished execution
Process Control Block (PCB)
Information associated with each process
(also called task control block)
• Process state – running, waiting, etc
• Program counter – location of instruction to next execute
• CPU registers – contents of all process-centric registers
• CPU scheduling information- priorities, scheduling queue
pointers
• Memory-management information – memory allocated to the
process
• Accounting information – CPU used, clock time elapsed since
start, time limits
• I/O status information – I/O devices allocated to process, list of
open files
Context Switch
• When CPU switches to another process, the system must save the
state of the old process and load the saved state for the new process
via a context switch
• Context of a process represented in the PCB
• Context-switch time is overhead; the system does no useful work
while switching
• The more complex the OS and the PCB  the longer the context switch
• Time dependent on hardware support
• Some hardware provides multiple sets of registers per CPU  multiple
contexts loaded at once
CPU Switch From Process to Process
Process Scheduling
• Maximize CPU use, quickly switch processes onto CPU for time
sharing
• Process scheduler selects among available processes for next
execution on CPU
• Maintains scheduling queues of processes
• Job queue – set of all processes in the system
• Ready queue – set of all processes residing in main memory, ready and
waiting to execute
• Device queues – set of processes waiting for an I/O device
• Processes migrate among the various queues
Representation of Process Scheduling
 Queueing diagram represents queues, resources, flows
Schedulers
• Short-term scheduler (or CPU scheduler) – selects which process should be executed next and
allocates CPU
• Sometimes the only scheduler in a system
• Short-term scheduler is invoked frequently (milliseconds)  (must be fast)
• Long-term scheduler (or job scheduler) – selects which processes should be brought into the
ready queue
• Long-term scheduler is invoked infrequently (seconds, minutes)  (may be slow)
• The long-term scheduler controls the degree of multiprogramming
• Processes can be described as either:
• I/O-bound process – spends more time doing I/O than computations, many short CPU bursts
• CPU-bound process – spends more time doing computations; few very long CPU bursts
• Long-term scheduler strives for good process mix
Addition of Medium Term Scheduling
 Medium-term scheduler can be added if degree of multiple
programming needs to decrease
 Remove process from memory, store on disk, bring back in
from disk to continue execution: swapping

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