Introduction

Dr. Pradeep Kumar

Department of Chemical Engineering & Technology
Indian Institute of Technology
(Banaras Hindu University), Varanasi – 221005
 COURSE CONTENT
Safety and Hazard Analysis CHE-441
UNIT I: Introduction
History of safety movement; Development of safety programs in industries.
UNIT II: Accident causation
Heinerich-Domino theory, Human error model, Peterson’s accident/incident model,
Epidemiological models, System models, Multiple causation theory, Major accident and
its analysis
UNIT III: Safety management
Management task, Managerial roles and skills; Management by objectives
Important safety standard: Industrial safety standard, Domestic safety standard,
Personal protection equipment
UNIT IV: Safety Observation
Safety clearance for maintenance work, Confined space management, Personal safety
plan, Skill development for safety observation
UNIT V: Fire Prevention & Protection
Chemistry and production of fire, Fire development, Severity and duration, Effects of
enclosures and heat transfer, Fire protection & extinguisher standard
UNIT VI: Risk Assessment
Introduction, Perspectives on risk, Risk assessment, Dose-response assessment, Human
exposure assessment, Risk characterization, Risk analysis and management.
Comparative risk analysis
UNIT VII: Hazard identification & Control
Occupational hazard, Preliminary hazard analysis, Hazard and operability (HAZOP)
review, Engineering and management control; Fault tree analysis
UNIT VIII: Hazardous chemicals and wastes
Transportation, Storage, and Disposal, Industrial noise
UNIT IX Case studies
Hazard assessment in different industries, Disaster management- Planning, Insurance,
Tariff in hazardous industries, Design for safety, Maintenance and fault diagnosis

TEXTBOOKS:
1. Spellman, F.R. and Bieber R.M., Occupational Safety and Health Simplified for the
Chemical Industry, The Scarecrow Press Inc., UK (2009)
2. Lees, F.P., Loss Prevention in Process Industries, Vol. I, II & III, Butterworth ,
Heinemann, 3rdEdition (1996)
REFERENCE BOOKS
1. U.S. Department of Labor (OSHA 3133), Process Safety Management Guidelines for
Compliance, Washington DC (1994 reprint)
2. Della-Giustina, D. E., Fire Safety Management Handbook, CRC Press, 3rd Edition
(2014)
3. Pandey, C.O., Hazards in Chemical Units – A Case Study, Oxford IBH Publishing
Co., New Delhi(2008)
Definitions

Safety or loss prevention: the prevention of accidents

through the use of appropriate technologies to identify
the hazards of a chemical plant and eliminate them
before an accident occurs.
Hazard: a chemical or physical condition that has the
potential to cause damage to people, property, or the
environment.
Risk: a measure of human injury, environmental
damage, or economic loss in terms of both the
incident likelihood and the magnitude of the loss or
injury.

Safety Programs : System; Attitude; Fundamentals;

Experience; Time; You
Contd.………….1/4
First, the program needs a system (1) to record what
needs to be done to have an outstanding safety
program, (2) to do what needs to be done, and (3) to
record that the required tasks are done.
Second, the participants must have a positive attitude.
This includes the willingness to do some of the
thankless work that is required for success.
Third, the participants must understand and use the
fundamentals of chemical process safety in the design,
construction, and operation of their plants.
Fourth, everyone must learn from the experience of
history or be doomed to repeat it. It is especially
recommended that employees (1) read and under
stand case histories of past accidents and (2) ask
people in their own and other organizations for their
experience and advice.

Contd.………….2/4
Fifth, everyone should recognize that safety takes time.
This includes time to study, time to do the work, time to
record results (for history), time to share experiences, and
time to train or be trained.
Sixth, everyone (you) should take the responsibility to
contribute to the safety program. A safety program must
have the commitment from all levels within the
organization. Safety must be given importance equal to
production.

The ingredients of a successful safety program

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It is important to recognize the distinction between a good
and an outstanding safety program.
A good safety program identifies and eliminates
existing safety hazards.
An outstanding safety program has management
systems that prevent the existence of safety hazards.

A good safety program eliminates the existing hazards as

they are identified, whereas an outstanding safety program
prevents the existence of a hazard in the first place.

The commonly used management systems directed toward

eliminating the existence of hazards include safety
reviews, safety audits, hazard identification techniques,
checklists, and proper application of technical knowledge.
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Accident and Loss Statistics

American Institute of Chemical Engineers Code of

Professional Ethics
Fundamental principles
using their knowledge and skill for the enhancement
of human welfare;
being honest and impartial and serving with fidelity
the public, their employers, and clients;
striving to increase the competence and prestige of the
engineering profession.

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Fundamental canons
Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health, and
welfare of the public in the performance of their
professional duties.
Engineers shall perform services only in areas of their
competence.
Engineers shall issue public statements only in an
objective and truthful manner.
Engineers shall act in professional matters for each
employer or client as faithful agents or trustees, and
shall avoid conflicts of interest.
Engineers shall build their professional reputations on
the merits of their services.
Engineers shall act in such a manner as to uphold and
enhance the honor, integrity, and dignity of the
engineering profession.

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 Engineers shall continue their professional
development throughout their careers and shall
provide opportunities for the professional
development of those engineers under their
supervision.
Accident and loss statistics are important measures of the
effectiveness of safety programs.
These statistics are valuable for determining whether a
process is safe or whether a safety procedure is working
effectively.
The three systems considered here are;
OSHA incidence rate,
fatal accident rate (FAR), and
fatality rate, or deaths per person per year.

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Accident and loss statistics are important measures of the
effectiveness of safety programs.
These statistics are valuable for determining whether a
process is safe or whether a safety procedure is working
effectively.
The three systems considered here are;
OSHA incidence rate,
fatal accident rate (FAR), and
fatality rate, or deaths per person per year.
All three methods report the number of accidents and/or
fatalities for a fixed number of workers during a specified
period.
OSHA stands for the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration of the United States government. OSHA is
responsible for ensuring that workers are provided with a
safe working environment.
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The OSHA incidence rate is based on cases per 100
worker years. A worker year is assumed to contain 2000
hours (50 work weeks/year X 40 hours/week). The OSHA
incidence rate is therefore based on 200,000 hours of
worker exposure to a hazard.
The OSHA incidence rate is calculated from the number
of occupational injuries and illnesses and the total number
of employee hours worked during the applicable period.
The following equation is used:

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An incidence rate can also be based on lost workdays
instead of injuries and illnesses.
For this case;

The OSHA incidence rate provides information on all

types of work-related injuries and illnesses, including
fatalities. This provides a better representation of worker
accidents than
systems based on fatalities alone. For instance, a plant
might experience many small accidents with resulting
injuries but no fatalities. On the other hand, fatality data
cannot be extracted from the OSHA incidence rate
without additional information.
Contd.………….6/6
Terms Used by OSHA and Industry
to Represent Work-Related Losses
First aid - Any one-time treatment and any follow-up
visits for the purpose of observation of minor
scratches, cuts, burns, splinters, and so forth that do
not ordinarily require medical care. Such one-time
treatment and follow-up visits for the purpose of
observation are considered first aid even though
provided by a physician or registered professional
personnel.
Incident rate - Number of occupational injuries
and/or illnesses or lost workdays per 100 full-time
employees.

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Lost workdays - Number of days (consecutive or not)
after but not including the day of injury or illness
during which the employee would have worked but
could not do so, that is, during which the employee
could not perform all or any part of his or her normal
assignment during all or any part of the workday or
shift because of the occupational injury or illness.
Medical treatment - Treatment administered by a
physician or by registered professional personnel
under the standing orders of a physician. Medical
treatment does not include first aid treatment even
though provided by a physician or registered
professional personnel.
Occupational injury - Any injury such as a cut,
sprain, or burn that results from a work accident or
from a single instantaneous exposure in the work
environment.

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 Occupational illness - Any abnormal condition or
disorder, other than one resulting from an
occupational injury, caused by exposure to
environmental factors associated with employment. It
includes acute and chronic illnesses or diseases that
may be caused by inhalation, absorption, ingestion, or
direct contact.
Recordable cases - Cases involving an occupational
injury or occupational illness, including deaths.
Recordable fatality cases - Injuries that result in
death, regardless of the time between the injury and
death or the length of the illness.
Recordable nonfatal Cases without lost workdays -
Cases of occupational injury or illness that do not
involve fatalities or lost workdays but do result in
i. transfer to another job or termination of workdays
employment or, ii. medical treatment other than first aid
or iii. diagnosis of occupational illness or iv. loss of
consciousness or v. restriction of work or motion.
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Recordable lost workday cases due to restricted
duty - Injuries that result in the injured person not
being able to perform their regular duties but being
able to perform duties consistent with their normal
work.
Recordable cases with days away from work -
Injuries that result in the injured person not being able
to return to work on their next regular workday.
Recordable medical cases - Injuries that require
treatment that must be administered by a physician or
under the standing orders of a physician. The injured
person is able to return to work and perform his or her
regular duties. Medical injuries include cuts requiring
stitches, second-degree burns (burns with blisters),
broken bones, injury requiring prescription
medication, and injury with loss of consciousness.

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The FAR is used mostly by the British chemical industry.
This statistic is used here because there are some useful
and interesting FAR data available in the open literature.
The FAR reports the number of fatalities based on 1000
employees working their entire lifetime. The employees
are assumed to work a total of 50 years. Thus the FAR is
based on 108 working hours. The resulting equation is

Contd.………….5/6
The last method considered is the fatality rate or deaths
per person per year. This system is independent of the
number of hours actually worked and reports only the
number of fatalities expected per person per year. This
approach is useful for performing calculations on the
general population, where the number of exposed hours is
poorly defined. The applicable equation is

Both the OSHA incidence rate and the FAR depend on the
number of exposed hours. An employee working a ten-
hour shift is at greater total risk than one working an
eight-hour shift. A FAR can be converted to a fatality rate
(or vice versa) if the number of exposed hours is known.
The OSHA incidence rate cannot be readily converted to a
FAR or fatality rate because it contains both injury and
fatality information. Contd.………….6/6
Accident Statistics for
Selected Industries
 Employer-reported Workplace
Injuries And Illnesses – 2021

Total reported, injury, and illness case Counts of cases of all illnesses and
counts, private industry, 2019-21 respiratory illnesses, private industry,
2017-21
Total injuries and illnesses in selected
industry sectors, thousands, private
industry, 2019-21
Respiratory illness incidence rates in
selected private industries, 2020-21
 Incidence rates for cases resulting in days
away from work in health care and social
assistance industries, private industry, 2019-21
Counts of total nonfatal occupational injuries and
illnesses, injuries, illnesses, and respiratory
illnesses, private industry, 2017-21 (thousands)

Year Total Injuries Illnesses Respiratory

cases illnesses
2017 2,811.5 2,685.1 126.4 10.4
2018 2,834.5 2,707.8 126.8 12.1
2019 2,814.0 2,686.8 127.2 10.8
2020 2,654.7 2,110.1 544.6 428.7
2021 2,607.9 2,242.7 365.2 269.6

Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Survey

of Occupational Injuries and Illnesses, in cooperation with participating
state agencies.
Incidence rates of nonfatal occupational injuries
and illnesses by selected industry and case
types, private industry, 2019-21
 Number of nonfatal occupational injuries
and illnesses by selected industry and case types,
private industry, 2019-21 (thousands)
 Numbers and incidence rates for cases resulting
in days away from work of nonfatal occupational
injuries and illnesses in selected private health
care and social assistance industries, 2019-21
Industry Rate Number
2019 2020 2021 2019 2020 2021
Health care and 1.0 3.0 1.9 151,410 447,890 276,600
social assistance
Nursing and 1.7 7.9 4.0 44,020 205,780 96,400
residential care
facilities
Hospitals 1.3 3.7 2.3 52,140 148,360 90,000
Ambulatory health 0.5 1.2 1.1 32,050 70,110 64,400
care services
Social assistance 1.0 1.0 1.1 23,210 23,630 25,900

Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Survey

of Occupational Injuries and Illnesses, in cooperation with participating
state agencies.
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Contd.………….2/2
The Accident Pyramid

The accident pyramid model, used for two reasons:

(1) the occurrence of an accident is the result of the
accumulation of hidden dangers;
(2) the best technology and perfect rules cannot replace
human’s quality and responsibility in practical
operations.
The accident pyramid model considers the number of
accidents and the severity of accidents from the
perspective of accident statistics. Because of the different
characteristics of the industries and production methods,
the proportion of the four levels in each industry may
vary.

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However, the accident pyramid model reveals a very
important principle of accident prevention: reducing
minor incidents forming the base of the pyramid will
necessarily prevent major accidents.
Property damage and loss of production must also be
considered in loss prevention. These losses can be
substantial. Accidents of this type are much more
common than fatalities. This is demonstrated in the
accident pyramid . The numbers provided are only
approximate.
The exact numbers vary by industry, location, and time.
"No Damage" accidents are frequently called "near
misses" and provide a good opportunity for companies to
determine that a problem exists and to correct it before a
more serious accident occurs. It is frequently said that "the
cause of an accident is visible the day before it occurs."
Inspections, safety reviews and careful evaluation of near
misses will identify hazardous conditions that can be
corrected before real accidents occur.
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 Road Accidents in India

Total number of Road Accidents, Persons Killed and

Injured by Category of Roads 2020 vis-à-vis 2019

Contd.………….1/2
Category wise breakup of Accidents and
Fatalities (in percent)

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Acceptable Risk

Acceptable risk is the level of potential losses that a

society or community considers acceptable given existing
social, economic, political, cultural, technical and
environmental conditions. In engineering terms,
acceptable risk is also used to assess and define the
structural and non-structural measures that are needed in
order to reduce possible harm to people, property, services
and systems to a chosen tolerated level, according to
codes or accepted practice; which are based on known
probabilities of hazards and other factors.

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 Inherent Safety

An inherently safe plant relies on chemistry and physics

to prevent accidents rather than on control systems,
interlocks, redundancy, and special operating procedures
to prevent accidents.
Inherently safer plants are tolerant of errors and are often
the most cost effective. A process that does not require
complex safety interlocks and elaborate procedures is
simpler, easier to operate, and more reliable. Smaller
equipment, operated at less severe temperatures and
pressures, has lower capital and operating costs.

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In general, the safety of a process relies on multiple layers
of protection. The first layer of protection is the process
design features. Subsequent layers include control systems,
interlocks, safety shutdown systems, protective systems,
alarms, and emergency response plans.
Inherent safety is a part of all layers of protection;
however, it is especially directed toward process design
features. The best approach to prevent accidents is to add
process design features to prevent hazardous situations. An
inherently safer plant is more tolerant of operator errors
and abnormal conditions.
The major approach to inherently safer process designs is
divided into the following categories:
Intensification
Substitution
Attenuation
Limitation of effects
Simplification/error tolerance Contd.………….2/3
In an attempt to make these categories more
understandable, the following four words have recently
been recommended to describe inherent safety:
Mminimize (intensification)
Substitute (substitution)
Moderate (attenuation and limitation of effects)
Simplify (simplification and error tolerance)

Contd.………….3/3
Inherent Safety Techniques

Minimize (intensification):
Change from large batch reactor to a smaller
continuous reactor Reduce storage inventory of raw
materials Improve control to reduce inventory of
hazardous intermediate chemicals Reduce process
hold-up
Substitute (substitution):
Use mechanical pump seals vs. packing
Use welded pipe vs. flanged
Use solvents that are less toxic
Use mechanical gauges vs. mercury
Use chemicals with higher flash points, boiling points,
and other less hazardous properties
Use water as a heat transfer fluid instead of hot oil
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Moderate (attenuation and limitation of effects):
Use vacuum to reduce boiling point
Reduce process temperatures and pressures
Refrigerate storage vessels
Dissolve hazardous material in safe solvent
Operate at conditions where reactor runaway is not
possible
Place control rooms away from operations
Separate pump rooms from other rooms
Acoustically insulate noisy lines and equipment
Barricade control rooms and tanks
Simplify (simplification and error tolerance):
Keep piping systems neat and visually easy to follow
Design control panels that are easy to comprehend
Design plants for easy and safe maintenance
Pick equipment that requires less maintenance
Pick equipment with low failure rates
Add fire- and explosion-resistant barricades
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Separate systems and controls into blocks that arc easy to
comprehend and understand
Label pipes for easy "walking the line"
Label vessels and controls to enhance understanding

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Definitions

Accident
The occurrence of a sequence of events that produce
unintended injury, death, or property damage. "Accident"
refers to the event, not the result of the event.
Hazard
A chemical or physical condition that has the potential for
causing damage to people, property, or the environment.
Incident
The loss of containment of material or energy; not all
events propagate into incidents; not all incidents
propagate into accidents.
Consequence
A measure of the expected effects of the results of an
incident. Contd.………….1/3
 Likelihood
A measure of the expected probability or frequency of
occurrence of an event. This may be expressed as a frequency,
a probability of occurrence during some time interval, or a
conditional probability.
Risk
A measure of human injury, environmental damage, or
economic loss in terms of both the incident likelihood and the
magnitude of the loss or injury.
Risk analysis
The development of a quantitative estimate of risk based on an
engineering evaluation and mathematical techniques for
combining estimates of incident consequences and frequencies.
Risk assessment
The process by which the results of a risk analysis are used to
make decisions, either through a relative ranking of risk
reduction strategies or through comparison with risk targets.
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 Scenario
A description of the events that result in an accident or
incident. The description should contain information relevant
to defining the root causes.
Four Significant Disasters
Flixborough, England
Bhopal, India
Seveso, Italy
Pasadena, Texas

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Thank You!
Any question?