AkzoNobel Surface Chemistry

Bitumen
emulsion
Technical Bulletin
Introduction

Bitumen is used as a binder in road construction and in

protective coatings and adhesives used in the construction
industry. In the most common processes the bitumen is
heated to 100-200°C until fluid enough to mix with aggregate.
The ‘hot mixed’ materials must themselves be stored,
transported and used hot to maintain their workability.

The final strength of roadway is developed as ‘sets’ – reverts to a continuous bitumen phase
the mixture cools. Alternatively, the bitumen is – and water is lost.
diluted with petroleum solvents like kerosene
until fluid and the final strength of the material In many road construction applications emul-
only develops when the solvent evaporates. sions provide a safer and environmentally
friendlier system than hot bitumen since the
Bitumen emulsions provide a alternative risks of fire, burns and emissions are avoided
approach in which the bitumen is liquefied by and the processes use less energy. This
dispersing in water. Emulsions can be used with booklet describes both the theory and practical
cold and wet aggregates, the final strength of aspects of bitumen emulsions.
the road material develops as the emulsions
 3

What is
an emulsion?
An emulsion is a dispersion of small droplets
of one liquid in another liquid.

Typical particle size

distribution of bitumen
emulsion droplets.
0 0,1 0,2 0,4 1 2 4 6 10 20 40 100 200

Emulsions can be formed by any two Oil and water may form an emulsion if mixed but
immiscible liquids but in most emulsions will quickly separate when mixing is stopped.
one of the phases is water. Stable emulsions contain a third component, the
emulsifier, which prevents or retards the separa-
Oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions are those in which tion of the phases.
the continuous phase is water and the disperse
(droplet) phase is a water-insoluble ‘oily’ liquid. Bitumen emulsions are normally of the O/W type
Water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions are those in which although inverted emulsions based on cut-back
the continuous phase is an oil and the disperse bitumens have special applications. There is
Oil-in-water emulsion
phase water. W/O emulsions are sometimes evidence that bitumen can form multiple W/O/W
called ‘inverted emulsions’. Multiple phase emulsions. Emulsions containing from 40 to
emulsions can be formed in which the dispersed 80% bitumen are brown liquids with consisten-
droplets themselves contain smaller droplets of cies ranging from that of milk to heavy cream.
a third phase, usually the same liquid as the The droplets normally range from 0.1 to 20
continuous phase. microns in diameter.

Water-in-oil emulsion

Multiple emulsion
Manufacture
of bitumen emulsions

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Bitumen emulsions are Batch Emulsion Plant

usually made using a bitumen emulsion

colloid mill, although other

dispersion devices are water

possible. In the colloid mill

energy is applied to the
system by passing the colloid mill

mixture of hot bitumen

and water phase between Inline Emulsion Plant

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fie
er

si
iliz
a rotating disc, cone or

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em
bitumen solvent emulsion

ac
st

flywheel and a stator.

The rotor as well as
stator may be grooved
water

or have teeth in order to

create a turbulent flow. colloid mill dwell tank heater

Bitumen emulsion can be produced either in for the quality of the emulsion and automatic or automatically controlled using flow meters for
a batch or an in-line process plant. The batch semi-automatic control will make the manu- all material dosage except acid, which should
process involves at least two process steps- facturing more efficient and reduce human error. be controlled by the pH in the water phase.
water phase (soap) preparation and the actual Fur thermore, the chemicals used may be
emulsion production. The water phase is hazardous as well as corrosive, which means Various special additives such as latex, SBS or
prepared in a tank into which heated water, closed dosage systems rather than open tanks bitumen dope may be used and will then
emulsifier and other emulsion chemicals are and portable pumps are preferable in order to require special components and technical
metered and the solution properly mixed. In ensure safe work and environmental conditions. solutions. Latex for example is shear sensitive
the emulsion production process the bitumen and may coagulate in pumps and lines. SBS
and the pre-made water phase are dosed to In the in-line process the water heating and all modified bitumens usually require the emulsion
the colloid mill. If solvent is to be added to the material dosage are done continuously using to be produced above the boiling point of water,
bitumen, then a batch tank is needed for bitumen individual dosage pumps for each material. which requires production under pressure and
as well, or the solvent must be dosed in-line. No batch tanks are used. Instead, the water cooling before release to atmospheric pressure
phase system must further be designed to in the storage tank.
In the batch plant the emulsion production provide sufficient reaction time for the chem-
itself involves only a few material flows, which icals so that adequate neutralization and
allows manual process control. However, proper solution take place before the water phase
metering of the various components are decisive meets the bitumen. The process needs to be
 5

The emulsification
process

Emulsification involves the break-up of

the bitumen into droplets. This process
is opposed by the internal cohesion and
viscosity of the bitumen and the surface
tension which resists the creation of
new interface.

Droplets also have a tendency to coalesce

(rejoin). To achieve a small particle size in the
emulsion, it is necessary not only to apply
mechanical energy in the right way in order to
create small drops, but also to prevent their
coalescence once formed.

The particle size of the resulting emulsion can be

related to the design of the mill head, mill rotor
speed, the gap between rotor and stator, the
dwell time in the mill, the concentration and type
of emulsifier and the emulsification temperature.

Normally the highest practical temperature is

used to prepare the emulsion in order to reduce
the bitumen viscosity. Bitumen is heated to
110–160° C until it has a viscosity of 500cSt or
less for pumping into the mill. The water phase
is also heated to 30–70° C to dissolve the emulsi-
fiers and to achieve the required emulsification
temperature after mixing with the bitumen. In
colloid mills, which are not pressurized, this
temperature is limited to 100° C, but in modern
pressurized equipment may reach 120° C or
higher. For good emulsion quality the bitumen
phase should have a viscosity less than
10,000cSt at the emulsification temperature,
which means pressurized systems are preferred
for hard or highly polymer modified bitumens.
Function of
the emulsifier

The interfacial area between Stable emulsion

the liquid phases is greatly

increased in an emulsion.
One litre of bitumen emulsion
may have an interfacial
area of 5000m2.
It takes energy to create
this interface but this energy
can be reduced by the Charge on droplets prevents close approach.
adsorption of emulsifiers.
The choice of emulsifier and Flocculation
emulsifier concentration
affects the particle size.
Once the droplets are formed they must be
stabilised against coalescence which can
only occur when the droplets get very close
together and deform. Emulsifier adsorbed at
the surface of droplets provides an electrical
and steric repulsion energy barrier which helps Close approach of droplets leads to
prevent close approach. Even if this energy adhesion between droplets.
barrier is overcome and the droplets flocculate,
the film of emulsifier on the surface still inhibits
coalescence. Surface tension effects arising Coalescence
from the presence of the emulsifier mean that an
energetic barrier has to be overcome in order for
spherical droplets to deform and join together.

Flocculation and coalescence can result from

settlement, shear, and boiling or freezing of the
emulsion. It may also be initiated by contact with
minerals and are important stages in the even-
tual setting and curing of the emulsion.

Generally more emulsifier is required to provide Water drains between droplets and surfactant
good stability and right performance proper- film breaks down, Droplets fuse.
ties than what is necessary to fill the interface.
Bitumen emulsions will contain some ‘free’
emulsifier, which will help to prevent coalescence
during emulsification, storage and transport.
 7

Chemical nature
of emulsifiers

Concentration at the interface (surface Typical emulsifier molecules

activity) depends on the emulsifier mole-
cule having both lipophilic (oil-loving)
and hydrophilic portions (water-loving).
A typical emulsifier has a hydrophilic
‘head’ group and hydrophobic (lipophilic) Lipophilic tail Hydrophilic head Counterion
+ –
‘tail’ derived from renewable materials R(tallow) N (CH3 ) 3 Cl
such as fats, vegetable oils and wood. R(tallow)
+
NH2 CH2CH2CH2NH3
+
2Cl
–

Emulsifiers such as proteins, lignins, poly-

– +
mers and minerals may have one or more R(tall oil) COO Na
hydrophobic and hydrophilic ‘sections’. – +
R(lignin) SO3 Na
At the interface the emulsifier orientates
with the hydrophobic portion(s) in the oily
bituminous phase and the head group and
counterions in the water phase.

In order to prevent coalescence, the bitumen The emulsifier molecule is much smaller than a phosphoric, acetic or sulfuric before the cationic
droplets need to be kept apart. There are two bitumen droplet and each droplet is stabilized by form is generated. Similarly, some anionic
different ways to accomplish this. Ionic emul- thousands of emulsifier molecules. emulsifiers need to be neutralized with sodium,
sifiers impart a charge to the bitumen droplets, ammonium or potassium hydroxide. Even with
when the droplets approach each other, these If a bitumen droplet was as large as the earth water soluble emulsifiers the charge on the
charges lead to a repulsive force. Because the then each emulsifier head group would occupy emulsion droplets depends on pH, with acid
charge on some anionic and cationic emulsifiers an area of 10 square kilometers and the tail emulsions generally cationic and alkaline emul-
depends on pH, this stabilisation could be lost if would penetrate 8 km into the earth’s surface. sions generally anionic.
the pH changes. The second stabilisation mech-
anism is a pure physical hindrance to the close Many cationic emulsifiers are supplied in a
approach of the droplets. This is important for water-insoluble neutral form and need to be
very large molecules like polymers, proteins etc. neutralized with an acid like hydrochloric,

Salt formation

RNH2 + HCI = RNH3+ + CI-

neutral form + acid water-soluble cationic ‘soap’

RCOOH + NaOH = RCOO– + Na+

neutral form + alkali water-soluble anionic ‘soap’
Stabilization of
the emulsion

The nature of the hydrophilic por tion

governs the mechanism of stabilization.
Emulsifiers with large hydrophilic portions
may prevent close approach of the drop-
lets simply by their space filling properties
(steric repulsion).

Hydrophilic groups may also adopt a charge

in water leading to an electrostatic repulsion
between droplets. Emulsifiers can be classified
into anionic, cationic, amphoteric and nonionic
types depending on the charge their head
groups tend to adopt. The sign of this charge
depends on the pH of emulsion and largely
determines the charge on the bitumen droplets,
although bitumen itself contains ionisable chemical
groups which contribute to the droplet charge.

The size and sign of the charge on the drop-

lets can be measured and is expressed as the
‘zeta potential’ of the droplet. The zeta potentials
depend on pH and there is a tendency for emul-
sions containing droplets with low zeta potentials
(positive or negative) to be less reactive.
Emulsifier molecules
concentrate at the interface.
 9

Other components
of the emulsion and
their function

Calcium chloride
Calcium chloride or other soluble salts are
often included in the water phase of cationic
emulsions at level of 0.05–0.1 %. Bitumen may
contain salt left over from inadequate desalting
of the crude oil and this salt can lead to a
swelling of the droplets in an emulsion through
osmosis. The result is an increase in emulsion
viscosity often followed by a decrease as the Water is drawn into the bitumen droplet
salt slowly escapes from the bitumen. Calcium leading to an increase in emulsion viscosity.
chloride helps reduce the osmosis of water into
the bitumen and the increase in viscosity during Latex
storage. Calcium chloride can also reduce the Polymer modification can improve the proper- 14 A viscosity Engler
B settlement %
settlement of emulsions by increasing the water ties of bitumen in terms of cohesion, resistance C mean particle size micron
phase density and in some cases improves the to cracking at low temperatures and resistance 12
performance of emulsifiers. to flow at high temperatures. While polymer-
10
modified bitumens can be emulsified, latex is
Sodium tripolyphosphate a water based dispersion of polymer which is 8
Anionic emulsions may be sensitive to hard particularly suited to the modification of emul-
water. Addition of 0.1% sodium tripolyphos- sions. It can be incorporated either in the water 6
phate to the formula acts as a water softener or bitumen phase or even post-added to the
and improves emulsion quality. emulsion. Latex comes in cationic, nonionic and 4

anionic forms and it is important that the latex

2
Adhesion promoters type should be compatible with the emulsion.
A B C A B C A B C
Water resistance is an important property of
mixes and seals. Often anionic emulsions and Thickeners
Asphalt peptizer improves
occasionally also cationic emulsions may not Water soluble thickeners can increase emulsion emulsion properties.
have sufficient adhesion on aggregates, in viscosity, helping to meet national standards
which case adhesion promoters can be added or to reduce emulsion run-off in open graded
to the bitumen before emulsification or to the mixes. They can be added to the water phase
finished emulsion. or to the finished emulsion typically at levels
of 0.02–0.20 %. Thickeners may affect the
Asphalt peptizer breaking and adhesion of emulsions and must
The emulsifiability of bitumens varies. Emulsion be chosen with care.
qualit y can sometime s be improved by
treating the bitumen with an asphalt peptizer.
Improvements includes better adhesion and
smaller particle size which leads to reduced
settlement and higher viscosity.

Typical Emulsifier Use Levels

Emulsion type Emulsifier level % Emulsion pH Typical emulsifier

Cationic rapid setting 0.15–0.25 2–3 tallow diamine

Cationic medium setting 0.3–0.6 2–3 tallow diamine
Cationic slow setting 0.8–2.0 2–5 quaternary amine
Anionic rapid setting 0.2–0.4 10.5–12 tall acid
Anionic medium setting 0.4–0.8 10.5–12 tall acid
Anionic slow setting 1.2–2.5 7.5–12 nonionic + lignosulphonate
The setting
(or ‘breaking’)
process
Possible stages in the setting of a Cationic
Bitumen Emulsion.

Bitumen emulsions must revert to a continuous bitumen film in Contact of emulsion with aggregate.
order to fulfil their role as a binder in road materials or as protec-
tive coatings. The speed of this setting and curing process
depends on the reactivity of the emulsion, the reactivity of the
aggregate and the environmental conditions such as tempera-
ture and humidity. Bitumen emulsions for road use are classified
depending on their reactivity.

Rapid-setting emulsions set quickly in contact with clean aggre-

gates of low surface area such as the chippings used in chipseals
(surface dressings).

Medium-setting emulsions set sufficiently less quickly that they can

be mixed with aggregates of low surface area such as those used in
open-graded mixes. Adsorption of ‘free’ emulsifier.

Slow-setting emulsions will mix with aggre-gates of high surface area.

Some national standards define additional super-stable emulsion grades with
extremely slow setting characteristics. All aspects of the emulsion formula-
tion can affect its classification including emulsifier type and concentration,
choice and concentration of acids or base used to adjust pH, and the
grade and source of the bitumen used.

Aggregates take up a characteristic surface charge in water which

depends on pH and the nature of the minerals. So-called ‘acid’ aggregates
high in silica tend to take up a negative charge, whereas basic aggre-
gates like limestones can take a positive charge. As the pH is raised, all
aggregates tend to become more negatively charged, while the presence
Electrophoresis of droplets to surface.
of calcium salts or other cations in the water tend to make the surfaces
less negative.

Generally speaking cationic emulsions react faster with an aggregate with

negative surface charge, although other factors can be more important
(see below).

The setting of an emulsion is a complex process which is not fully under-

stood, and more than one factor is responsible for the break.

Coagulation/spreading over surface.

 11

Some of the ‘breaking’

process steps may include:
1 Adsorption of emulsifier onto the aggregate surface.
Free emulsifier adsorbs rapidly; emulsifier may be abstracted from the bitumen water
interface much more slowly. Removal of the reservoir of stabilizing emulsifier
makes the emulsion liable to coalesce, but the effect is also to reduce or even
reverse the surface charge on the aggregate, which can delay setting.
Cationic emulsifiers adsorb much more strongly on siliceous minerals than anionic
or nonionic emulsifiers, which explains the usefulness of cationic emulsions with
acidic aggregates. Strong bond between bitumen and
aggregate after completion of the breaking
2 Movement of the emulsion droplets to the aggregate surface. process and evaporation of the water
The droplets of bitumen in the emulsion have a small charge and move towards
an aggregate surface with the opposite charge (electrophoresis). Concentration at
the surface brings the particles together leading to flocculation, coalescence and
spreading over the surface.

3 Changes in pH.
Some aggregates like limestones or fillers like lime or cement may actually neutralize the
acid in cationic emulsion causing the pH to rise and the emulsion to be destabilized.
In other cases, the aggregates may adsorb hydrogen ions leading to a less marked
rise in pH, but still sufficient to destabilize. Some soluble aggregates like limestones
can provide calcium or magnesium ions to the solution which tend to neutralize the
charge on anionic emulsions.

4 Evaporation of water.
As water leaves the system by evaporation, the droplets are concentrated, leading to
coalescence. Evaporation may be the main breaking mechanism for very slow-set-
ting emulsions.
Testing bitumen
emulsions
National and local standards provide tests for
the important features of bitumen emulsions
and these tests fall into three groups:

Tests to classify Emulsions need to be classified into cationic or

anionic rapid, medium or slow-setting grades.
the charge and The particle charge test is a simple electro-
phoresis test in which electrodes are placed in
reactivity of the emulsion and either the negative or posi-

the emulsions
tive electrode becomes coated with bitumen
depending on whether the emulsion is cationic
or anionic respectively.

The reactivity of the emulsion can be measured

in tests in which standard aggregates are mixed
with or dipped into the emulsion and the amount
of bitumen deposited on the surface is determined.
Alternatively, fillers such a fine quartzsand or
cement are added to the emulsion in the so-called
filler index or the cement mix test. The exent of
coalescence or the amount of filler required to give
full coalescence is a measure of the reactivity.

In other tests the emulsion is titrated with an

ionically opposing solution which tends to
cause emulsion breakage. Cationic emulsions
are titrated with anionic surfactant, and anionic
emulsions with calcium chloride. The titre gives
a measure of the emulsion reactivity called the
‘demulsibility’.

The reactivity of emulsions is primarily governed

by the choice and concentration of theemulsifier
and the pH of the emulsions, although manufac-
turing parameters can have an influence.

The Particle Charge Test.

Filler Index or the Cement Mix Test.

13
Testing bitumen emulsions
Continued

Physical The presence of large droplets in the emulsion,

which could block pumps and spray nozzles, are
properties tested by a simple screening at 150, 630 or 800
microns. The maximum sieve residue is spec-
relevant to the ified (usually 0.1–0.2%). The sieve test may be
remeasured after storage or after freeze-thaw
handling and to give an indication of storage stability.

storage of The viscosity of emulsions are normally deter-

the emulsions mined as the time of efflux from a flow cup with a
standard orifice at a temperature relevant to the
application. Saybolt Furol cups are used mostly
in the Americas and a Standard Tar viscometer
in Europe.

The main influence on emulsion viscosity is the

bitumen content of the emulsion: the viscosity
increases strongly as the bitumen content
increases over 65%. An emulsion with small
droplet size and a narrow size distribution will
give a higher viscosity than one with a wide or
bimodal size distribution. The particle size and
size distribution can be influenced to some
extent by the choice and concentration of emul-
sifier and the manufacturing conditions.

Bitumens with high salt content tend to give high

emulsion viscosities because they form multiple
emulsions in which some water is trapped within
the bitumen drops. This may happen after the
production leading to a change (increase) of the
viscosity during storage.

If the density of the droplets is different from the Viscosity by flow cup.
water phase, then they will have a tendency to float
or sink leading to creaming or settlement after
prolonged storage. Settlement (storage stability)
tests generally involve storing the emulsion in a
cylinder, then comparing the solids content of the
upper and lower layers after 1–5 days. Settlement
can be reversed in many cases by stirring, but the
close packing of the settled drops may lead to
coalescence or irreversible flocculation.

Bitumen emulsions generally show settlement,

although those with high solvent content may
cream. The rate of settlement depends on the Creaming Settlement
 15

difference in densities, the size of particles, the adhesion than anionic emulsions but the adhe-
binder content and the viscosity of the water sion of anionic emulsions can be improved by
phase. Actions which tend to equalize the densi- the addition of cationic adhesion promoters.
ties of the two phases, such as adding solvent,
adding salts, or raising the storage temperature, Specific applications such as slurry surfacings,
may reduce settlement, as do actions which open-graded mixes, tack coats and prime coats
increase the viscosity such as adding thick- may demand specific tests for the emulsion.
ening agents. Changes to the emulsion recipe
or manufacture which reduce the average particle Stability to Transport and Shear
size will also reduce settlement. Emulsions may appear stable in the normal
storage stability tests but show coalescence
Properties of the cured bitumen film during transport or pumping. In more realistic
The binder content of the emulsion can be storage stability tests the emulsion is shaken
determined by simple evaporation, distillation or recycled through a pump and the sieve
or indirectly by the water content. Distillation residue redetermined.
can also determine the content of oil distillate
in the emulsion as well as recover the residual Reactivity Test
bitumen for further testwork. Some national The reactivity of rapid set emulsions can be
standard tests use solvents such as alcohols determined by using standard glass beads or
and acetone to precipitate the bitumen from the standard clean aggregate chippings. The beads
emulsion without the need for high temperature are covered with an excess of emulsion and the
heating, which could alter the binder properties. weight deposited on their surface is determined.
Vacuum distillation can also avoid overheating. Compared to the standard tests, the method
better isolates the processes going on at the
The viscosity of the residual binder can be deter- mineral surface and can identify a truly ‘reactive’
mined by the standard tests used for bitumen emulsion from a merely ‘unstable’ one.
itself such as ring and ball softening point, pene-
tration, and kinematic viscosity. Similarly, the The Evaporation Filtration Test
low temperature properties such as breaking This test measures the tendency of emulsions
point to Fraas, elastic recovery and ductility droplets to coalesce as water is removed.
can be determined. The float test is specific Emulsions are allowed to evaporate and the
to anionic emulsions of binders which show a amount of sieve residue is plotted against water
reduced temperature suscreptibility. The tall loss. The results have been related to curing
oil emulsifiers used in the so-called ‘high float’ rates under field conditions.
emulsions result in gelation of the recovered
bitumen and the effect can be increased by Non-standard Tests
the addition of polymers. Particle Size and Size Distribution
The sieve residue test measures oversize
The density, ash content or solubility of the particles which represent only a small proportion
residual bitumen in toluene, xylene, or trichlo- of the emulsion. The full particle size distribution
roethylene may also be specified. can be measured by techniques such as light
scattering, microscopy with image analysis, or
The water resistance or resistance to re-emulsi- the electrozone (Coulter) technique. Size and
fication of the cured bitumen film is an important size distribution measurements are helpful in
aspect of emulsions and can be tested by trouble-shooting problems with emulsion visco-
simple immersion tests on standard aggregates. sity, storage stability and performance, as well
Generally, cationic emulsions show better as quality control of emulsion manufacture.
Applications
of emulsions

Each application places particular demands on the emulsion.

There is a considerable amount of variation between countries on the
choice of emulsion for each application, but the table summarizes the most
common practice. Anionic emulsions are hardly used outside North America
for road construction but may be used for some industrial coatings.

Anionic Cationic

Rapid Medium Slow Rapid Medium Slow Super-

Setting Setting stable

Spray Applications
Surface Dressing (Chip Seal) • •
Fog Seal • • • • •
Tack Coat •a • • •a •
Prime Coat • • • •
Penetration Macadam •

Slurry Surfacing
Slurry Seal • •b •
Cape Seal • •b •
Microsurfacing •b

Plant Mixes
Open Graded/Semi Dense •a •
Dense Graded • • •
RAP • • •
Stockpile Mix •a •a •
Pre-coated Chips • •

Mix Paving
Open Graded •a

In Place Mixes
RAP •a •a • •
Soil Stabilization • •
Dense Graded • • •
a) May contain solvent. b) Need to pass cement mix test.
 17

Surface Dressing (Chip Seal)

In the chip seal process binder is sprayed onto
the road and chippings spread over and rolled
in before the binder has cured. The process can
be repeated to build up thicker layers. It is used on
different classes of roadways including gravel as
well as paved roads. Use of polymer modified
bitumen even allows surface dressing on highly
trafficked roads due to enhanced durability
and prevention of chiploss. Chip seals provide
exceptional surface texture and water imperme-
ability and some resistance to cracking.

Emulsions are particularly suited to chipseals

because they give good results even when chip-
pings are damp, they more quickly develop final
strength than cut-backs, and they avoid fumes
and fire hazards.

Best results are achieved with hot-sprayed

(50–85° C) rapid-setting cationic emulsions
of high binder contents in the range 65–72%,
which may also be modified with polymers.
Rapid-setting anionic emulsions are used in
some parts of North America, but in this case
an adhesion promoter should also be used to
avoid chip loss.

Slurry Surfacing
Finely ground dense-graded aggregate is mixed
with emulsion and water to form a slurry which
is spread over the road surface at thicknesses
in the range 3–30mm depending on the aggre-
gate top size. The process is usually done with
a specially made mix-paver, although slurries can
be hand-applied, and the emulsions used are
generally cationic medium or slow-setting types.
The International Slurry Surfacing Association
(www.slurry.org) provides test procedures for
the design of slurry surfacing.
Applications of emulsions
Continued

Depending on the choice of emulsifier, the treated with a combination of emulsion and a
system may provide a quick-setting slurry which hydraulic binder such as lime or cement.
can be trafficked within 60 minutes, or slower
setting materials suitable for handwork. Slurry Prime Coats
Surfacing in thick layers with quick-setting poly- Emulsion prime coats are applied to unbound
mer-modified slurries is called microsurfacing. sub-bases in order to seal the surface before the
For best results the emulsion reactivity should be application of the asphalt layers. The primer seal
matched to that of the aggregate, but additional prevents the ingress of water into the layer, loss
chemicals may be added on the paver to adjust of fines from wind or water erosion and ideally
the setting rate. allows construction vehicles to drive over the
surface without pick up on tyres. A few centi-
Plant Mixes metres of penetration is readily achievable if the
Structural materials can be from emulsion compacted material is not too dense but may
and crushed aggregates or reclaimed asphalt be very difficult in practice with fine graded and
pavement which meet the same demands as highly compacted bases. Penetration can be
hot mix. Depending on the aggregate grada- achieved using very slow set cationic or anionic
tion, medium or slow-setting emulsions can emulsions containing solvent but in some cases wet out any dust on the surface of the lower layer
be used. Cold mixes which combine bitumen deep penetration can be very difficult. and this favours emulsions of small particle size
emulsion with cement can give much improved and some solvent content. New developments
bearing capacities. However, current thinking says that deep are for tack coats based on very hard binders
penetration may be unnecessary as dense and which cure rapidly and avoid sticking to the tires
Cold In-place Recycling highly compacted bases are already very robust of traffic or construction equipment.
Surface courses or even the full depth of the and merely need to be sealed from water intru-
roadway can be recycled in place either by a sion. A very thin primer application with minimal Fog Seal
specially built mobile plant or by simple equip- penetration is then sufficient. It is still important A light application of diluted emulsion restores
ment. Cold recycling uses bitumen emulsions that the binder should not be picked up on the bitumen to weathered surfaces and extends
either alone or in combination with cement or lime. tyres of construction vehicles and this can be roadway life at low cost.
Typically, a cationic slow-setting emulsion is used. achieved by using a very hard grade bitumen with
a rapid setting emulsion formulation. Penetration Macadam
Soil Stabilization A rapid or medium setting cationic emulsion is
Cationic slow-setting emulsions can be used Tack Coats applied to a compacted open-graded layer. It
for stabilization of uncrushed naturally occur- Tack coats are light application of bitumen soaks in, binding the roadway.
ring gravels and sandy soils. Generally, soils between layers of hot mix to prevent slippage.
with a sand equivalence value of more than 25 There is considerable variation in the type of
(measure of clay content) can be treated with emulsion used for tack coats worldwide. In
some degree of success for use as a base many countries slow-setting anionic or cationic
material for hot overlay or for minor roads where a emulsions are used which may be diluted with
seal coat may be sufficient. Materials of even water, but Europe uses rapid-setting cationic
lower sand equivalence can in some cases be emulsions. It is necessary for the tack coat to
19
Glossary of terms

Aggregate mix, dense-graded Inverted emulsion

A mix containing aggregate which is Water-in-oil emulsion prepared from cut
graded from the maximum size down to back bitumen and typically used for priming
filler with the object of obtaining a bitumen or tack coats.
mix with relatively low voids content.
Latex
Aggregate mix, open-graded Natural or synthetic dispersion of rubber
A mix containing little or no filler giving particles in water. Usually based on natural
relatively large void spaces in the rubber, SBR, polychloroprene or acrylates.
compacted mix .
Micelle
Binder Assembly of surface active molecules formed
General term for asphalt cement which spontaneously in water.
includes bitumen, coal tar or polymer
modified bitumens. Prime coat
Liquid binder sprayed on an unbound layer to
Bitumen provide a good bond for hot mix.
Residue from crude oil.
Predominately aliphatic or cycloaliphatic. Reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP)
Known as asphalt in the USA. Old pavement removed from the road surface
for recycling.
Bitumen emulsion, anionic
Bitumen Emulsion in which the droplets Soap
of bitumen carry a negative charge. Common name for surface active agent
or emulsifier.
Bitumen emulsion, cationic
Bitumen emulsion in which the droplets of Tack coat
bitumen carry a positive charge. Also called Bond Coat. An application
of low viscosity liquid bitumen or emulsion
Chip seal between layers of bituminous materials to
U.S. terminology for surface dressing. prevent slippage.

Electrophoresis Zeta potential

Movement under the influence of an electric Measure of the charge density on a surface.
potential gradient.

Interfacial tension
Force acting at 90 degrees to a line in
the interface experienced by molecules in
the interface resulting from an imbalance of
attractive forces from the two phases.
Interfacial tension and interfacial free energy
are measures of the work required to
increase the interfacial area.
21
References

1. Bitumen emulsions, SFERB, Paris 1991 11. Solving viscosity problems by the 19. Phase behaviour and stability of
[English Version Published by Colas France] choice of emulsifier, Alan James, asphalt emulsions, Fernando Leal
24th AEMA Annual Meeting, 14–16th Calderon, Jaques Biais an Maurice
2. A basic asphalt emulsion manual, March 1997, Cancun, Mexico Bourrel, 1st World Congress on Emulsion,
Manual series No. 19 3rd edition, 19–22nd October 1993, Paris, France,
AEMA, USA 12. Bitumen emulsion formulation: paper 1-22-029
Use of chemicals versus droplet size
3. Asphalt emulsions (Chemistry and distribution to control viscosity and 20. The reactivity test, Nadjib Boussad,
concepts), Alan James, 2nd Asphalt cohesion kinetics, Michel Ballie, 1st World Congress on Emulsion,
Technology Conference of the Americas, Emmanuel Arrachard and Jean-Eric Poirier, 19–22nd October 1993, Paris, France,
Austin, Texas, October 12–16th 1998 2nd World Congress on Emulsion, paper 2-20-209
23–16th September 1997, Bordeaux,
4. Manufacturing process and emulsion France, paper 2-1-367 21. The evaporation filtration test for
properties, G. Durand and J. E. Poirer, emulsion inversion, Jean-Luc Marchal,
AEMA 21st Annual meeting, Florida 1994 13. A 5-stage model for the bitumen ASTM Symposium on Asphalt Emulsions
emulsion setting and its importance 1988, Phoenix, Arizona USA
5. Formation of emulsions, Pieter Walstra, for the formulation and application
2nd World Congress on Emulsion, 23–26th of such emulsion, Walther Glet, 2nd 22. Surface dressing with bitumen
September 1997, Bordeaux, France, World Congress on Emulsion, 23–26th emulsions: A practical and cost
Volume 4, p 67–74 September 1997, Bordeaux France, effective maintenance technique
paper 4-1C-070 to increase the lifetime of roads,
6. Influence of continuous phase David Stewart, Bitumen Asia 95, 20–21st
viscosity on droplet size in continuous 14. Role of cationic emulsifiers in November 1995, Singapore
emulsification, Michael Stang, Herve rapid-setting bitumen emulsions:
Maze, Helmar Schubert, 2nd World Emulsion Study of the distribution between the 23. What you need to know about slurry
Congress, 23–26th September 1997, two emulsion phases, Graziella Durand seal, Barry Dunn, Better Roads, March
Bordeaux, France, paper 1-2-289 an Jean-Eric Poirier, 2nd World Congress 1996, 21–25
on Emulsion, 23–26th September 1997,
7. The Esso SMEP process, Jean-Luc Bordeaux, France, paper 4-1B-295 24. Environmental and safety aspects of
Marchal, 1st World Congress on Emulsion, cationic bitumen emulsions,
19–22nd October 1993, Paris, France, 15. Mechanismes de rupture des Alan James and Bengt-Arne Thorstensson,
paper 1-12-208 emulsions de bitume routier, Maurice 5th ISSA World Congress, Berlin 2002.
Bourrel and Francis Verzaro, L’Act Chim.
8. Water enclosed within the droplets (AS-R), 1996, 2.3, 42-48 25. Emulsification of high softening point
of bitumen emulsions and its relation materials, Alan James and Sundaram
to viscosity change during storage, 16. Zeta potential measurements on Logaraj, World Congress on Emulsion,
Susan Furlong, Alan James, Edward bitumen emulsions and road Lyon France 2002
Kalinowski and Martin Thompson, 2nd aggregates, Julia Wates and Alan
World Congress on Emulsion. 23–26 James, 1st World Congress on Emulsion, 26. A study of cement modified bitumen
September 1997, Bordeaux France, 19–22nd October 1993, Paris, France, emulsion mixtures, S.F. Brown and
paper 2-4-009 paper 1-40 089 David Needham, Proceedings of the
technical session of AAPT, Reno,
9. Granulometry of bitumen emulsions 17. The direct measurement of the Nevada, 2000
by image analysis, Alain Sainton, 2nd adsorption of cationic surfactants
World Congress on Emulsion, 23–26th onto the surface of slurry seal
September 1997, Bordeaux, France, aggregates, Alan James, David Stewart
paper 2-1-248 and Julia Wates, ISSA 28th Convention,
1990, Tampa, Florida
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quality: Particle size distribution, 18. Electrophoretische untersuchung des
Mikael Engman, Alan James, David brechverhalten von bitumen emul-
Needham and Tony Ng, ISSA 36th Annual sionen, Amir Sama-dijavan,
meeting 1998, San Diego, USA Bitumen 4/94, 151-156
23
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