DEVELOPMENT: ITS MEANING AND VARIANTS

After the Second World War, and, with the independence of the Asian and African countries from
the colonial rule, the developmental priorities of these nations become subjects of study of the
USA and other western countries. Since the per capita real income in all these countries was
conspicuously low, high priority was given to developmental programmes which could help Asian
and African countries realize the maximum possible growth rate. In this process, several factors
cropped up, such as education, health, sanitation, poverty eradication, and malnutrition. It was in
this connection that the importance of development was realized. Development is no longer
considered to be the same as growth, as it was earlier perceived by developed world. Development
economists are no longer impressed by the growth performance of the economy reflected in terms
of rise in GNP; rather, they concentrate more directly on development processes. The differences
between the terms, growth, and development, urged social scientists to begin to define the term,
development.
Development and its related terms remain fundamental to contemporary thinking. There is no
agreement among developmental thinkers regarding a common definition of development. Some
say it is an increase in income and productivity while others lay emphasis on the quality of life,
provision of basic needs, happiness, and wellbeing.
Gunar Myrdal (1960), treats development as an upward movement of the whole social system by
providing better living condition, viz. adequate food, better housing, improved facilities for health,
education and training, and the general improvement of cultural facilities, which are all desirable.
The International Labour Organization (ILO, 1976) insists on incorporating the basic needs
strategy in the development plans for developing countries. First, a plan should include the
minimum requirements of a family for private consumption: adequate food, shelter, and clothing,
and the necessary household equipment and furniture. Second, it would include essential services
provided by, and for, the community, such as safe drinking water, sanitation, public transport, and
health and education facilities
According to Amartya Sen (1999), a country can grow rapidly but still do badly in terms of literacy,
health and life expectancy. Sen interprets development as a process that expands what he terms,
the entitlements and capabilities, of the people. He opined that instead of concentrating on national
product or aggregate income, development economists should concentrate on the entitlements of
people and the capabilities these entitlements generate.
According to Tadaro, “development is both a physical reality and a state of mind in which society
has, through some combination of social, economic, and institutional processes, secured the means
for obtaining a better life.” In order to achieve development, all society must have at least the
following three objectives
1. To increase the availability and widen the distribution of basic life sustaining goods such as
food, shelter, health, and protection to all members of society.
2. To raise levels of living, higher incomes, provide more jobs, better education, and more attention
to cultural and humanistic values. These all are required not only to enhance material wellbeing
but to generate greater individual and national self-esteem.
3.To expand the range of economic and social choice to individuals and nations by freeing them
from servitude and dependence, not only in relation to other people, nation, and states, but to the
forces of ignorance and human misery.
DEVELOPMENT PARADIGMS
Thomas Kuhn in his book, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, tried to popularize the term,
paradigm. According to Kuhn, a paradigm is a “universally recognized scientific achievements
that, for a time, provide model problems and solutions to a community of practitioners”. Kuhn
used the term, paradigm, due to the tremendous shift in the scientific worldview, from the
mechanistic approach of Newton to the realistic one of Einstein. Hussain (2003) has remarked that
a paradigm, according to Kuhn, is a framework of thought within which questions are posed, and,
answers, pursued. In other words, a development paradigm is a way of perceiving development in
terms of its manifestations, process, and causes through a certain prism. According to Sato and
Smith, ODII (1993), a paradigm shift in development, to be minimally consistent with Kuhn’s
concept, would need to meet three conditions:
(i) It must provide a metatheory, that is, one that serves to explain many other theories
(ii) It must be accepted by a community of practitioners; and
(iii) It must have a body of successful practice, ‘exemplars’that are held up as ‘paradigms’
in practice. To them and according to the metatheory, development should be people-
centred; democratically organized; responsive to the whole environment, not only the
ecological and the economic, but also the political, social and cultural and balanced,
for example between centre and periphery, between public and private, between the
roles of men and women. The Johannesburg Growth and Development Strategy outline,
Development Paradigm as an in-principle argument for how to conceptualize and
overcome the development challenges confronting nations. Some of the principles
which they included are sustainable and inclusive development, basic needs, a focus on
people and not on place, and decentralized development strategies. The ODII
(Organizing for Development, an International Institute) report, while defining the
term, development paradigm, has mentioned that “development must be human-
centered, coming from within, rather than imposed from the outside. In addition, the
center of effort in development needs to shift from resource-based strategies to
interactive or participative strategies.”
V.R. Panchamukhi, in his article, ‘New Paradigms of Development’ has the following
observations about development
i) Development can no longer be identified as a process of shifting surplus labor from
agriculture to the industrial sectors
ii) Growth is no longer the guarantor for trickle down effects
 iii) Market as an instrument for ensuring optimum allocation of resources has been discredited
iv) Concepts such as take-off, big push, great support, backward and forward linkages, have
also lost their essence.
Therefore, he said that simplistic paradigms of the development economics are no longer valid.
The existence of large pockets of poverty, despite a long period of planned development,
widening gaps between the haves and have-nots, neglect of the inadequacies of the social
aspects of development, such as education, health, and other basic needs, have cast doubts on
the utility of received paradigms of development. Development, in the sense customarily
perceived as growth and increase in income, no longer persists.
Some of the facets of the development paradigm are
• Development not only means the increase of GNP, but includes aspects such as social, human,
cultural, and political dimensions
• The focus has shifted from the one sector model to dual sector models, for example, rural-
urban; agriculture and industry linkages, etc.
• The shift from a centralized to a decentralized model, for faster development.
• Inclusive development, where every individual participates in development processes, and
exclusion is minimal.
• Linkages of the national economy with the international economies, and the role of FDI in
development of the developing economy.
• Development with a humane face removing poverty, hunger, and human misery from society.

MAJOR PARADIGMS OF DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION

There are three major paradigms of development identified ideologically and historically (Rogers,
2008) are as following:
I) The Dominant Paradigm (modernization)
II) The Opposing Paradigm (dependency)
III) The Emerging Paradigm (participation)
DOMINANT PARADIGM

This perspective emerged from the concept of development to be “modernisation.” Evolved after
the World War II, the central idea of this paradigm was to solve development problems by
"modernising" underdeveloped countries. This thought was part of the dominant culture or we can
say the majority atleast believed this (capitalism and embracing modernity) to be answer to
development issues. This approach advised the society, how to be effective in following the
behaviour of the rich and influential or we can say pattern of the capitalist driven western
economies. Development was equated with economic growth. The modernisation approach is to
promote and support capitalist economic development. In an extent the followers of this paradigm
believe that the Western model of economic growth is universally applicable and persuaded people
to adopt the modern technology (Melkote & Leslie, 2015).
Paulo Freire (2008) defined four major levels of dominant paradigm:
♦ Cultural level, ♦ Technocratic level, ♦ Political level, ♦ Economic level.
Approaches to Dominant Paradigm of Development
Dominant Paradigm called for mechanical emulation of western ideas of development and
underscored the ethnic culture and history of a country. It considered Mass Media a strong agent
in development and the paradigm found powerful effects of media in bringing about socio-
economic change.
Daniel Lerner
One of the prominent figures of the modernisation paradigm was Daniel Lerner who wrote the
book, ‘The Passing of the Traditional Society and Modernising the Middle East’ (1958). He
postulated that urbanisation, literacy, mass media exposure and political participation could be the
change agents for transition from traditional agrarian communities to modern industrial societies.
According to Lerner, development failed because people in third world countries were unable to
‘empathise’ or imaginatively identify with the modern societies new roles, and a changed and
‘better’ way of life and hence they remained fatalistic, unambitious and resistant to change. He
saw the media as filling this need of promoting interest among the people for embracing change.
High media consumption was seen as a prerequisite for people’s participation to change their own
traditional customs and beliefs and key to bringing about political and economic participation and
overall social development. Media was considered a ‘multiplier’ and enhancer and its expected
role was to make ideas of modernisation attractive, change people’s psychological state, and teach
them skills which are required for a modern society (Narula, 2014). Lerner believed in the media’s
ability to transform its audience into an empathetic state where they will embrace the ideas of
modernity. People here were passive recipients of ideas advocated by the authoritarian
administration. Consequent to the achievements of urbanisation and literacy, people may use mass
media as mobility multipliers to create a climate of acceptance of change.
Adam Smith (1723-1790)
 Adam Smith (1723-1790) was a Scottish philosopher, economist, and author who is
considered one of the key figures in the development of classical economics and modern
economic thought
 He is best known for his influential work, "An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the
Wealth of Nations," commonly referred to as "The Wealth of Nations," published in
1776.
Some key points and contributions associated with Adam Smith include:
 Division of Labor: Smith discussed the benefits of the division of labor in increasing
productivity and efficiency.
 Invisible Hand: One of the most famous concepts associated with Adam Smith is the
"invisible hand." He argued that in a free-market economy, individuals pursuing their
own self-interests in their economic activities inadvertently contribute to the overall
economic well-being of society. The unregulated market, guided by the "invisible hand,"
would naturally allocate resources efficiently and lead to the optimal outcomes for
society as a whole.
 Theory of Value: Smith delved into the theory of value, suggesting that the value of
goods and services is not determined solely by their cost of production but also by the
utility they provide to consumers.
 Laissez-Faire Economics: Adam Smith advocated for minimal government intervention
in economic affairs. He believed that the government's role should be limited to
protecting property rights, enforcing contracts, and maintaining essential public goods
like infrastructure and defense.
Everett Rogers
• Communication scholar, and sociologist, and it explains how new ideas, innovations, or
technologies spread and are adopted within a social system.
The Diffusion of Innovations theory consists of five main elements that influence the
adoption of innovations:
Innovation: The new idea, practice, technology, or product that is being introduced into
the community or society.
Communication Channels: The means through which information about the innovation
is disseminated. These channels can be mass media, interpersonal networks, social media,
or any other form of communication.
Time: The period it takes for the innovation to be adopted by members of the social
system. The adoption process can be relatively quick or may take an extended period,
depending on various factors.
Social System: The group of individuals who share a common set of values, norms, and
beliefs. This system can be a community, organization, or a whole society.
Adopters: The individuals within the social system who decide to accept and use the
innovation. Rogers categorized adopters into five groups based on their time of adoption
and their characteristics: innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and
laggards.
Diffusion of Innovations theory is often used to understand how new practices,
technologies, or ideas can be effectively introduced and accepted in communities.
Development communication practitioners and policymakers use this model to design
strategies that facilitate the diffusion and adoption of innovations, thereby promoting
positive social change and development.
Walt Whitman Rostow
 One of the key thinkers in twentieth-century Development Studies
 American economist and government official
 Prior to Rostow, approaches to development had been based on the assumption that
"modernization" was characterized by the Western world (wealthier, more powerful
countries at the time)
Abraham Maslow
 American psychologist
 Theory of human motivation, often represented as Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.
 Primarily focuses on human motivation and personal development, it has
implications for understanding communication processes, including development
communication.

 Physiological Needs: These are the most basic human needs, including food, water,
shelter, clothing, and other necessities for survival.
 Safety Needs: Once physiological needs are met, individuals seek safety and security, such
as personal safety, financial stability, health, and protection from physical and emotional
harm.
 Love and Belongingness Needs: After safety needs are fulfilled, people seek love,
companionship, and a sense of belongingness within social groups, such as family, friends,
and communities.
  Esteem Needs: Once the previous needs are satisfied, individuals strive for self-esteem,
respect from others, and recognition for their achievements.
 Self-Actualization Needs: At the top of the pyramid, individuals pursue self-actualization,
which refers to the realization of one's full potential, personal growth, and self-fulfillment.

RICARDIAN THEORY OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

 Ricardo presented his view on Economic Development in his book The Principles of
Political Economy and Taxation.
 The Ricardian model is based on the inter-relation of three groups in the economy. They
are landlords, capitalists and laborer’s among whom the entire produce of land is
distributed.
 Ricardo was the forerunner of modern economists and his ideas on economic growth have
been adopted. They are as follows:
 Agricultural development:
 Ricardo emphasized the importance of agricultural development in economic growth,
because industrial development depends on it.
 Profit rate: Ricardo advocated the increase in the profit rate in economic development for
capital accumulation depends on it.
 Importance of saving: Like modern economists, Ricardo’s theory underlines the
importance of saving for higher capital accumulation
 Foreign trade: Ricardo gave much importance to foreign trade in improving the economic
condition of the economy because it leads to the maximum utilization of resources and
increase in income.
Weaknesses
 Neglects the impact of technology:
Ricardo pointed out that improved technology in the industrial field leads to the displacement
of labour and other adverse consequences. In the beginning, technological progress might
counteract the action of diminishing returns. But ultimately when the impact of technological
progress is exhausted, diminishing returns set in and the economy moves towards stationary
state. Rapid increase of farm produce in the advanced nations has proved that Ricardo under-
estimated the potentialities of technological progress in counteracting diminishing returns of
land

 Impracticable Laissez-faire policy:

The Ricardian theory is based on the impracticable notion of laissez-faire. According to this
policy there is no government interference and the economy operates automatically through
perfect competition. In reality, there is no economy which is free from governmental
interference and in which perfect competition prevails.
  Distribution rather than growth theory:
According to Schumpeter, the Ricardian theory is not a growth theory but it is the theory of
distribution which determines the share of workers, landlords and capitalists. Even in this, he
regards the share of land is primary and the residual as the share of labour and capital. Ricardo
failed to present a functional theory of distribution because he did not determine the share of
each factor separately.

 Land also produces goods other than corn:

Ricardo believed that only one product corn is produced on land. But this is an outdated notion
because land produces a variety of products other than corn.
Wilbur Schramm
 He perceived mass media as agents of social change as media has the magical capability to
inform, educate and persuade people and accomplish the transitions to new customs and
practices of a community.
 Schramm further argued that a nation that wants to accelerate the process of development
must allow information to flow as quickly and as widely as possible so as to make relevant
information available to them, as well as understand their needs and of the opportunities
for meeting them.
 This will facilitate the decision making process and will help the people put the new
practices smoothly and swiftly into effect.
 Schramm forcefully postulated that the mass media has the potential to widen horizons, to
focus attention, to raise aspirations and to create a climate for development

Thomas Robert Malthus

 Thomas Robert Malthus, an economist explained this theory in his 1798 essay on the
‘Principle of population’. He then modified some parts in the essay next edition in 1803.
 Human population grows in an exponential format, it increases according to birth rate and
concerning that the food supply increases at a slower rate.
 If the population keeps on increasing there will be a limit and shortage of food.
 The shortage of food also indicates the increasing population.
 This increasing growth if not checked can put a strain on the economy, the environment,
government, and the overall infrastructure of various social institutions.
Preventive Checks:
 The principle behind this check is to bring down the birth rate to control the population
 If the family has many children the standard of living is bound to below.
 The only way anyone can support a large family would be through strenuous labour than
what he does in the present state.
 If he is not able to support the family then the family members may be exposed to
poverty.
 Man must self-restraint himself from marriage or starting a family unless he thinks that
he can support a family.
Positive Checks: The basis of this check is that population growth is shortened by various
factors such as warfare, disease, famine, etc. As a result of these factors, the population
would be reduced to a level that can be sustained by the available quantity of food supply.
Importance of the Malthusian Theory
 There are some elements of the Malthusian theory which have some weightage. Humans
have a strong desire to reproduce. This is to maintain the family lineage and legacy. So
the population is bound to grow rapidly if birth control measures are not taken.
 Malthus’s assumptions regarding positive checks are true to a certain extent. History has
shown that whenever there is an increase in population for any country, thousands have
died due to natural calamities.