MODULE 3: CONCEPTS OF FITNESS

Fitness is the ability to perform daily tasks without putting undue stress on the body. There are many different categories of
the concepts of fitness and some of these include:
• Core
• Flexibility fitness/mobility training
• Cardiovascular fitness / Cardiopulmonary Fitness
• Muscular fitness/ muscular strength and endurance

The FITT PRINCIPLES

The following FITT principles can be used for all concepts of health and fitness.

Frequency

This refers to the number of times per week you perform cardiovascular exercise. To improve cardiovascular fitness levels a
minimum of three days a week is recommended. The American Council of Exercise Guidelines recommends 3-5 days per
week. When starting a program for the first time a person should perform Group exercise or exercises such as brisk walking
at least every other day with two days in a row thrown in during the week. For some people it may be of benefit to exercise
every day and for some people doing two cardiovascular exercises a day may be of benefit. Remember that a person should
not try to overdo it too soon but progress slowly and efficiently.

Intensity

Intensity level is a very important part of any exercise program. Exercising at correct levels can make a big difference in the
effectiveness of a program. Intensity can be defined as speed or workload of an activity. Many people, such as walkers, do
not exercise at the correct intensity level for cardiovascular and fat burning enhancement. On the other hand, some people
can actually exercise at too high an intensity level. Exercising at a high intensity level will increase an individual’s heart rate.

The Guidelines for intensity levels from the American College of Sports Medicine are 60 -90 % of maximal heart rate. This
range is approximately 50 to 85% of maximal oxygen consumption (functional capacity or VO2 max) and 50 - 85% of heart
rate maximum reserve. We will discuss monitoring intensity in the next section. A person who is beginning a program should
start at 50 - 60% of their maximum oxygen consumption although some beginners need to start at levels of 35 - 45%. For
fitter people exercising at 75 - 85% is probably more appropriate. Overall for healthier adults it is good to be at 60 - 70%. The
key to all of this knowledge understanding where he/she is at as far in their cardiovascular fitness level is concerned and
starting slowly, progressing as cardiovascular fitness levels increase. Starting a program too fast is not good, but not doing
enough is not good either. A comfortable balance which progresses to higher levels over time is recommended.

Time

This refers to the duration of an exercise session or the length of time to complete an exercise. For many the duration of
an exercise depends upon the intensity of an exercise. In general, the cardiovascular exercise should last a minimum of 20
minutes with the best results coming after a longer period of time. A person can get good cardiovascular fitness and body fat
burning utilization at 20 - 30 minutes of cardiovascular exercise. People who are just beginning a program should start slowly
and progress over time. A person who rarely has ever exercised should start at 10 -12 minutes including a 5 minute warm-up
and increase this by about 2 minutes per week until they are above 20 minutes. The key is to spend some time doing some
cardiovascular activity every day if possible.

Type
Kind of exercise you should choose to achieve the appropriate training response. Eg. Cardiovascular/muscular strength
and endurance/flexibility and mobility or balance and proprioception

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When working out a fitness program for a client the fitness trainer must apply the following
FITT Principles in the program.

OR

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EXAMPLE OF A F. I. T. T. PRINCIPLE WORKSHEET
Name

Flexibility F. I. T. T. Principle
Frequency - - The number of days that a flexibility workout can be done is to days.
Intensity --The intensity of a flexibility exercise is done until you feel , but not
.
Time -- A stretch should be held seconds and no longer than seconds.
Type -- , ,

Cardiovascular Endurance F. I. T. T. Principle

Frequency -- The number of days that a cardiovascular workout can be done is to days per week.
Intensity -- The intensity of a cardiovascular exercise is m e a s u r e d by . Your heart rate should be between
beats per minute and beats per minute for the whole workout.
Time -- The amount of time spent working out should be between minutes and minutes.
Type -- , ,

Muscular Strength F. I. T. T. Principle

Frequency -- Your muscular strength workout should be done day.
Intensity-- Each muscular strength workout should s t a r t with sets of repetitions.
After reaching sets of repetitions, you should increase the weight amount.
Time --The number of repetitions should be and sets for each exercise.
Type -- , ,

Muscular Endurance F. I. T. T. Principle

Frequency -- Your muscular endurance workout should be done day.
Intensity -- Each muscular endurance workout should start with sets of repetitions. After R reaching
sets of
repetitions, you should increase the amount or the of exercise.
Time -- You should perform to repetitions and sets for each exercise.
Type -- , ,

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What are the body systems and the physiological factors associated with them that can affect
performance?

Psychology is the study of the nature and function of the mind, with particular emphasis placed on the relationship between
thought and physical action. Psychology has become increasingly important in sports and exercise, particularly with respect to the
improvement and maintenance of fitness performance. Sport psychology is an aspect of sport training and preparation; this
science is primarily directed at assisting in individual and teams to maintain an optimal balance between mind and body, both in
terms of the physical execution of the technical aspects of the sport and the related functions of emotion and mood.

There is no single sports psychology approach. Team sports and the dynamics of group interaction are entirely different than the
pursuits of individual competition. The nature of the fitness training itself will play a significant role in how the participant may be
assisted; certain sports/ fitness routines, by their nature, are likely to attract certain types of personalities. A cross-country skier
and the object of the sport are a polar opposite to the goals of a weightlifter or a boxer. While individuals in their sport may
require varying psychological approaches, the science of sports psychology is founded on a number of constants. Sport psychology
will invariably include work in four general areas:

 Goal setting,
 Imagery and simulation
 Development of better powers of concentration.
 Maintenance

How do we apply the physiological factors in training?

Goal setting:
This is a planning process that occurs as a part of an assessment of the overall needs and abilities of the participant. Goals must
ultimately be realistic; to set objectives that are unattainable for an individual is to guarantee failure. Long- and short-term goals
should be determined before, during and after sessions as client and personal trainer.

Goal setting involves the determination of such issues as the individual’s ability to self-motivate and the personal measure of self-
confidence. The sports psychologist, along with the individual and the coaches, can play a role in the prioritizing of events within
the training year; effective coaches will create a schedule that is often referred to as periodization of training, when the year is
divided into the constituent parts of competitive season, off-season and preseason.

Sport psychology principles are of particular application in the individual’s development of a feedback loop, where the constant
analysis, re-evaluation, and refocusing of training and competitive direction, occurs regarding performance.

Imagery and simulation:

Imagery and simulation training and techniques form the second branch of sport psychology. Although commonly treated as a
single entity, imagery and simulation are two distinct psychological approaches to sport training and preparation.
The physical training undertaken by any individual requires the development of the individual’s brain and the pathways of the
nervous system, particularly those of the peripheral system that extend to the musculoskeletal structure that is directed and
powered to achieve movement. The more specific and focused the nerve impulses initiated by the brain in respect of the
intended physical movements of the training, the more effective the individual will be in execution of the required movements of
the training.

Imagery is a psychological technique where the athlete is conditioned to prepare for training through the use of the mind. Imagery
includes the development of set thought patterns, composed of often abstract words or images that the individual finds helpful in
reinforcing the focus on the activity. Images are developed between the individual and the psychologist to trigger certain types of
emotions that the individual may wish to harness at appropriate times. The common emotions that are tied to imagery are those
that calm the individual in a tense environment, ones that motivate the individual to increase intensity where the individual may
be at a lower level of intensity than is desired, or images to heighten the ability to block out all extraneous activity or distraction.

The images may be personal to the individual's experience, or they may be created to spur a particular reaction. Once taught,
imagery is a self-motivational tool, portable in that the images and their keys are carried in the individual's mind.
An example is the use of the word "wind" and words associated with the performance and the nature of wind in relation to how a
distance runner might imagine his or her own performance. The abstract wind is connected to the reality of what the athlete
seeks to achieve.

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Simulation is a mental training process that is a direct linkage between mental control and the training. Simple simulations
include the mental rehearsal of training-specific techniques such as the mental review of all aspects e.g. of a foul shot in
basketball, from the first approach to the foul line to the ball falling through the cylinder.
An important component of effective simulation is the appreciation of all of the senses that the individual would expect to engage
at the time of the actual event being simulated. Using the basketball foul shot as an example, the player would be encouraged to
think not only of the mechanics of the shot, but how the ball feels in the shooter's hand, the sensation of the player's shoes on
the floor, and the sound made by the ball as it swishes through the mesh of the basket on a successful attempt. Simulation seeks to
build the entire act and its surrounding physical circumstances in the mind, to better equip the individual to deal with those
related sensations during training.

Simulation is the mental companion to the physical training involved in sports practice. The live drills used by individuals or
teams to prepare for competition are the mirror to the mental training and psychological preparation of simulation. The
overriding purpose of both imagery and simulation in sport is to assist in the development of confidence in the individual.
The development of the individual's powers of concentration is the third general component of sport psychology. In many
respects, the maintenance of concentration powers is the most difficult mental effort extended by an individual, as concentration is
influenced by both physical circumstances such as fatigue or injury, as well as the mental aspects of competitive pressure and
other distracting variables. Sports psychologists often seek to develop a number of specific attributes to mental performance
as a general increase in the powers of concentration in an individual. The first of these qualities is focus. In both training and
competitive situations, an individual must maintain a relentless attention on the matters at hand. Focus is applicable to both the
mechanics of the sport, as well as the maintenance of the required intensity to perform at the desired level.

Mood is the next factor to be controlled in the enhancement of concentration powers. Sport psychology provides for an
intensely individualized analysis when determining the ideal mood suitable for the best performance in any given individual. As
a general proposition, the psychologist will seek to assist the individual in attaining the desired mood. Imagery is sometimes
employed, as are external stimuli such as music.

The individual’s activation level is a concept closely related to the mood of the individual, as every individual has an emotional
point where he or she is sufficiently mentally stimulated to possess the desire and the drive to perform, without being so excited
by the prospect of competition that the individual loses concentration regarding the execution of the required physical aspects of
the sport. The phrase "to get psyched up" is a simple example of words that are used to take the individual to the activation level.
Another tool to maintain activation level in an individual is positive self-talk, where the athlete is encouraged to talk silently for
constant self-encouragement throughout an event.

Sports psychologists will also seek to equip the individual with personal stress management tools; if an individual succumbs to
the stress of training or competition, he or she will not be able to succeed. The control of stressful factors by the individual,
especially when the individual is able to direct some of the energy that is created by stress into positive performance, is among the
goals of the psychologist.

Pressure is a more generalized emotional factor that is closely related to stress. Pressure is often driven by external
circumstances, such as the expectations of a parent, a team, or a coach. It is a factor that tends to undermine the power of
concentration. Pressure is often subtle and more diffuse than the stress that is associated with a specific event. Pressure may
often be related to insecurity or a poor self-image on the part of the individual. Sports psychologists often work with individuals to
establish reasonable expectations to assist with the ability to deal with the variables of sport performance.
The overall maintenance of mental and emotional balance on the part of the individual’s mental outlook is a powerful weapon
against overtraining. The science of psychology has long recognized two general classifications of personalities, labelled type A
and type B. Type A persons are those who are intense, perfectionist, and demanding individuals;
Muhammad Ali engaged psychological as well as physical skills in his fights.

Type B are relaxed and easy going people. Type A athletes are the most vulnerable to overtraining syndrome, as these persons
will tend to push themselves past healthy physical and emotional limits in their pursuit of excellence.

Motivation is the stimulus given to individuals to continue with and improve in their chosen training or sport. Motivation
can come from a number of sources: coaches, teammates, supporters, and self-help methods can all be effective means of
motivating an individual to perform.

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Motivational techniques are an aspect of the broader branch of sports science known as sports psychology. The mental aspects of
sport are now understood to be essential to individual success.

The effective motivation of individuals is an essential aspect to success in training and sports of every kind. The motivational
requirements of every individual are as unique as the individual themselves.
The first factor in the assessment of how an individual may be effectively motivated is the nature of the training or sport played.
As an example, a sport that involves repeated physical contact such as rugby places entirely different stresses on both the mind
and the body than does tennis or cross-country running.

The motivation of a team will often differ from that of the individual; teams possess a unique collective individual personality. The
level of individual training is often an important factor as to how the team or individual can be motivated to perform at their
highest level. A team that competes at an international level may possess different dynamics than those present in the members of
a youth league team.

The nature of the training and the competitiveness influences the motivational approaches to be taken. The motivational
techniques to successfully encourage an individual to train effectively over an extended period or to steer the individual towards
an upcoming competitive schedule are not necessarily the same approaches used to stimulate a best effort on competition day or
game day.

Motivation is rarely successful as a one-time instrument. Successful motivational techniques are built on the relationship
between the individual and the person seeking to motivate the individual, usually a coach. If the coach does not know the
individual well, the individual will not inherently trust the words of the prospective motivator. If the individual senses that the
motivational tools are not sincere or that they are directed to some ulterior purpose, the motivation will fall flat.

Knowledge of the individual and the existence of a trust relationship between trainer and individual will permit the trainer to
understand what it is about their individual's unique personality that will permit motivation to occur. This knowledge will
take the trainer and the individual to the activation point, that region of the individual's persona that will trigger a best effort.
Through the relationship, a trainer, for example, will know if the individual (or the team) responds to a visceral challenge, or
whether the motivation question is best approached on a more intellectual footing.

Long-term motivation, the practices that are emphasized day to day through the training, often are based on goal setting. The
ultimate goal for an individual may be to compete at Regional or International Level.

Each motivational goal is a progression that bears a logical connection to the next target. Many individuals have failed to continue
with training where the goals set were either unrealistic or were ill-considered.

With the concept of goal setting comes the notion of reward as a motivator. The management of stress and its impacts on the
individual are an important aspect of motivational techniques. The ability to overcome the pressures of competition, or the
effects of external environmental factors such as family, educational, or employment pressures will often be determined by the
ability of the individual to be motivated beyond the stressful factors to a mental state where the individual activity is of primary
importance.

Successful individuals are able to motivate themselves to perform. For some, this is an innate part of their psychological makeup,
and they might only require coaching direction as to how to keep motivated to perform. The technique of positive self-talk that
reinforces with upbeat self-analysis and self-imagery is one of a number of ways that the individual can strive to remain focused on
training and competition.

The fitness trainer must therefore remember to apply the following two principles when working out a training plan for an
individual.

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MOTIVATION AND GOAL SETTING

Finding motivation to train or stick with an exercise program isn’t always easy. Negative lifestyle factors such as illness, burnout
and demanding schedules are just a few factors that could get in the way. However, setting goals based on the
S.M.A.R.T approach provides simple techniques that could structure an exercise program for today’s demanding lifestyles.

 Set specific goals – research shows that specific goals are the most motivating.
 Set measurable goals – you need to be able to chart and document your exercise goals
 Set adjustable goals – your goals have to be flexible and realistic enough to accommodate unexpected challenges
 Set action-orientated goals – keeping goals focused on personal action. Knowing what you want to achieve and how you
are going to achieve it. Achieving a goal is an exciting journey!
 Set realistic goals – Starting where you are currently in mind and body and increasing your goals realistically and
accordingly. Set time-based goals – without a realistic time line to achieve your goals, there could be a tendency
to procrastinate or get bored with the program.

THE THREE ENERGY SYSTEMS:

The three energy systems have been covered briefly in our previous module under the heading Power Energy Systems, however,
this module covers this topic in more detail and demonstrates how the different systems are applied in different ways.

Energy is required for all kinds of bodily processes including growth and development, repair, the transport of various
substances between cells and of course, muscle contraction.

Whether it's during a 26-mile marathon run or one explosive movement like a tennis serve, skeletal muscle is powered by
one and only one compound... adenosine triphosphate (ATP) However, the body stores only a small quantity of this 'energy
currency' within the cells and it’s enough to power just a few seconds of all-out exercise So the body must replace or
resynthesize ATP on an ongoing basis.

In training we are concerned with the transfer of chemical energy into mechanical energy. In this process, the breaking of
chemical bonds in molecules releases energy for use by the body. An excellent example of this transfer of energy is that of a
football player who converts chemicals in the body (derived from food) into mechanical work (for example, jumping to take a
mark). Heat energy is also given off in this transfer, which is why a person feels warm after jogging for a short while. The
body does not directly use the energy that is released in the breakdown of food; rather, the energy is used to make a chemical
compound called adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Only when the energy is released by the breakdown of this compound can the
cell perform its specialised function. This specialised function is dependent on the cell type. For example, cells in the intestine
have a digestive function.

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Adenosine triphosphate
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is an energy-rich chemical compound found within the cells of the body. It is almost always the
source of energy for the reactions that take place in the body - especially for muscle contraction leading to movement.

ATP is made up of a smaller compound (adenosine) and three chained phosphate (P) groups (hence the name tri-
phosphate). The final phosphate group is held on to the chain
with a high-energy bond. A great deal of energy is released when
this bond is broken, and this provides the energy that powers the
human body. It provides energy for all processes, from breathing
and digestion through to muscular movement. When ATP is broken
down, it releases energy. ATP is broken down into adenosine
diphosphate (ADP) - that is, adenosine plus two phosphates - and a
separate phosphate group.
An AP Molecule

Food provides the source for ATP. Stored fuels, such as carbohydrates and fats, are not changed into ATP; rather, a portion of
the energy that is released when these food chemicals break down triggers the joining together of molecules to form ATP.
Energy from foods
There is a strong link between what a person eats and the production of ATP. The three major nutrients found in food -
carbohydrates, fats and proteins - all work in different ways to help with the production of ATP.

The Breakdown of ATP

Energy systems

ATP does not exist in the muscles and tissues in abundant supply waiting for activity to occur. In fact, the small amount of
ATP that is present provides only enough energy for a few seconds of intense activity. The body does not produce ATP
continuously, so it must be recycled in a process known as resynthesis. This process rebuilds ATP from ADP using one of three
energy systems. The energy system used by the body is dependent on:
• how long the activity will take place
• the intensity of the activity
• how quickly the activity is performed.

The 3-common energy-yielding processes for the replenishment and recycling of ATP are the:
1.Alactacid system (also called the phosphagen or ATP–PC system)
2.Lactic acid system (also called the anaerobic glycolysis
system)
3.Aerobic system (also called the oxygen or oxidative system).

All three systems work in fundamentally the same way to resynthesise ATP. The energy that is released during the reactions
occurring within them is used to combine ADP and P to form ATP. This process is best described by the principle of coupled
reactions. This means that the energy produced in one reaction is used to drive another reaction. The coupled reactions for
the resynthesis of ATP are shown in Figure 5.5. The major difference between the systems is that the alactacid and lactic acid
systems both resynthesise ATP anaerobically oxygen present), whereas the aerobic system resynthesises

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 Aerobic and anaerobic energy systems

ATP Resynthesis couples reaction Alactacid System

Energy Systems & Training

Each of the three energy systems can generate power to different capacities and varies within individuals. Best estimates suggest
that the ATP-PCR system can generate energy at a rate of roughly 36 kcal per minute. Glycolysis can generate energy only half as
quickly at about 16 kcal per minute. The oxidative system has the lowest rate of power output at about 10 kcal per minute.
The capacity to generate power of each the three energy systems can vary with training. The ATP-PCr and glycolytic pathways may
change by only 10-20% with training. The oxidative system seems to be far more trainable although genetics play a limiting role
here too. VO2max, or aerobic power can be increased by as much as 50% but this is usually in untrained, sedentary individuals.

Energy Systems Used in Sports

The three energy systems do not work independently of one another. From very short, very intense exercise, to very light,
prolonged activity, all three energy systems make a contribution however, one or two will usually predominate.
Two factors of any activity carried out affect energy systems more than any other variable they are the intensity and duration of
exercise. Here is a list of sports and approximately how the each of the energy systems contributes to meet the physical
demands:

Aerobic glycolysis
In the presence of oxygen, glucose broken down into pyruvic acid is converted into a specialised enzyme called acetyl-coenzyme A
(acetyl-CoA). This is the first of many
reactions that make up the process of aerobic glycolysis.

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The Krebs Cycle
The enzyme acetyl-CoA enters into a series of reactions called the Krebs cycle, in which it is oxidized (broken down) to produce
ATP, hydrogen and carbon. The ATP is used for energy, the carbon combines with oxygen to form carbon dioxide (which is
breathed out) and the hydrogen moves on to catalyze the next reaction in the aerobic system. If the hydrogen remains, it will
make the cell too acidic and unable to function correctly.

The electron transport system

The Krebs cycle feeds into another series of reactions called the electron transport system. Hydrogen, which has been produced in
both the lactic acid system and the Krebs cycle, is picked up and taken to the electron transport system. Here the hydrogen atom is
split into two parts: protons and electrons. The protons combine with oxygen to form water, which also acts to decrease the
acidity of the cell. The electrons undergo more reactions to form the energy that allows ADP and P to resynthesize to form ATP.

During exercise, carbohydrates are the major source of fuel. As the activity continues, carbohydrate stores become depleted and
fats become the major fuel source. (Fats require far more oxygen than carbohydrate to produce the same amount of ATP.)
Protein will usually be used as an energy store only in extreme situations - when the previous two stores have been depleted.

Summary of the aerobic system

The major fuels for the aerobic system are:
 Glucose (from glycogen stored in muscle tissue or the liver)
 Fatty acids (from triglycerides in adipose tissue and blood)
 Amino acids (from proteins stored in muscles or the liver; but these are not used for energy production to the extent of
the two sources above).

This whole process is best understood by a diagram,

In summary, the general characteristics of the three systems by which ATP is formed appear hereunder.

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During physical activity the body uses a combination of all three energy systems, depending on the duration and intensity of
the activity. For example, soccer mid-fielders use the aerobic system to provide the constant energy required to continually
move back and forth on the field - usually at moderate levels of intensity. Occasionally, they may need to sprint down the wing
to assist in attack or defense. These short sprints usually last 3–10 seconds and use the anaerobic energy systems. In most
sporting situations, energy systems are used in various combinations. Athletes should be able to pace themselves to ensure
that their ATP supplies are not depleted too early in the race. If athletes go out too hard, or begin the final sprint too soon, lactic
acid will accumulate to high levels and decrease their performance. Fatigue results when lactic acid levels are high and muscle
glycogen stores are depleted. Coaches and athletes aim to delay the onset of fatigue until after the event. The undermentioned
table explains the relative contributions of aerobic and anaerobic energy systems to the various running distances held in major
athletic competitions.

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The following table shows the contribution of energy systems to a variety of sporting activities

Tests of physiological responses of the energy systems

Application and testing of the 3 Energy Systems exploring the physiological responses of the three energy systems.

Performance-decrement test (ATP-PC)

Objective: To measure the degree to which performance is affected by engaging in various intensities of exercise

Equipment
• Measured distances of 35 meters and 70 meters
• Whistle, pens, recording sheet and witch’s hats
• Stopwatches (one for each person participating)

Procedure
 Subjects should warm up.
 Timers stand at the timing line; that is, the 35-metre mark along the 70-metre track. Timers will record each sprint
time as subjects cross the line.
 Subjects begin at one end line and prepare to run towards the other end line.
 At the blast of a whistle, the subjects sprint 35 meters to cross the timing line, and then slow down and jog/walk to the
other end line. The subjects turn, rest and prepare to sprint in the opposite direction. Six 35-metre sprints are performed:
three in each direction. The time between whistle blasts (that is, between sprints) is 30 seconds. A 5-second warning
signal is given before each whistle blast.
 Each 35-meter sprint is timed to the nearest 0.01seconds, and the time recorded.
 If a subject starts a sprint before the whistle blast, the run will not count. That person will have to run an extra sprint.
 At the end of the sprint, partners are to record (on the recording sheet) the feelings of the subject by asking questions
regarding breathing, feeling in legs and overall body feelings. The subject’s heart rate is also recorded. Record the
findings in a copy of the Energy System Recording Sheet hereunder.
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  Once the sprint distance is covered, the subjects are to continue to jog or walk until the heart rate returns to resting
levels. Record the time that this takes.
 The subjects then reverse roles with their partners.

Results
 Time 1 is recorded. This time is set aside as the original base-line time. (Record this as Time 1.) Times 2–6 are then
recorded. (Record these as Time 2, Time 3, Time 4, Time 5 and Time 6.)
 Times 2–6 are then totaled, and averaged. (Record this as Average Time.)
 The performance decrement is then calculated by subtracting the Average Time from Time 1. This difference is then
expressed as a percentage of Time 1. Also record the data request in Step 7 above.

400-metre sprint (Lactic Acid System)

Objective: To measure the degree to which performance is affected by engaging in various intensities of exercise.

Equipment
• Measured distance of 400 meters
• Whistle, pens, recording sheet and witch’s hats
• Stopwatches (one for each person participating)

Procedure
 Subjects are to work in pairs: one performing and one recording. Then roles are reversed.
 An adequate warm-up is required. Take heart rates before the warm-up, and before the sprint.
 Subjects are to sprint at maximal effort for 400 meters.
 At the end of the sprint, partners are to record (on the recording sheet) the feelings of the subject by asking questions
regarding breathing, feeling in legs and overall body feelings. The subject’s heart rate is also recorded. Record in a copy of
the Energy System Recording Sheet
 Once the sprint distance is covered, subjects are to continue to jog or walk until the heart rate returns to resting levels. Record
the time that this takes.
 The subjects then reverse roles with their partners.

1.6-kilometre run (Aerobic System)

To measure the degree to which performance is affected by engaging in various intensities of exercise

Equipment
• Measured distance of 1.6 kilometers
• Whistle, pens, recording sheet and witch’s hats
• Stopwatches (one for each person participating)

Procedure
 Subjects are to run/walk for 1.6 kilometers, in company with a partner. Partners are to give encouragement and keep
count of the laps completed.

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  Partners are to talk to the subject during and after the 1.6-kilometre run and record the subject’s feelings in a copy of the
Energy System Recording Sheet. Record details at the end of the first lap, at the 800-metre mark (in the middle) and at the
end of the 1.6 kilometers.
 At the conclusion, subjects continue to jog/walk until heart rate returns to normal resting levels.
 Partners reverse roles.

Results
1. Record the following:
 resting heart rate (HR upon waking in the morning)
 pre-event HR
 post-event HR
 time taken to recover.
2. Complete a copy of the table for both the 400-metre sprint and 1.6-kilometrerun.

The Recovery times for each exercise or sport differs, the following is an example of some recovery times taking into account the
type of energy system used.

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ENDURANCE/CARDIOVASCULAR TRAINING

the heart enabling a greater volume of blood to be pumped into each beat.
Aerobic
Anaerobic
Interval - is a type of physical training that involves bursts of high intensity work.
Circuit training

BENEFITS OF A CARDIOVASCULAR FITNESSPROGRAM

- Lower blood pressure

- Increase HDL cholesterol
- Decrease total cholesterol

- Increase oxygen output to body

- Increase cardiac output

- Increase aerobic work capacity
- Decrease blood glucose levels
- Increase cardiorespiratory fitness
- Increase functional capacity
-

include warm-up, cool down, and criteria for cardiovascular exercises.

CORRECT AND SAFE TECHNIQUES FOR ENDURANCE TRAINING

Warm up

A proper warm-up consists of two phases:

tendons, and ligaments.

2) Stretching or Flexibility and mobility - This is to be performed on the muscle groups you will be exercising during your

cardiovascular

they are warm. An example of a good warm-up would be 5 minutes of walking followed by 3 minutes of light stretching. Try
to hold your stretch for at least 20 seconds during the warm-up.

Cool Down
The purpose of a cool down is to slowly decrease the cardiovascular work and overall metabolism that were elevated during

blood from pooling in the veins. A cool down is extremely important for people who are in the beginning stages of an
exercise program.

performed for longer periods or is of higher intensity the cool down phase should last longer.

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 VARIOUS METHODS OF CARDIOVASCULAR/ENDURANCE TRAINING MODALITIES

Once a person has chosen the type of cardiovascular exercise they prefer and know the intensity, duration, and frequency
to exercise at it is time to choose the training method. There are three training methods we will use to help you increase
cardiovascular conditioning: Continuous training, interval training, circuit training, and aerobic composite training.

TYPES OF ENDURANCE TRAINING

Aerobic Training

This is a conditioning stage involving cardiovascular exercises such as walking, jogging, cycling, swimming, step aerobics,
aerobic dancing or in-line skating. During continuous training your intensity level should be between 50 - 85% of functional
capacity, depending on cardiovascular fitness level when starting the program. There are two types of continuous training to be
concerned with. Intermediate slow distance and long slow distance.

Intermediate slow distance training - This is the most common kind of continuous training for fitness improvement and should
be used by people with cardiovascular risk factors such as high blood pressure, and cholesterol. People wishing to reduce body
fat also respond well to this type of training. Intermediate slow distance training generally means training at a range of time of
between 20 - 60 minutes. Beginners should start at about 12 - 15 minutes and add approximately 2 minutes per week and
gradually progress to a time of at least 20 minutes. Slow progression is the key when adding distance and time.

Long slow distance training - This kind of continuous training should be preceded by at least 6 months of intermediate slow
distance training as prescribed above. This type of training is usually reserved for endurance sports such as long-distance running
(marathons), long distance cycling, and triathlons. This type of training should include adequate recovery time between sessions
to help the body recuperate properly. This type of training may increase the risk of injury such as knee problems, Achilles
problems, and tendinitis.

Interval Training

Interval training can be a useful training method for all wishing to improve conditioning and performance levels. Beginners can
benefit from this type of training when starting a cardiovascular program. People with higher fitness levels can use this method
to improve endurance levels. Interval training consists of mixing more intense sessions with less intense sessions of the same or
similar exercise. An example would be jogging or walking for a short period of time followed immediately by brisk walking and
alternating these sessions for a complete cardiovascular workout. Interval sessions should use the same time principal as FITT or
15 - 60 minutes in length. There are two types of interval training. Aerobic Interval training and anaerobic interval training.

Aerobic Interval Training - This is most suited for people with a low or poor aerobic fitness capacity. This type of training
uses bouts of exercise between 2 and 15 minutes in length. 2 -3 minutes is recommended for beginners. The intensity level
should be between 50- 80 % of functional capacity with beginners staying within 50 -70 % range. The rest interval should be
completed in the same time as the exercise interval. A person should complete between 5 - 10 exercise intervals and 5 - 10 rest
intervals each. An example of aerobic intervals for a beginner would include a brisk walk at 60 - 70 % functional heart rate for
3 minutes followed by a slow walk at 50% functional heart rate for 3 minutes. A beginner could shoot for 5 exercise intervals
and 5 slow walk resting intervals. A more advanced person could do 3 minutes of stationary cycling at a workload of 60 - 70 %
with 3 minutes of stationary cycling at an easy pace with zero resistance for 3 minutes. Higher intensity and duration should be
reserved for those in a higher cardiovascular functional capacity and for those seeking to increase endurance and speed.

Anaerobic Interval Training - This type of training is for people with a high level of fitness who want greater speed and aerobic
power. This type of training results in more muscle discomfort from lactic acid build up in the muscles. This type of training is
not for beginners. This type of training is usually 30 seconds to 4 minutes in length and is performed at 85% - 100% of functional
capacity. Again, the potential for injury is also higher with this type of training. An example of this type of training might be
sprinting at a high rate of intensity for 30 seconds followed by walking for 1 1/2 minutes. The longer your exercise intervals
toward 4 minutes the shorter the rest time. For example, a high intensity interval of 1 minute would be followed by a 2-minute
rest interval. This type of training increases the probability of injury due to the intensity levels used.

Circuit Training

This type of training takes a person through a series of exercise stations with little rest between the stations. Circuit training is
a form of interval training. The number of stations is usually between 5 - 10. The stations most of the time involve weight or
resistance equipment but calisthenics such as push-ups and crunches can be classified as a station. This type of training usually
involves all the major muscle groups and helps to develop cardiovascular and muscular endurance levels. The key to this type
of training is to keep moving through the stations with little rest in between. A 15 second rest is appropriate although
beginners may want to rest at 20 -25 seconds. A beginner should remember not to overdo it too quickly and use the talk test
or measure heart rate. It is important as with all the training methods to include a thorough warm up of 5 - 10 minutes,
warming up all the muscle groups. This type of training can significantly improve cardiovascular endurance. With circuit
training, it is recommended to vary/ superset between upper and lower body exercises.

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ENDURANCE TRAINING
Endurance training is essential for a variety of endurance sports. A notable example is distance running events (800 meters
upwards to marathon and ultra-marathon) with the required degree of endurance training increasing with race distance. Two
other popular examples are cycling (particularly road cycling) and competitive swimming. These three endurance sports could
be combined as a triathlon, duathlon or biathlon. Other endurance sports for which extensive amounts of endurance training
is required include rowing and cross-country skiing. Athletes can also undergo endurance training when their sport may not
necessarily be an endurance sport in the whole sense but may still demand some endurance. For instance, aerobic
endurance is somewhat necessary (to varying extents) in racket sports, football, rugby, martial arts and basketball. Endurance
exercise tends to be popular with non-athletes for the purpose of increasing general fitness or burning more calories to
increase weight loss potential.

Physiological responses/adaptations to endurance training

Aerobic Endurance Training

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Long Slow Distance Training

As you would expect this type of training is typical of a long-distance runner. Intensity is usually less than 70% VO 2max, or
equivalent to about 80% maximum heart rate. Duration should be near to race distance or at least 30 minutes to 2 hours long
(1). Intensity for long, slow distance endurance training is often gauged using the "talk" test whereby the athlete can hold a
conversation without being too winded.

Adaptations to this form of aerobic endurance training include improved cardiovascular and thermoregulatory function, improved
mitochondrial energy production, increased oxidative capacity of skeletal muscle and increased utilization as fat for fuel (which spares
muscle glycogen). Anaerobic or lactate threshold is also likely to improve with a body better able to remove lactate.

Because long distance training is low intensity (lower than competition) too great a reliance on this form of endurance
running in the athlete's training program can be disadvantageous. Here is a sample training program for a marathon runner:

Sample Half Marathon TrainingPlan

Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday
Rest Fartlek Run Long Slow Distance Interval Training Pace/Tempo Run Repetition Run Long Slow Distance
(45 min) Run (60 min) (45 min) (60 min) (45 min) Run (120 min)

Pace/Tempo Training

Also referred to as lactate threshold training, pace/tempo training is designed to improve energy production from both
aerobic and anaerobic energy pathways. Intensity is slightly higher than race pace and corresponds to the lactate threshold.
Duration is usually 20-30 minutes at a steady pace.

Tempo/pace training can also be performed intermittently or in intervals. Intensity is the same as steady state tempo/pace
training except the session consists of a series of shorter bouts with brief recovery periods. It is important to keep intensity
at or slightly higher than competition pace for either type of pace/tempo training. Progression should be in the form of
increased duration rather than a faster running/cycling/swimming/rowing velocity etc.

Interval Training

Interval training allows the athlete to work close to their aerobic limit (VO2max) for a longer duration compared to a
continuous type session. Short bouts of 3-5 minutes at an intensity close to VO2max are interspersed by periods of active
recovery. Work to rest ratio should be 1:1 so a 3-minute run should be followed by 3 minutes of rest.

Taking the time for each 0.5km interval, allocate the same amount of time for the rest periods between. Rest should be in the
form of active recovery such as brisk walking or very light jogging.

Sample 10K TrainingPlan

Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday
Rest 10 x 0.5km 10km run (easy) Long Slow Distance 5 x 1km Long Slow Distance Fartlek Run (45 min)
Run (45 min) Run (45 min)

Repetition Training

This is the most intense form of aerobic endurance training. Performed at a pace greater than VO2max it places a high
demand on the anaerobic energy systems. Work intervals are usually only 60-90 seconds separated by rest intervals of 5
minutes or more. Typically work to rest ratio is 1:5 (8). Repetition training helps to improve running speed, running economy
and builds a greater tolerance to lactic acid. Endurance athletes often use repetition training to help in the final kick of a race.
Due to the high intensity nature, only one session per week is required.

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Fartlek Training

Fartlek training combines some or all of the above aerobic endurance training techniques. A long slow run/cycle form the
foundation of the session and is combined with short bursts of higher intensity work. There is no set format for a Fartlek
session although there are some standard sessions that have been developed by coaches over the years. Fartlek endurance
training will improve VO2max, exercise economy and lactate threshold. It also adds a nice change of pace to the more
monotonous steady-state training. The table below outlines a sample program for an amateur Cross Country Runner:

Because this type of aerobic endurance training is very demanding, sessions should be limited both in duration and in
frequency each week. Duration is usually 30-45 minutes and frequency is one or two sessions per week, with ample rest days
between. Below is a sample program for a 10krunner:

Sample Cross Country Training Plan

Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday
Rest Long slow distance Fartlek run Pace/Tempo Run Long Slow Distance 25 min Long Slow Race Day
Run (60 min) (45 min) (25 min) Run (45 min) Distance Run

The basics of Setting an Endurance Training Program for someone

The application of endurance training differs from sport to sport, depending on the demands of the sport or exercise. However,
the main principles stay the same as the need to increase the mental and physical strength of the participant.

How to apply endurance training

 Determine limiting factors

The trainer/coach must first determine what the limiting factors are that are based around the causes of fatigue. Fatigue is
caused by both the physical and psychological factors. These two factors can be overcome by applying an endurance program that
is worked out and adapted to fit the needs of the participant.

 Work the program out/ Programme design

The trainer/coach must then work out an endurance training program that is suitable for the participant taking into account the
need to build strength, improve psychological outlook by motivating and encouraging participants.

 Decide on type of endurance training

The coach/trainer must decide which is the most suitable form of endurance training. i.e. Aerobic, anaerobic; speed or strength
endurance training for the participant.

 Agree on goals and review progress

The trainer/coach and the participant must agree on an attainable goal and how they are going to reach it. A plan must be put
into place setting out how the physical and mental goals will be worked on. The end goal must be reviewed from time to time
and adjusted accordingly. Following suitable training, the body becomes better able to produce ATP via aerobic metabolism. The
adaptations that occur improve oxygen delivery and oxygen utilization, increase the rate of aerobic energy production and the
utilization of fat fuel and reduce disturbances in the acid-base balance

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Aerobic and Anaerobic Physical Adaptations

Energy system Heart rate % Energy source Activity

Aerobic 65-75% Muscle glycogen and fatty acids Walking or jogging
Aerobic/anaerobic 80-85% Muscle glycogen and lactic acid Group exercise class
Anaerobic 86-90% ATP/CP Sprinting

Example of a marathon running plan for a beginner runner

As more and more runners turn to the marathon to prove their running mettle, a sensible training program is more important
than ever for building safely to peak performance.

The sample program is a guideline program for a beginner endurance runner.

Mondays: Most Mondays are rest days. Rest is critical to recover and injury prevention efforts.

Tuesdays and Thursdays: After warm up’s, run at a moderate pace. Cool down and stretch after the run.

Wednesdays and Fridays: Do a cross-training (CT) activity (biking, swimming, elliptical trainer, etc.) at easy-to-moderate
effort for 30 to 45 minutes. If one is feeling sluggish on a Friday it can be taken as a rest day as it is important that one feeling
strong for the Saturday long run.

Saturdays: This is the day for a long slow distance run. Run the designated km at an easy, conversational pace. One should be
able to breathe easily and talk in complete sentences comfortably during a run.

Sundays: This is an active recovery day. Short run should be at a very easy, comfortable pace, which helps loosen up
muscles.

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Beginners' Marathon Training Schedule
Week Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday
1 Rest 4.8km CT 4.8km Rest 5.6km 4.8kmEZ
2 Rest 4.8km Rest 4.8km CT or Rest 8km 4.8kmEZ
3 Rest 4.8km CT 6.4km CT or Rest 9.6km 4.8kmEZ
4 Rest 4.8km Rest 6.4km CT or Rest 5.6km 4.8kmEZ
5 Rest 6.4km CT 6.4km CT or Rest 9.6km 4.8kmEZ
6 Rest 6.4km CT 6.4km CT or Rest 12.8km 4.8kmEZ
7 Rest 6.4km CT 6.4km CT or Rest 16km 4.8kmEZ
8 Rest 6.4km CT 6.4km CT or Rest 12.8km 4.8kmEZ
9 Rest 6.4km CT 6.4km CT or Rest 19.2km Rest
10 4 mi EZ 6.4km Rest 6.4km CT or Rest 16km 4.8kmEZ
11 Rest 6.4km CT 6.4km CT or Rest 22.4km 4.8kmEZ
12 Rest 8km CT 8km CT or Rest 25.6km 4.8kmEZ
13 Rest 4.8km CT 8km CT or Rest 25.6km 4.8kmEZ
14 Rest 6.4km CT 8km CT or Rest 19.2km 4.8kmEZ
15 Rest 6.4km CT 8km CT or Rest 28.8km Rest
16 3 mi EZ 8km Rest 9.6km CT or Rest 19.2km 4.8kmEZ
17 Rest 6.4km CT 9.6km CT or Rest 32km 4.8kmEZ
18 Rest 6.4km CT 8km CT or Rest 19.2km 4.8kmEZ
19 Rest 4.8km 20 minutes 4.8km CT or Rest 12.8km 4.8kmEZ
20 Rest 1.2km 20 minutes Rest Day 20 minutes Race Day! Rest Day!

Basic Guide for the Heart Rate Intensity Diagram

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CORE FITNESS

of weight-bearing and protects the back.

The Importance of Core Training

Core training is important for everybody as it helps to build back strength which can help to reduce and prevent lower back
pain; however, most people do not know how to train their core properly. This means that it is important to know and

needs and does not cause you any injuries or serious health problem. The overall importance of core training is related to four
key factors: posture, power, agility and stability. This is because core training helps to improve your posture and stability by
strengthening your core muscles which can also help to improve your overall balance as well.

Strength vs. Core Stability

Core strength is the trunks ability to move or support a load of some kind. Core stability is the ability to stay strong and

Benefits of Core Fitness

• Improved performance in sports (swim, bike and run biomechanics)

 Improved posture
 Decreased risk of re-injury
 Decreased postural deviations
 Decreased fall risk
 Improved quality of life
 Assist with daily living activities

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 FLEXIBILITY AND MOBILITY TRAINING
Flexibility is the mobility or range of motion in a joint (ROM). The structure of the joint and the soft tissue that surrounds it
determines the range of motion. Flexibility is an important part of any fitness program yet is often forgotten and ignored. Many
people in a fitness program work their cardiovascular systems and muscles but forget about flexibility.

Benefits and Purpose of Flexibility and Mobility:

There are many benefits that a stretching program provides including the following:

 Stress Reduction
Stretched muscles are more relaxed muscles. Muscles which are full of tension have to work harder. This requires more
energy to perform day to day tasks. A daily stretching routine can help relax the muscle tissue which can help muscles stay
healthier.

 Increased Blood Supply and Fluids to the joint structure

Stretching can increase the circulation of synovial fluid in the joint. Synovial fluid helps more nutrients to be transported to
the joint structure. This helps to increase the range of motion of a joint.

 Improved Balance, Proprioception and Posture

Stretching muscle tissue and joint structures can help improve balance and posture. Bad postural habits such as sitting
or standing improperly can cause problems which a stretching program can address. Decrease postural deviations

 Increased Coordination
Studies have shown that the time it takes for nerve impulses to travel from the brain to the body and back again can be
reduced with flexibility training. This process can help muscle groups to work together more efficiently which helps to
increase overall coordination.

 Increased Performance
Flexibility training helps to increase the range of motion of a joint structure which can help the muscles to do more with
less energy.

 Reduced Risk of Injury and Re-Injury

Flexibility training reduces the resistance about a joint as range of motion increases. This reduced resistance decreases
the risk of injury

Guidelines and Techniques of Flexibility Training:

 A person should stretch both before and after an exercise activity.
 A before exercise stretch or pre-stretch is aimed at improving the flexibility of the joints which will be used during
the exercise. A runner for example would want to static stretch to stretch the calf and hamstring muscles.
 An after exercise or post stretch should be used for the purpose of relaxing the contracted muscle, helping the
circulation of fluids to the joint structures, removing waste products from the muscles, and helping to restore the muscles
to resting length.
 Stretching after exercise when body core temperature is the highest is the best time to stretch for overall
flexibility. A person should hold each stretch for longer periods to enhance maximum gains in range of motion.
 Intensity and duration are the most important factors in stretching. A low intensity, high duration stretch is the best
stretch to increase range of motion.

Factors affecting Flexibility

Gender - Evidence shows that women are more flexible than males. This is thought to be because women were created more
flexible to accommodate child bearing especially in the pelvic region. The female hormone relaxin which relaxes ligaments
and is present during pregnancy may also be a reason for more flexibility in women.

Age and inactivity - As we age our flexibility decreases. Aging causes significant changes in the connective tissue. Flexibility is
usually highest before the age of 12 and starts to decline as a person reaches their early 20’s. As we age the nutrients about a
joint begin to decline. Activity can decrease this rate of deterioration as we age.

Strength training - There is a common misconception that strength training causes a person to become less flexible as they
gain muscle mass. If stretching is incorporated into a strength program flexibility can actually be increased. Flexibility is more
dependent on the person and the activity they are involved in than muscle mass.

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 Factors limiting flexibility
Flexibility is affected by the following factors:

Internal influences
• The type of joint (some joints simply aren't meant to be flexible)
• The internal resistance within a joint
• Bony structures which limit movement
• The elasticity of muscle tissue (muscle tissue that is scarred due to a previous injury is not very elastic)
• The elasticity of tendons and ligaments (ligaments do not stretch much, and tendons should not stretch at all)
• The elasticity of skin (skin actually has some degree of elasticity, but not much)
• The ability of a muscle to relax and contract to achieve the greatest range of movement
• The temperature of the joint and associated tissues (joints and muscles offer better flexibility at body temperatures that are
1 to 2 degrees higher than normal)
• Scar tissue (from previous a previous surgery)
• Myofascia

External influences
• The temperature of the place where one is training (a warmer temperature is more conducive to increased flexibility)
• The time of day (most people are more flexible in the afternoon than in the morning, peaking from about 2:30pm-4pm)
• The stage in the recovery process of a joint (or muscle) after injury (injured joints and muscles will usually offer a lesser
degree of flexibility than healthy ones)
• Age (pre-adolescents are generally more flexible than adults)
• Gender (females are generally more flexible than males)
• One's ability to perform a particular exercise (practice makes perfect)
• One's commitment to achieving flexibility
• The restrictions of any clothing or equipment

Some sources also suggest that water is an important dietary element with regard to flexibility. Increased water intake is
believed to contribute to increased mobility, as well as increased total body relaxation.

Rather than discuss each of these factors in significant detail, we will attempt to focus on some of the more common
factors which limit one's flexibility. According to Syner Stretch, the most common factors are: bone structure, muscle mass,
excess fatty tissue, and connective tissue (and, of course, physical injury or disability).

Depending on the type of joint involved and its present condition the bone structure of a particular joint places very
noticeable limits on flexibility. This is a common way in which age can be a factor limiting flexibility since older joints tend not
to be as healthy as younger ones.

Muscle mass can be a factor when the muscle is so heavily developed that it interferes with the ability to take the adjacent
joints through their complete range of motion (for example, large hamstrings limit the ability to fully bend the knees). Excess
fatty tissue imposes a similar restriction.

Types of Stretches

Ballistic:

Ballistic stretching uses the momentum of a moving body or a limb in an attempt

to force it beyond its normal range of motion. This is stretching, or "warming up",
by bouncing into (or out of) a stretched position, using the stretched muscles as a
spring which pulls you out of the stretched position. (E.g. bouncing down
repeatedly to touch your toes.) This type of stretching is not considered useful
and can lead to injury. It does not allow your muscles to adjust to, and relax in, the
stretched position. It may instead cause them to tighten up by repeatedly
activating the stretch reflex.

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PNF

PNF stretching is currently the fastest and most effective

way known to increase static-passive flexibility. PNF is an
acronym for proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation. It is
not really a type of stretching but is a technique of
combining passive stretching and isometric stretching. In
order to achieve maximum static flexibility. PNF was initially
developed as a method of rehabilitating stroke victims. PNF
refers to any of several post-isometric relaxation stretching
techniques in which a muscle group is passively stretched,
then contracts isometrically against resistance while in the
stretched position, and then is passively stretched again
through the resulting increased range of motion. PNF
stretching usually employs the use of a partner to provide
resistance against the isometric contraction and then later
to passively take the joint through its increased range of
motion. It may be performed, however, without a partner,
although it is usually more effective with a partner's
assistance.

Static flexibility
The process of passively taking a muscle to the point
of tension and holding the stretch for a maximum of
20 seconds. This type of stretching is most
commonly used in fitness today. It provides for a
good elongation of the muscle. It should be used
before and after activity. Is the ability to assume
extended positions and then maintain them using
only your weight, the support of your limbs, or some
other apparatus (such as a chair or a barrel). Note
that the ability to maintain the position does not
come solely from your muscles, as it does with static-
active flexibility. Being able to perform the splits is an example of static-passive flexibility.

Active flexibility

Active stretching is also referred to as static-active stretching. An active stretch is one where
you assume a position and then hold it there with no assistance other than using the strength
of your agonist muscles for example, bringing your leg up high and then holding it there
without anything (other than your leg muscles themselves) to keep the leg in that extended
position.

Active stretching increases active flexibility and strengthens the agonistic muscles. Active
stretches are usually quite difficult to hold and maintain for more than 10 seconds and rarely
need to be held any longer than 15 seconds.
Many of the movements (or stretches) found in various forms of yoga are active stretches.

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GENERAL FLEXIBILITY PROGRAMME FOR ADANCER

The formal dance class has long been considered the cornerstone of training, providing all the technical, physical and
aesthetic requirements of dance. In recent years a considerable amount of research has been carried out regarding the
health of dancers. Findings from this research indicate that many dancers are not as fit and healthy as they could be. It has
also been found that there is a discrepancy in the physical intensity level between training, rehearsal, and performance.
This means that training methods, which are generally based on tradition, are not sufficient to help prepare dancers for the
higher, more physically demanding aspects of performance. In light of these studies, and with increased understanding of the
artistic and athletic needs of dancers in different genres, it is no longer acceptable to train dancers without preparing them
physiologically for the demands of current choreographic work.

What Types of Fitness Are Most Important for a Dancer and Why?

While research indicates that some dance styles require certain elements of fitness more explicitly than others, in a well-
rounded dance training program, it is necessary to consider all the components of fitness.

The components of fitness are:

 Aerobic fitness - associated with moderate, longer-term levels of activity.
 Anaerobic fitness - associated with high intensity, maximal, short bursts of activity.
 Muscle endurance - the ability of a muscle to produce continuous movement.
 Strength - the ability of a muscle to produce a maximal force on one occasion.
 Power - the explosive (speed-related) aspect of strength.
 Flexibility and mobility - the range of motion at a joint in association with the pliability of a muscle.
 Neuromuscular and proprioceptive coordination - associated with balance, agility, coordination and skill.
 Body composition - the make-up of body weight by percentage of muscle and fat.
 Rest - a period of no activity, to allow for recovery and regeneration.

For the benefit of this specific outcome we are going to concentrate on the importance of building a proper flexibility
program for a dancer.

Flexibility is an important element of physical fitness. It is crucial in complimenting muscular strength, building efficiency in
movement, coordination, and preventing injuries. Holding muscles in a stretched position for a prolonged amount of time
causes the muscle fibers to become accustomed to the new length, therefore increasing flexibility. For it to be beneficial, the
specific muscle group being stretched needs to be isolated. For example, when stretching the hamstrings, spinal movement
should be reduced. Relaxation is also important. It is advised that stretches happen slowly and gently with coordinated
inhalation and exhalation at the moment of maximum stretch (i.e., refrain from holding the breath).

There are many different types of stretching including static (holding), dynamic (moving through the stretch), and
proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF; a method utilising alternate contraction and relaxation). It is important to be
aware of the advantages and disadvantages of each. For example, ballistic (bouncing) stretches are not considered useful and
can lead to muscle soreness and injury. Contrary to the practice of many dancers, stretching to full range should be carried
out when the body is warm, preferably after class.

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The following flexibility Exercises are for any Type of Dancer. They will aid in flexibility and minimise the risk of injury.

Exercise 1: Flexion and Extension

Instruction:
1) From a sitting or standing position, begin with neck upright.
2) Flex your neck tucking your chin towards your chest. If your chin touches the chest, attempt
touching your chin further down the chest. Hold this position for 20-30 seconds.
3) Extend your neck trying to bring the back of your head as close to back as possible. Hold
this position for 20-30 seconds.

Exercise 2: Left and Right Look

Instruction:
1) From a sitting or standing position, begin with neck upright.
2) Turn your head to the right and hold this position for 20-30 seconds.
3) Turn your head to the left and hold this position for 20-30 seconds.

Exercise 3: Lateral Shoulder and Upper Back

Instruction:
1) From a sitting or standing position, raise your right arm to shoulder height.
2) Flex your right arm across to the left shoulder.
3) Grasp your raised arm just above the elbow with your left hand.
4) Exhale and pull your raised across your chest. Hold this position for 20-30 seconds and
repeat on the opposite side.

Exercise4: Triceps

Instruction:
1) From a sitting or standing position, raise and flex your right arm overhead next to your ear.
You should reach your right hand towards your scapula.
2) With your left hand grasp your right elbow, exhale, and pull your right elbow behind your
head. Hold this position for 20-30 seconds and repeat on the opposite side.

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Exercise 5: Chest and Shoulders

Instruction:
1) From a standing position, face the edge of a door frame or corner of a wall.
2) Flex your right arm at the elbow and place your hand on the wall or frame.
3) Exhale and lean forward. Hold this position for 20-30 seconds and repeat on the
opposite side.

Note: You can do both arms at the same time when using a door frame.

Exercise 6: Torso

Instruction:
1) From a standing position, place your feet shoulder-width apart.
2) You may place your left arm on your hip and raise your right arm over your head, or raise both
arms over your head and interlock your fingers.
3) Keep your right arm straight (or both arms if used) and lean from your waist to the left side.
Hold this position for 20-30 seconds and repeat on the opposite side.

Note: Do not lock your knees but do not allow them to bend as you lean to each side.

Exercise 7: Groin

Instruction:
1) From a sitting position keep your upper body near vertical.
2) Flex your knees with your legs spread pulling your feet towards your body and place your
heels together.
3) Place your hands on the inner thighs or knees, exhale and press your legs towards the floor.
Hold this position for 20-30 seconds.

Note: You may use your hands to hold your heels together and press your legs to the floor
with your elbows.

Exercise 8: Glutes/ Piriformis

Instruction:
1) Lay on your back with legs flat on the floor.
2) Bring your right thigh close to your chest by flexing your knee and hip.
3) Exhale and with both hands placed behind the thigh, pull your knee closer to
your chest. hold this position for 20-30 seconds and repeat on the opposite side.

Exercise 9: Hamstrings

Instruction:
1) From a standing position raise your right leg and place it upon a stable
elevated surface at a comfortable height.
2) Exhale while you slightly bend your left leg, then lean forward and slightly round
your back. Hold this position for 20-30 seconds and repeat with the opposite leg.

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 Exercise 10: Quadriceps

Instruction:
1) From a standing position place one hand about shoulder height up against a wall or stable surface.
2) Reach back with the opposite hand and grab the ankle on the same side.
3) Exhale and slowly pull your heel toward you glutes while avoiding too much pressure on your knee.
Make sure your upper body stays tall and does not lean forward toward the wall. Hold this position for
20-30 seconds and repeat with the opposite leg.

Exercise 11: Calf and Achilles Tendon

Instruction:
1) From a standing position place both hands on the wall approximately shoulder width apart.
2) Move one leg forward while maintaining a slight bend, while the other leg stays straight.
Slightly bend your arms and lean forward while keeping your heels on the floor. Make sure both
feet and entire body are pointing forward while your upper body stays tall. Hold this position for
20-30 seconds and repeat

TIPS FOR PROPER STRETCHINGTECHNIQUES

Tip 1:
Warm up your muscles before stretching by walking or doing gentle movements.

Tip 2:
Don't bounce to intensify stretch, but instead slowly increase your stretch.

Tip 3:
Hold each position for about 20-30 seconds at stable resistance.

Tip 4:
Make sure to breathe slowly and rhythmically while stretching.

Tip 5:
Follow directions, for proper body positioning is important for an effective stretch.

Applying Flexibility exercise in a program

When and How to Perform Flexibility Exercises?

• Warm up

• Stretch those muscles. Flexibility exercises should be done slowly and gently. Learn exercises that target all your major

should be done at least two to three days per week.

• Focus and breathe. Concentrate on breathing smoothly to avoid tensing up. Try not to move other body parts while
stretching and avoid bouncing the muscles being stretched. Hold each stretch for 10 seconds and repeat each stretch three
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• Cool down.

Tools for Flexibility and mobility Exercises

complete workout.

MUSCULAR FITNESS/RESISTANCETRAINING/ MUSCULAR STRENGTH AND ENDURANCE

TRAINING

Strength Training is another important aspect of any exercise program. Strength training strengthens our muscles and

weight. Some of our muscle movements are involuntary such as twitching of the eyes. The muscle system has the marvelous

Resistance Training

by resistance (i.e. resistance to being pushed, squeezed, stretched or bent). Exercises are isotonic if a body part is moving

the strength and size of skeletal muscles.

Physiological responses to resistance training

Muscle responses - Resistance training works by causing microscopic damage or tears to the muscle cells, which in turn are

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the bone and make it stronger. With muscles, testosterone, insulin-like growth factor, growth hormone, protein, and other

for recovery.

and progesterone; females produce high levels of estrogen and progesterone and much lower levels of testosterone.
Exercise places a major challenge on the body owing to the increased energy it requires and the physiological demands
it puts on the body’s nervous, muscular, cardiovascular, and metabolic and respiratory systems. As a body responds and

With resistance exercise, there are immediate increases in epinephrine and norepinephrine. These two hormones raise blood

of ATP - the energy currency of cells). Levels of these hormones actually begin to rise prior to the resistance training workout.

glucose transporters, which raises metabolism in the muscle cell. Regular resistance exercise training has been shown to

Benefits and Purpose of Resistance Training

The benefits to exercising muscles with resistance include:

 Increase Physical Capacity - The ability to do more work with less effort. Research shows that untrained men and
women can gain about 4 - 8kg of muscle and 20 - 40% of strength gain after two months of strength training.

 Physical Appearance - Physical appearance can be greatly influenced by our muscle gain and loss of fat. More muscle
gives a fitter, healthier appearance.

 Metabolic Function - Muscle tissue is very active and is responsible for much of the calories that are burned. Even when
sleeping our bodies burn up to a quarter of all total daily calories. Muscle or lean tissue means a higher metabolism.
This equates to more fat burning which leads to better health. In a non-trained person there is about 5% reduction in
metabolic rate per year due to loss of lean tissue of muscle. This is one of the reasons why we may gain body fat weight
as we grow older.

 Increased Energy - Because of higher metabolic rates due to increased lean muscle tissue we can increase energy
levels as more calories are burned for fuel.

 Decreased Risk of Injury - Muscles also serve the purpose to balance and act as shock absorbers. Our bodies are able
to act more effectively during activity thereby reducing the risk of energy. When a person strength trains the
muscles, ligaments, and tendons are strengthened which decreases the risk of injury.

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 Factors that affect strength:

 Gender - Men and women are different only in the size and strength of muscle tissue. The reason for this is that
muscle size and strength is influenced by the male hormone testosterone. However, if we measured men and
women on a “pound per pound” basis men and women show similar strength.

 Age - Both men and women can benefit from a strength training program. The biggest benefits in size and strength
come usually between the ages of 10 - 20 which are during the years of normal development and growth. Strength
training in this age group should be measured in progressive and slow gains. Strength training gains come more
slowly after maturity is reached.

 Limb Length - The length of one’s limbs (arms, legs) can make a difference in overall strength. Shorter limbs
generally mean more leverage, which equates to higher strength output. Two people may have the same capacity
for strength gains but a person with shorter limbs will show greater output.

 Muscle Length - Muscles are attached to the bones by connective tissue called tendons. People have different
muscle and tendon length. Some people may have shorter muscle with longer tendons. Some people may have
longer muscles with shorter tendon attachments. The longer the muscle the greater the capacity for strength and
size.

 Muscle Fiber Type - There are two different types of muscle fiber. Fast twitch muscle fiber and slow twitch muscle
fiber. A person with a majority slow twitch muscle fiber are best suited for endurance events such marathons. A
person with a majority fast twitch muscle fiber would be best suited for sprinting type events. Most men and
women have about the same proportion of fast twitch and slow twitch fibers.

 Nutrition/ Diet
 Previous injuries/ surgeries

Strength/Resistance Training Guidelines

There are many ways to develop strength. The trick is to exercise the muscles effectively for strength, endurance, and/or size
while avoiding injury. The following can be used as guidelines for achieving these goals.

Selection - It is important that a person has at least one strength exercise for each major muscle group to ensure balance in
strength gains and decrease the chance of injury. The major muscle groups include the following:
Quadriceps (Thighs or front of upper leg), Hamstrings (Back of upper leg), Hip Adductors (inner thighs), Hip Abductors (Outer
hips and thighs), Lower Back, Abdominal, Pectoralis major (chest), Latissimus dorsi (upper back), Deltoids (shoulders), Biceps
(front of upper arm), Triceps (back of upper arm), Neck flexors and Extensors (neck).
Other groups of muscles which should be trained regularly are: Gluteus (butt), Obliques (side of stomach), Gastrocnemius
(calves), Anterior Tibialis (front lower leg), Forearm flexors and extensors (forearm).

Sequence - When performing strength training exercise, a person should always work from the larger muscles of the legs to
the smaller muscles. This allows a person to perform the most demanding exercise of the large muscles when fatigue is at its
lowest point.

Speed - Speed plays a major part of strength training. Performing each exercise movement in a slow and rhythmical
movement is important. A person should not jerk or go at a fast pace when exercising. Concentrate on slowing down and
completing each movement correctly. Slower movements put more stress on the muscle which gives more resistance and
force throughout a full range of motion. Controlled movements equate to greater strength and size gains. Always emphasize
the lowering movement called the negative or eccentric phase of the exercise. For example, when lowering a barbell during
a biceps curl go slower. A pace of about 3 seconds is recommended.

Sets - A set is defined as a number of successive repetitions performed without resting. The number of sets performed is a
personal preference although beginners should try to stick to one to two sets of lighter resistance in the beginning. A person
should do a set until there is momentary muscle failure which is lifting to the point where a person cannot lift anymore
without failing, jerking, or doing the exercise incorrectly. Those who do multiple set training should rest or recover at 1 - 3
minutes between sets.

Resistance and Repetitions - When exercising for strength the trick is to exercise to the point of momentary muscle failure.
Most people can complete about 6 repetitions at 85% maximum resistance, 8 repetitions at about 80%, 10 repetitions at
about 75%, and 12 repetitions at about 70% before reaching momentary muscle failure. This is a generally because everyone
is different. Maximum resistance is measured in how much resistance a person can lift in one repetition. Beginners should
not measure maximum one repetition resistance as this can be dangerous and lead to injury. A professional instructor helps a
person find their maximum resistance.
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 Because training at 85% or above increases the risk of injury it is recommended that a person train at 8 - 12 repetitions with
beginners working with higher repetitions at lower weight. This makes strength training safe and effective. Some people who
are advanced may benefit using higher weight at lower than 8 reps but keep in mind this kind of training requires more
recovery time before exercising the same muscle group again.

Range - The term full range of motion means completing the full movement of an exercise. Exercising at a full range of motion
enhances both muscle and joint strength and flexibility. An example of using a full range of motion could be a biceps curl.
During the down phase or negative phase bringing the bar all the way down until the arm is straight. On the up phase or
positive phase bringing the bar all the way up to the shoulder all the while keeping the upper arm still and using the elbow as
a hinge.

Progression - The key to gaining strength is to increase the resistance a person is working with progressively as the muscles
adapt. A person who starts out at 8 repetitions should progress at that resistance weight until 12 repetitions can be
performed before momentary muscle failure. After reaching 12 repetitions is accomplished the key is to add 5% of that
weight and do 8 repetitions again working back up to 12 reps. Beginners can use this progression with 12 - 15 repetitions
adding 5% as 15 repetitions are reached using lighter weights.

The key is feeling the momentary muscle failure at the highest repetition being worked with. Progression strengthens the
muscle and keeps the risk of injury lower. In some instances, it may not be advisable to add resistance but to work at a certain
resistance for a while. It is not advisable to add more than 10% resistance increases between successive exercise sessions.
The key is progress slow and steady.

Frequency - Exercising the muscles causes micro-trauma to the muscle tissue which can cause a temporary reduction in
strength output and cause muscle soreness. It is therefore very important to give the muscles plenty of recovery time
between sessions to allow muscle tissue to rebuild itself. At least 48 hours of recovery time between sessions on the same
muscle group is advisable. Recovery allows for the muscle to rebuild itself allowing for size and strength gains. Not allowing
enough recovery can cause strength and size to increase much slower while increasing the risk of injury. Muscle tissue
synthesizes protein and builds slightly higher gains during the recovery process, this process happens over time and recovery
is important in this process.

Variations – Various variations is required when designing programmes for your client. Variations assist your client in
improving his/her skills and learning new skills. Various keeps the client interested in attending sessions .

Weight training: Do's and don'ts of proper technique

Weight training DO's:

 Lift an appropriate amount of weight. Start with a weight you can lift comfortably 12 to 15 times. For most people, a
single set of 12 repetitions with the proper weight can build strength just as efficiently as can three sets of the same
exercise. As you get stronger, gradually increase the amount of weight.

 Use proper form. Learn to do each exercise correctly. The better your form, the better your results - and the less
likely you are to hurt yourself. If you're unable to maintain good form, decrease the weight or the number of
repetitions. Remember that proper form matters even when you pick up and replace your weights on the weight
racks. If you're not sure whether you're doing a particular exercise correctly, ask a personal trainer or other fitness
specialist for help.

 Breathe. You might be tempted to hold your breath while you're lifting weights. Don't. Holding your breath can
lead to dangerous increases in blood pressure. Instead, breathe out as you lift the weight and breathe in as you
lower the weight.

 Seek balance. Work all of your major muscles - abdominals, legs, chest, back, shoulders and arms. Strengthen the
opposing muscles in a balanced way, such as the front of the shoulder and the back of the shoulder
.
 Rest. Avoid exercising the same muscles two days in a row. You might work all of your major muscle groups at a single
session two or three times a week or plan daily sessions for specific muscle groups. For example, on Monday work
your arms and shoulders, on Tuesday work your legs, and soon.

 Variations – Avoid using the same exercises. add variations in your programmes.
 Teach new skills and push the limits

Weight training DON'TS

 Skip your warm-up. Cold muscles are more prone to injury than are warm muscles. Before you lift weights, warm
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 up with five to 10 minutes of brisk walking or other aerobic activity.

 Rush. Move the weight in an unhurried, controlled fashion. Taking it slow helps you isolate the muscles you want to
work and keeps you from relying on momentum to lift the weight.

 Overdo it. For most people, completing one set of exercises to the point of fatigue is typically enough. Additional
sets may only eat up your time and contribute to overload injury.

 Don’t train through pain. Rather ask medical advice from registered heath care providers.

Examples of Correct Techniques for Common Strength/Resistance training Exercises

1) Proper Squat Technique: Hip Hinge

When most people try to squat, the knees protrude far over the toes, the butt goes straight down,
and the heels come off the floor. This happens because proper squat technique requires some hip
flexibility, proper balance, and a “hip hinge”.
Each time you squat you should hinge your hips so that your glutes moves backwards during the
downward phase of the squat, your knees will no longer protrude well over your toes (if you are
tall, this may happen, but make sure it does not put pressure on your knees). Finally, the pressure
of the squat will be on your heels instead of your toes and you will be able to get more depth to
your squat.

2) Proper Squat Technique: Straight Head Position

One major mistake people make when they squat is rounding their necks or looking down at the
ground. The spinal alignment is automatically thrown off, which makes the squat a very dangerous
exercise, especially if you are using a lot of weight.

3) Proper Squat Technique: Chest Out/Shoulders Back

A key theme with the squat is to make sure your spine is in proper alignment. By keeping your shoulder back and your chest
out, your lower back will most likely have the correct natural curve. If you instead round your shoulders and sink your chest
in, your spinal alignment will be thrown off.

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4) Proper Squat Technique: Slightly Arched Lower Back
Hyper extending your lower back by arching too much or rounding your back can put significant pressure on the
intervertebral discs, which are soft gel like cushions that protect each vertebra. If the disc ruptures because of too much
pressure, a portion of the spinal disc pushes outside its normal boundary, which is called a herniated disc and may require
surgery to repair.

5) Proper Squat Technique: Athletic Stance, Toes Pointed Out

Use an athletic stance for the squat so that your knees are slightly bent, feet are firmly planted on the ground, and toes
pointed outwards slightly, which helps with stabilisation. The wider you put your feet, the more it works your glutes and
hamstring (back of the leg), and the easier it will be to stabilise. The closer in you put your feet, the more your quadriceps will
be emphasised (the front of the leg).

One common mistake when people use too much weight is that one, or both knees will cave in towards their center. Make
sure to keep your knees out and choose weight that is appropriate for your level.

6) Proper Squat Technique: Exhale Up/Inhale Down

Breathing is very important for squatting in particular because it is a challenging exercise. Improper breathing can make you
light headed, or nauseous, and in extreme cases, some people even black out.
As you are lowering yourself, remember to take a deep breath in, then as you are pushing up, breathe out forcefully. Always
keep this breathing pattern. Towards the last few reps, you may consider taking a few extra breaths at the top of the squat
position as you are standing for some extra energy.

7) Proper Squat Technique: Depth of the Squat

The depth of the squat primarily depends on your hip flexibility. If your hips are very flexible, then you may be able to squat
“below parallel” (hamstrings are below parallel with the floor) and if you have poor hip flexibility, then you will be “above
parallel”. In general, try to shoot for your hamstrings about parallel with the floor, which deeply engages your thighs, hips,
and glutes.

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Bench Press

The bench press is one of the most popular upper body exercises at the gym but also one of the most dangerous. If you don’t bench
press properly you could risk hurting yourself, and not only that, if your form is wrong you won’t see results as fast as you should.

Variations of the bench press

There are a few different variations of the bench press, but these are the 3 major ones that are controlled by the angle of the bench.

Variations of the bench press

There are a few different variations of the bench press, but these are the 3 major ones that are controlled by the angle of the bench.

 Incline Bench Press – Pectoralis minor

 Flat Bench Press – Pectoralis major

 Decline Bench Press – Pectoralis major

What you must remember to do when performing the bench press

Safety is very important when performing the bench press due to the weight of the bar and its position directly over your
chest. Keep these pointers in mind and you’ll lower your risk of injury.

 Use a Spotter
The bench press is an exercise that you always want to use a spotter. In your later reps you might stall the weight
on your chest and need help to get it up to the rack.

 Keep your thumbs wrapped around the bar

If you grip the barbell using a thumb less grip you run the risk of the bar slipping while you are pressing the weight.
Chances are it will fall onto your chest and it’s going to hurt.

 Stay at a comfortable weight

Start with a reasonable weight until you get comfortable with your form, then increase in small increments.

The perfect form for the bench press

Keeping the proper form is key to any exercise but its paramount during the bench press.

 Tight upper back, Big Chest

Squeeze your shoulder blades together while keeping them down. This will make a stable platform for your
shoulders on the bench. Push your chest up as much as possible and keep it that way throughout the whole set. If
you lose upper back tightness and your chest goes flat then lower the weight!

 Proper Bench Press Grip

Grip the bar so that your forearms are perpendicular to the floor when the bar reaches your chest. Keep the bar
close to your wrist and in the palm of your hand.

 Feet
Keep your feet planted on the ground.

 Head Position
Don’t push your head into the bench. Try keeping it less than an inch off the bench

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Lat Pull Down

Technique
1. Attach a long bar to the lat pull down machine and adjust the thigh pads so that when you are sitting your knees are at
right angles and feet flat on the ground.
2. Grasp the bar using a wide grip and sit down maintaining the upper body in an upright position, slightly leaning back from
the hips.
3. Pull the bar in front of your face to the top of your chest and pause.
4. Slowly release the bar back to the starting position by straightening your arms.

Key points to remember

• avoid jerky movements
• Keep shoulders down to stabilise the scapula and isolate the lats.
• Upright position

Dead lifts Technique

The dead lift technique is relatively easy yet many people do
not follow the correct procedure to ensure it is carried out
correctly. To carry out the dead lift correctly follow the dead
lift execution guidelines below.

Place the barbell with desired weight in front of you on the

ground clear of any obstructions and move forward so your
feet are placed under the bar shoulder-width apart, flat on
the floor, with the bar close or touching your chins.

Take hold of the barbell with your hands just outside your
legs (just wider than shoulder-width apart) with either an
overhand or mixed hand grip (one hand with and overhand
grip the other with an underhand grip).

Keep your arms straight with your head facing forward (head up) and your chest out. Make sure your back is straight and
shoulders back, squat down so your thighs are parallel with the floor.

Inhale deeply and lift the bar by pushing your heels into the floor extending your legs and hips, breathing out as you lift. As
you reach towards the top of the lift push your hips forward.

Once at the top of the lift hold the weight for a second before slowly starting your descent back to your starting position, do
this by pushing your hips back and squatting back to your original position.

At the end of the lift the barbell should be resting back on the floor in its original position.

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Strength/Resistance Training Techniques

Common Mistakes
Improper form and technique - It is the tendency of most people to use too much resistance and cheat or use poor technique to lift
the resistance. Improper technique not only decreases the effectiveness of training but can also cause injury. An example of poor
technique would be bouncing the bar off the chest during a bench press or using the hip or back to start a barbell curl.

Warm up
Warm up is important to prepare the muscles for the work ahead. A proper warm up is the same warm up explained in the
cardiovascular section. Which includes getting loose by walking, jogging or biking at a slow pace for approximately 5 minutes
followed by stretching the muscles to be used during the training. A proper warm up will reduce the chance of muscle strains
and pulls.

Cool Down
Whenever an exercise session is suddenly stopped, blood tends to pool, or gather, in the muscles of the lower body which can
cause light headedness. It is important to keep the muscles moving in a low intensity activity such as walking to keep pooling
from occurring. Stretching is also recommended after a cool down. A proper cool down should last for at least 10 minutes
after strength training. Cardiovascular complications can occur from sudden exercise stoppage.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF STRENGTH TRAINING

Strength/Resistance Exercises
Squats, seated calf raises, leg press, cable hip extensions, abdominal crunch machines, weighted back extensions, bench
press, military press, dumbbell flies, lat pulldowns and kettlebell swings, as well as all Olympic and powerlifting lifts. Although
the term "heavy" is subjective, loads that exhaust the muscle in eight to 10 repetitions build strength by building more muscle
mass, while sets that exhaust the muscle in one to five repetitions build strength through neuromuscular adaptations.

Endurance/Resistance Exercises
Soccer, basketball, track and field, tennis, cycling and mixed martial arts are a few sports that depend on muscular endurance.
Sprints, hill sprints, shuttle runs, punching bag training and other short interval activities are some ways to build sport-specific
muscular endurance. You can use almost any exercise to build muscular endurance by using high repetitions and light loads.

Example Strength Training Program of a Golfer

Strength and conditioning is an important aspect of improving golf performance. Training in golfers has been successfully
used toward improvement in strength, power and flexibility, resulting in enhanced club speed, greater ball velocity, greater
driving distances, and putting distance control.

Body proportion, strength, and power all have an effect on golf performance. A recent study on Golf Team members revealed
that there were significant associations between ball speed and the distance the ball traveled, and physical factors such as
body mass, height, arm length, and leg length.

The importance of physical performance attributes may also become more prevalent with more highly skilled golfers. Highly
skilled golfers had greater hip, torso, and shoulder strength, and greater shoulder, hip, and torso flexibility, compared to lesser
skilled players. In addition, postural stability was used to examine the effect of balance on golf performance, and this was
also shown to be significantly better in more highly skilled golfers than in lesser-skilled golfers. A significant correlation exists
between club head speed and chest strength and total body rotational power. These results were shown to be independent of
handicap.

The use of functional training movements, including pelvic tilts, floor bridges, planks, abdominal work, and scapular stability,
along with balance exercises (both static and dynamic) has also been shown to enhance club head speed during 8 weeks of
training in older (70.7 ± 7.1 years) golfers. Again, it appears that for older, recreational golfers, the use of low or body mass
resistance movements and balance training may be sufficient to elicit improvements in golf performance. However, for
younger golfers, the use of traditional resistance training exercises with appropriate loading (60-70% of 1-RM) may be more
appropriate to enhance golf performance.

The Bellow program is a sample of a general program that one can use for effectively training a golfer.

Monday (Sets x Reps)

Squat 3 x 10 – 12
Bench Press 3 x 10 – 12
Lat Pull-down 3 x 10 – 12
Dumbbell Step-up 3 x 10 – 12
Back Extension 3 x 10 – 12
Leg Curl 3 x 10 – 12
Med Ball Throw 3 x 10
Abdominal Routine

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 Wednesday (Sets X Reps)
Incline Bench Press 3 x 10 – 12
Dumbbell Lunge 3 x 10 – 12
Low Cable Row 3 x 10 – 12
Dumbbell Shoulder Press 3 x 10 – 12
Bicep Curl 3 x 10 – 12
Wrist Curl 3 x 10 – 12
Med Ball Speed Rotation 3 x 10
Abdominal Routine

Friday (Sets x Reps)

Squat 3 x 10 – 12
Bench Press 3 x 10 – 12
Lat Pull-down 3 x 10 – 12
Dumbbell Step-up 3 x 10 – 12
Tricep Push-down 3 x 10 – 12
Back Extension 3 x 10 – 12
Leg Curl 3 x 10 – 12
Med Ball Throw 3 x 10
Abdominal Routine

Abdominal routine (Sets x Reps)

Bent Knee Crunch 3 x 20
Planks 3 x 30 – 60 seconds
Bent Knee Crunch with Twist 3 x 20

Sample Program for Hypertrophy Training

The enlargement of muscle size is known as hypertrophy and is the predominant aim of bodybuilding. Traditional bodybuilding
aims to increase the size of every muscle group making it a time consuming and enervating pursuit. Hypertrophy training for
sport on the other hand aims only to increase the size of the prime movers, saving time and energy for other modes of training.
Hypertrophy training employs moderate to heavy loads and moderate to high volume. It is generally accepted that higher
volume is required to sufficiently overload the muscles to bring about substantial increases in fiber size. The athlete's overall
training program must be taken into account - so a smaller number of exercises are used compared to traditional bodybuilding.
Each session should consist of no more than 6 - 9 exercises focusing on the prime movers (1) for 3-6 sets per exercise
Loads should be in the 67% - 85% one repetition maximum (1RM) range so that failure in each set occurs between 6 - 12
repetitions. Sets must be performed to failure. The cumulative effect of exhaustion stimulates chemical reactions and protein
metabolism so that optimal muscle growth can occur.
Monday Tuesday / Wednesday Thursday / Friday TOTAL SETS
Legs Legs Legs Legs - 9
Squat - 1x10 Squat - 1x10 Squat - 1x10
Stiff Leg Dead lift - 2x10 Stiff Leg Dead lift - 2x10 Stiff Leg Deadlift - 2x10
Chest Chest Chest Chest - 9
Incline Bench - 2x10 Incline Bench - 2x10 Incline Bench - 2x10
Dips - 1x10 Dips - 1x10 Dips - 1x10
Back Back Back Back - 12
Chins - 2x10 (W.N.) Chins - 2x10 (W.N.) Chins - 2x10 (W.N.)
Rows - 2x10 (W.N) Rows - 2x10 (W.N) Rows - 2x10 (W.N)
Traps Traps Traps Traps - 3
Shrugs - 1x10 Shrugs - 1x10 Shrugs - 1x10
Shoulder Shoulder Shoulder Shoulder - 9
Shoulder Press - 1x10 Shoulder Press - 1x10 Shoulder Press - 1x10
Lateral Raise - 1x10 Lateral Raise - 1x10 Lateral Raise - 1x10
Rear Delt - 1x10 Rear Delt - 1x10 Rear Delt - 1x10
Biceps Biceps Biceps Biceps - 6
DB Curls - 2x10 DB Curls - 2x10 DB Curls - 2x10
Triceps Triceps Triceps Triceps - 6
Tricep Ext. - 2x10 Tricep Ext. - 2x10 Tricep Ext. - 2x10
Calves Calves Calves Calves - 6
Calf Raise - 2x10 Calf Raise - 2x10 Calf Raise - 2x10
Abs Abs Abs
Crunches - 2x10 Crunches - 2x10 Crunches - 2x10
(Or Pick Your Own) (Or Pick Your Own) (Or Pick Your Own)

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Flexibility and Resistance Training
As you increase reps, sets, and/or use greater resistance, your weight training will result in a loss of flexibility. If you use a lighter
amount of resistance, full range of motion can be executed with greater ease as opposed to using a heavier load that will limit
range of motion. Not to mention, the more fatigue sets it, the harder full range of motion will become.

Because of this decreased range of motion during resistance training, flexibility training (stretching) is highly encouraged. It is
recommended that your flexibility training come after your workout when the muscles are warm and have been worked. This
will help prevent injuries such as muscle pulls and will help restore full range of motion to the joints involved in your training.

The following is a list of the benefits of flexibility and mobility training:

• enhanced physical fitness

• increased mental and physical relation
• reduced risk of injury to joints, muscles, and tendons
• reduced muscular soreness
• reduced muscle tension
• increased range of motion

Sample Pictures of Resistance Training Exercises

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MOTOR SKILL FITNESS
Motor skills are any ability associated with muscle activity. They are categorized three ways: gross, fine, and complex. There
are 7 basic components to motor skills. You can use these components as guide points to establish goals, increasing your
fitness level and improve your overall health. It's important to note that any fitness regimen should begin with a complete
physical. Discuss your goals with a physician to determine the best course of action for you.

Agility
• Agility is the ability to perform movements, quickly and in varied directions. Agility exercises are not cardiovascular but
designed to enhance your speed and power. A simple routine will improve agility. One example might be to set up seven
markers. The first is a starting point, and then progressively pair two per level, moving forward to form a staircase pattern.
Begin at the starting marker and sprint forward. Stop at the first level, pivot towards the second marker on that level, and
sprint again. Complete the course at each marker by sprinting and pivoting in succession, then turn and repeat, ending back
at the starting point.

Balance and proprioception

• Balance is stability produced by the distribution of weight. An example designed to improve balance is the simple leg stance.
Standing with both legs together, lift and bend one leg back, maintaining that position for thirty seconds. Repeat the cycle
with the other leg.

Coordination
• Coordination is the harmonized functioning of all parts. Exercises to improve coordination are often designed to synchronize
both hemispheres of the brain. One example, called the cross-crawl crunch, requires you to lie on your back in a crunch
position, pull one knee towards mid-line, and then touch it to the opposite elbow.

Power
• Power is essentially muscle strength. Weightlifting and strength training will improve your power. It is best to work muscles
by large groups such as the legs and vary the group by day. On Monday, you might concentrate on leg strength by doing
squats. Tuesday, work the abdominal exercises with crunches. By alternating your training in this way, you will help avoid
injury and muscle fatigue.

Reaction Time
• Reaction time is the interval between the presentation of a stimulus and the muscular response. Tests show that reaction
time speeds up naturally with increased heat rate and the release of adrenaline.

Speed
• Speed is defined as the state of moving swiftly. It is possible to improve on the components of reaction time and speed with
one exercise. Sprinting is a good example. Starting with stimulus, such as a stopwatch or alarm, run forward a designated
length. Time the sprint and work on improving your speed.

Spatial Awareness
• Spatial awareness is a well-thought-out awareness of things in the space around us. It also deals with the awareness of
our body's position in space. Spatial awareness is a basic thing to have that can help solve the most complex of problems.
Without having spatial awareness, we would not be able to scroll down a computer page. Without spatial awareness, we
would not be able to walk up to the refrigerator, open up its door and gulp down a bottle of water. Spatial awareness makes
us distinguish between words in this page and see the letters in correct relation to each other. It goes without saying that
enhancing your spatial awareness plays a crucial importance in sports and games.

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Methods to Enhance Motor Skill Learning

Observational Learning
• In combination with physical practice, observational practice has been demonstrated to contribute highly to the acquisition
of motor skills via mutual activation of the cerebellum, cingulated gyrus, inferior parietal lobe, premotor cortex, and
supplementary motor area. The combination of such observational and physical practice is said to provide the opportunity
to both extract important information pertaining to coordinated motor patterns as well as evaluate effective strategies that
otherwise would be difficult if one were to both prepare and execute simultaneously. Therefore, observation provides the
opportunity to “process”. Additionally, alternating between observation and physical practice (performing a dyad) allows
the learner to observe and apply. This facilitates enhanced motivation.

Attention Focus
• This variable pertains specifically to movement in relation to space and time. Ideally, attention should be directed to the
induction of an external focus in contrast to one that is internal. Through simple changes in cues utilized, performance
and learning can greatly be enhanced. For example, instructing a patient to “thrust his/her pelvis to the ceiling” while
performing a glute bridge would be a more effective cue than suggesting he/she “activate the glutes and extend the hips”.
Similarly, greater gains will likely be witnessed in a training environment when asking a squatting athlete to “sit back
onto a chair” as opposed to “flex your hips keep your tibia vertical”. This external focus has been shown to facilitate
automaticity of movement and the use of unconscious processes, therefore reducing unwanted attentional demands.

Feedback
• Commonly pertaining to “knowledge of results” and “knowledge of performance”, feedback has been demonstrated to
highly influence motivation. Specifically, when provided following “good” trials, feedback is said to facilitate more
effective learning through positivity. Further, normative feedback, that is, feedback in relation to the performance of
others (or
the norm), enhances self-efficacy and motivation. This is true even in such instances when feedback was false (i.e. saying
“great job” – even though performance was relatively poor). Therefore, rather than providing neutral information, positive
feedback in specific situations will enhance self-fulfillment and motivation, thereby affecting learning.

Practice That Is Self-Controlled

• Providing the learner with the opportunity to control their practice conditions has been demonstrated to be an effective
method for the learning of motor skills. Allowing the learner to dictate where or when they do not want to receive feedback
seems to be of greater importance than frequency of feedback. Additionally, occasionally permitting the individual to decide
when they choose to practice facilitates greater active involvement and subsequently, enhanced motivation, self-control and
effort. Such practice and learning conditions may also pertain to free play (allowing the athlete to spend extra time in the
weight room, court, or ice) and recreational exercise (performing rehabilitation exercises at home or in the gym).

Examples of Exercises to improve motor skills

1. Obstacles for Jumping
These obstacles are ditches to clear with one leap, trenches to jump into, heights to jump from, or hurdles.

2. Obstacles for Dodging

These obstacles are usually mazing of posts set in the ground at irregular intervals. The spaces between the posts are
narrow so that soldiers must pick their way carefully through and around them. Lane guides are built to guide soldiers in
dodging and changing direction

3. Obstacles for Vertical Climbing and Surmounting

Climbing ropes that are 1 1/2 inches wide and either straight or knotted.
Cargo nets.
Walls 7 or 8 feet high.
Vertical poles 15 feet high and 6 to 8 inches wide.

4. Obstacles for Horizontal Traversing

Horizontal obstacles may be ropes, pipes, or beams

5. Obstacles for Crawling

These obstacles may be built of large pipe sections, low rails, or wire.

6. Obstacles for Vaulting

These obstacles should be 3 to 3 1/2 feet high. Examples are fences and low walls.

7. Obstacles for Balancing

Beams, logs, and planks may be used. These may span water obstacles and dry ditches, or they may be raised off the
ground to simulate natural depressions.

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Motor skill equipment:
• Stability disks
• Marker cones
• Micro hurdlers
• Fast-foot ladders

Factors affecting motor skill development

Environment
• Environment influences how well you develop motor skills, as well as the type of motor skills you develop. In early
childhood play, children learn how to run, jump, climb, throw, sneak and crawl. A child that lives in the city might be
limited in his potential motor skill development because he lives a more sedentary lifestyle. People who aren't exposed
to an activity won't develop the motor skills necessary for the activity. For instance, a man who grew up in a non-musical
home may lack the motor skills necessary to play guitar. A woman who lives in Arizona isn't likely to learn the motor skills
needed to ski, and if she tries to learn as an adult, might find it more difficult to master. Genetics are also a contributing
environmental factor. A man with bad handwriting motor skills may pass this down to his children.

Diseases
• Many diseases also affect motor skills. Cerebral palsy is a series of brain conditions that affect the parts of the brain that
control muscle coordination and can negatively affect motor skills. Parkinson's disease is a disease of the nervous system
that gradually causes worsened control of motor skills, along with other neurological problems. Tourette’s Syndrome causes
uncontrollable twitching that can make it difficult to learn new motor skills. Sensory integration dysfunction is defined by
having difficulty understanding sensory input, such as sight, smell or touch. This can lead to poor motor skills, as a person
can't completely understand their surroundings.

Traumatic Brain Injury

• Traumatic brain injuries are defined as any injury to the head or brain that results in irreversible damage to the brain.
These injuries occur when the head hits a hard object at a fast pace, such as during a car accident. Mild traumatic brain
injury results in unconsciousness, loss of memory and some loss of motor skills. More serious traumatic brain injuries can
be more damaging to your motor skills. During an accident involving the head, the brain bounces around inside the skull,
which creates injury to many parts of the brain. This can cause the nerve cells to tear apart from each other, disrupting the
brain's communication pathways to the limbs. Traumatic brain injuries can also lead to personality and behavioral changes.

SPEED AND POWER TRAINING

Speed the quickness of movement of a limb, from one position to the next whether this is the legs of a runner or the arm
of the shot putter. Speed is an integral part of every sport and can be expressed as any one of, or combination of, the
following: maximum speed, elastic strength (power) and speed endurance.

Explosive exercise is often used by elite athletes to improve their ability to generate power and strength. This is essential in
sports that require fast burst of maximal effort, such as sprinting and jumping. The types of exercises used to build this power
are movements that require a maximum or near maximum power output from the athlete in a short amount of time.
Explosive exercise training routines are one way to increase power output. The goal of explosive exercise training is to
ultimately move heavy weights very quickly. But to get to that point safely, without risking injury, it's important to start
with light weights and slow controlled movements. Over a matter of training sessions (several weeks), but the weight lifted
and speed at which it's lifted will be increased. Explosive exercises at their final level are often referred to as plyometric or
ballistic movements.

Explosive Exercise Training

Research supports the idea that explosive (speed and strength) exercises builds athletic power but does a better job of that
when combined with other types of training. Both cross-sectional and longitudinal data suggest that in order to maximize
strength, power and speed of movement, a combination of heavy and light explosive exercise provides superior results than
either training style alone.

Further evidence suggests that in order to maximize power output or speed of movement, the first phase of training should focus on
increasing maximum strength and building a strong foundation and the second phase is devoted to power and speed training.

A sample 12-week training program designed to increase power and speed, may have the first five weeks consisting
primarily of heavy strength training. The next six weeks would consist of a combination of heavy and high-power explosive
exercise training, and the final week would be devoted to high power movements.

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Explosive Exercises
Standard explosive exercises use large muscles movements such as squats, power cleans, weighted or unweighted vertical
jumps, heavy ball throws or even hill sprinting.

ADAPTATIONS TO TRAINING
Effective recovery activities and adaptation of exercises in training program:
In most training program one of the most important components is often left out or neglected. This component is Rest and
Recovery.

It is important to plan or schedule recovery days in between training, by not planning recovery days in between you actually
limit your ability to train. Your body gets stronger after exercise stress, so you need to allow down time for rebuilding muscle
tissue. An effective training program will have regular periods of rest and recovery. This also allows adaptation to the exercise
- you return bigger, stronger and faster. Rest also allows you to recover mentally and emotionally and avoid exercise burn-out.

The body repairs and strengthens itself in the time between workouts, and continuous training can actually weaken the
strongest fitness participants.

Rest days are critical to fitness performance for a variety of reasons. Some are physiological, and some are psychological. Rest
is physically necessary so that the muscles can repair, rebuild and strengthen. For recreational fitness participants, building in
rest days can help maintain a better balance between home, work and fitness goals.

In the worst-case scenario, too few rest and recovery days can lead to overtraining syndrome - a difficult condition to
recover from. Overtraining syndrome occurs in fitness participants that are training for a specific goal and train beyond the
body’s ability to recover. When training harder and longer to reach a goal, without adequate rest and recovery, the training
program backfires, and actually decreases performance. Conditioning requires a balance between overload and recovery.
Too much overload and too little recovery can result in both physiological and psychological symptoms of overtraining.

Balance Exercise with Rest and Recovery.

It is this alternation of adaptation and recovery that takes the fitness participant to a higher level of fitness. High-level fitness
participants need to realize that the greater the training intensity and effort, the greater the need for planned recovery.
Monitoring your workouts with a training log and paying attention to how your body feels and how motivated you are being
extremely helpful in determining your recovery needs and modifying your training program accordingly.

Adapting exercise program

When working out an exercise program for a client the basics all stay the same however it is important to remember that
everyone is different, so the exercise program will have to be adapted to the individual client’s needs, fitness, progress etc. In
order to do this the coach or fitness trainer needs to keep to the six principles of exercise science, being:

1. The Principle of Individual Differences

The principle of individual differences simply means that, because we all are unique individuals, we will all have a slightly
different response to an exercise program. This is another way of saying that "one size does not fit all" when it comes to
exercise. Well-designed exercise programs should be based on our individual differences and responses to exercise.

Some of these differences have to do with body size and shape, genetics, past experience, chronic conditions, injuries and
even gender. For example, women generally need more recovery time than men, and older clients generally need more
recovery time than younger clients.

Some things to consider when creating your own exercise program include the next batch of exercise science principles.

2. The Principle of Overload

The exercise science principle of overload states that a greater than normal stress or load on the body is required for
training adaptation to take place. What this means is that in order to improve our fitness, strength or endurance, we need
to increase the workload accordingly.

In order for a muscle (including the heart) to increase strength and endurance, it must be gradually stressed by working
against a load greater than it is used to. To increase endurance, muscles must work for a longer period of time than they
are used to or at a higher intensity.

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 3. The Principle of Progression
The principle of progression implies that there is an optimal level of overload that should be achieved, and an optimal time
frame for this overload to occur. A gradual and systematic increase of the workload over a period of time will result in
improvements in fitness without risk of injury.

If overload occurs too slowly, improvement is unlikely, but overload that is increased too rapidly may result in injury or
muscle damage. For example, the weekend athlete who exercises vigorously only on weekends violates the principle of
progression and most likely will not see obvious fitness gains.

The Principle of Progression also stresses the need for proper rest and recovery. Continual stress on the body and constant
overload will result in exhaustion and injury. You should not train hard all the time, as you'll risk overtraining and a
decrease in fitness.

4. The Principle of Adaptation

Adaptation refers to the body's ability to adjust and adapt to increased or decreased physical demands. It is also one
way we learn to coordinate muscle movement and develop sports-specific skills, such as batting, swimming freestyle or
shooting free throws. Repeatedly practicing a skill or activity makes it second-nature and easier to perform. Adaptation
explains why beginning exercisers are often sore after starting a new routine, but after doing the same exercise for
weeks and months they have little, if any, muscle soreness.

Additionally, it makes an athlete very efficient and allows him to expend less energy doing the same movements. This
reinforces the need to vary a workout routine if you want to see continued improvement.

5. The Principle of Use/Disuse

The Principle of Use/Disuse implies that when it comes to fitness, you "use it or lose it." This simply means that your
muscles hypertrophy with use and atrophy with disuse. This also explains why we decondition or lose fitness when we stop
exercise.

6. The Principle of Specificity

The Specificity Principle simply states that exercising a certain body part or component of the body primarily develops
that part. The Principle of Specificity implies that, to become better at a particular exercise or skill, you must perform that
exercise or skill. A runner should train by running, a swimmer by swimming and a cyclist by cycling. While it's helpful to
have a good base of fitness and to do general conditioning routines, if you want to be better at your sport, you need to
train specifically for that sport.

Stabilisation Endurance:
Stabilisation endurance should be used for clients that are just beginning to embark on a strength training program. Clients
may possess muscle imbalances, poor postural control and weak stability. Stabilization Training is designed to improve
neuromuscular efficiency (intra-muscular and inter-muscular control), functional strength, core strength, dynamic reflex
stabilization and functional flexibility.
STABILISATION ENDURANCE ADAPTATIONS

Reps Sets Tempo Intensity % Rest interval Frequency Duration Exercise Selection
Flexibility 1 1-3 30-s hold n/a n/a SMR and static

Core 12-20 1-4 Slow n/a 0-90’s 2-4 times 4-6 1-4 stabilization level
4/2/1 per week weeks
Resistance 12-20 1-3 4-2-1 50-70% 0-90’s 2-4 times 4-6 1-2 stabilization
per week weeks progression

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Strength Endurance:

The ability of the muscle to withstand fatigue. The ability of the muscle to produce both strength and endurance.
I.e. the ability to express force many times over a certain period of time
I.f.

STRENGTH ENDURANCE ADAPTATIONS

Reps Sets Tempo Intensity % Rest Frequency Duration Exercise

interval Selection
Flexibility 5-10 1-2 1-2 hold n/a n/a 3-7 times per 4-6 times / SMR and
week week active
Core 8-12 2-3 3-2-1- n/a 0-60 2-4 times per 4-6 times / 1-3 strength
1/1/1 week week
medium
Resistance 8-12 2-4 (Str)2-0-2 70-80% 0-60 2-4 times per 4-6 times / 1 strength
(Stab) week week superset 1
4-2-1 stabilisation

Hypertrophy strength Training is a method of strength training intended to induce the fastest muscle growth and endurance, or
hypertrophy, possible, without losing efficacy over an extended period of time, and without the use of anabolic steroids. Muscle
hypertrophy is the growth of, and increase in size of muscle (cells).

HYPERTROPHY STRENGTH TRAINING ADAPTATIONS

Reps Sets Tempo Intensity % Rest interval Frequency Duration Exercise

Selection
Flexibility 5-10 1-2 1-2 hold n/a n/a 3-7 times/ 4 weeks SMR and
week active
Core 8-12 2-3 3-2-1 n/a 0-60’s 3-6 times/ 4 weeks 0-4 strength
-1/1/1 week
medium
Resistance 6-12 3-5 2-0-1 75/85% 0-60’s 3-6 times/ 4 weeks 2-4 strength
week level
exercises/
body part

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Maximal Strength

The greatest force the neuromuscular system can generate in a single maximum contraction. It is used in sports such as power
lifting where a great resistance has to overcome or controlled. The muscles have to remain in a static/isometric contraction at
max or near max.

MAXIMAL STRENGTH TRAINING ADAPTATIONS

Reps Sets Tempo Intensity % Rest interval Frequency Duration Exercise Selection
Flexibility 5-10 1-2 2-4 hold n/a n/a 3-7 times/ 4 weeks SMR and active
week
Core 8-12 2-3 1-1-1 n/a 0-60 s 2-4 times/ 4 weeks 0-3 strength
medium week
Resistance 1-5 4-6 x-x-x 85-100% 3-5 min 2-4 times/ 4 weeks 1-3 strength
week

Power strength training

Power training focuses on high force and velocity to increase power. This is done by combining strength exercises with power
exercises for each body part. Power training enables an athlete to apply the greatest amount of their maximal strength in the
shortest period of time. The type of power training employed must be the most specific to the sport or event.

POWER TRAINING ADAPTATIONS

Reps Sets Tempo Intensity Rest Frequency Duration Exercise
% interval Selection

Flexibility 10-15 1-2 controlled n/a n/a 3-7 times/ 4 weeks SMR and
week dynamic 3-4
EXERCISES

Core 8-12 2-3 Fast as can n/a 0-60 s 2-4 times/ 4 weeks 0-2 power
be controlled week level

Resistance 1-5 (S) 3-5 X-X-X (S) 85-100% 1-2 min 2-4 times/ 4 weeks 1 strength
8-10 X-X-X (P) (s) up b/w week superset 1
(P) to 10% pairs 3-5 power
BW or min b/w
30-45% circuits
1RM (P)

Absolute and Relative Strength

This kind of muscular strength is used in sports where the maximum strength is the principle component and body weight is
closely related. I.e. Maximum force generated irrespective of body weight is absolute strength and relative strength is expressed
per body weight.

Rest and Recovery After Exercising

Most athletes know that getting enough rest after exercise is essential to high-level performance, but many still over train and
feel guilty when they take a day off. The body repairs and strengthens itself in the time between workouts, and continuous
training can actually weaken the strongest athletes.

Rest days are critical to sports performance for a variety of reasons. Some are physiological, and some are psychological. Rest is
physically necessary so that the muscles can repair, rebuild and strengthen. For recreational athletes, building in rest days can
help maintain a better balance between home, work and fitness goals. In the worst-case scenario, too few rest and recovery days
can lead to overtraining syndrome - a difficult condition to recover from.

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What Happens During Recovery?
Building recovery time into any training program is important because this is the time that the body adapts to the stress of
exercise and the real training effect takes place. Recovery also allows the body to replenish energy stores and repair damaged
tissues and cells. Exercise or any other physical work causes changes in the body such as muscle tissue breakdown and the
depletion of energy stores (muscle glycogen) as well as fluid loss.

Recovery time allows these stores to be replenished and allows tissue repair to occur. Without sufficient time to repair and
replenish, the body will continue to breakdown from intensive exercise. Symptoms of overtraining often occur from a lack of
recovery time. Signs of overtraining include a feeling of general malaise, staleness, depression, decreased sports performance
and increased risk of injury, among others.

Short and Long-Term Recovery

Keep in mind that there are two categories of recovery. There is immediate (short-term) recovery from a particularly intense
training session or event, and there is the long-term recovery that needs to be built into a year-round training schedule. Both are
important for optimal sports performance.

Short-term recovery, sometimes called active recovery occurs in the hours immediately after intense exercise. Active recovery
refers to engaging in low-intensity exercise after workouts during both the cool-down phase immediately after a hard effort or
workout as well as during the days following the workout. Both types of active recovery are linked to performance benefits.
Another major focus of recovery immediately following exercise has to do with replenishing energy stores and fluids lost during
exercise and optimizing protein synthesis (the process of increasing the protein content of muscle cells, preventing muscle
breakdown and increasing muscle size) by eating the right foods in the post-exercise meal. This is also the time for soft tissue
(muscles, tendons, ligaments) repair and the removal of chemicals that build up as a result of cell activity during exercise.

Long-term recovery techniques refer to those that are built in to a seasonal training program. Most well-designed training
schedules will include recovery days and or weeks that are built into an annual training schedule. This is also the reason athletes
and coaches change their training program throughout the year, add cross training, modify workouts types, and make changes in
intensity, time, distance and all the other training variables.

Why Recovery After Exercise Is Important

Recovery after exercise is essential to muscle and tissue repair and strength building. This is even more critical after a heavy
weight training session. A muscle needs anywhere from 24 to 48 hours to repair and rebuild, and working it again too soon
simply leads to tissue breakdown instead of building. For weight training routines, never work the same muscles groups two days
in a row.

Ways to Recover Quickly After Exercise

There are many methods of recovery. The following are some of the most commonly recommended by the experts.

• Cool Down. Cooling down simply means slowing down (not stopping completely) after exercise. Continuing to move around at
a very low intensity for 5 to 10 minutes after a workout helps remove lactic acid from your muscles and may reduce muscles
stiffness. warming up and cooling down are more helpful in cooler temperatures or when you have another exercise session or
an event later the same day.

• Replace Fluids. You lose a lot of fluid during exercise and ideally, you should be replacing it during exercise, but filling up after
exercise is an easy way to boost your recovery. Water supports every metabolic function and nutrient transfer in the body and
having plenty of water will improve every bodily function. Adequate fluid replacement is even more important for endurance
athletes who lose large amounts of water during hours of sweating.

• Eat Properly. After depleting your energy stores with exercise, you need to refuel if you expect your body to recover, repair
tissues, get stronger and be ready for the next challenge. This is even more important if you are performing endurance exercise
day after day or trying to build muscle. Ideally, you should try to eat within 60 minutes of the end of your workout and make
sure you include some high-quality protein and complex carbohydrate.

• Stretch. After a tough workout, consider gentle stretching. This is a simple and fast way to help your muscles recover.

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• Rest. Time is one of the best ways to recover (or heal) from just about any illness or injury and this also works after a hard
workout. Your body has an amazing capacity to take care of itself if you allow it some time. Resting and waiting after a hard
workout allows the repair and recovery process to happen at a natural pace. It's not the only thing you can or should do to
promote recovery, but sometimes doing nothing is the easiest thing to do.

• Perform Active Recovery. Easy, gentle movement improves circulation which helps promote nutrient and waste product
transport throughout the body. In theory, this helps the muscles repair and refuel faster.

• Have a Massage. Massage feels good and improves circulation while allowing you to fully relax. You can also try self-massage
and avoid the heavy sports massage price tag.

• Get Lots of Sleep. While you sleep, amazing things are taking place in your body. Optimal sleep is essential for anyone who exercises
regularly. During sleep, your body produces Growth Hormone (GH) which is largely responsible for tissue growth and repair.

• Avoid Overtraining. One simple way to recovery faster is by designing a smart workout routine in the first place. Excessive
exercise, heavy training at every session or a lack of rest days will limit your fitness gains from exercise and undermine your
recovery efforts.

• Foamrolliing. One can foamroll to decrease muscle soreness and enhance fascia mobility

Adapting training methods according to changing environment and physical conditions:

When training a client is very important to take into consideration the changing environment and physical conditions, so that the
training program can be adapted accordingly.

The environment may be any outdoor or indoor condition that potentially impacts on performance. The environment will
include prevailing weather conditions, the physical nature of the venue, such as topography or altitude, as well as man-made
factors such as pollution, traffic that impacts on events such as cycling, or noise, such as studio noise.

The ability of a client to overcome environmental conditions is closely tied to the training concept of acclimatization, which
requires a focused training approach concerning a specific condition that a client expects to face in an upcoming event.
Acclimatization is rooted in the inherent ability of the human body to adapt to its surroundings over time in all circumstances.

Environmental conditions involve one or more different circumstances, as a condition to be faced in regular training or as
an anticipated condition that will be encountered at a future time. There are general training principles to be employed to
compensate or to overcome each of these environmental conditions; some factors are present in only certain types of sports and
therefore demand specialized approaches to their resolution. Environmental conditions include warm weather, cold weather, high
altitude, rugged topography, manmade impacts on air quality, wind speed, rain, time zone changes, indoor atmospheric
conditions, and crowd noise.

Benefits of Physical Fitness:

 Physical fitness encompasses human physical abilities such as body composition and coordination, cardiovascular
capacity, stamina, speed, flexibility and overall strength.

 Physical fitness prevents the occurrence of a variety of diseases. It develops a capacity to fight infections and certain
other diseases. Physical fitness helps prevent many of the major cardiovascular diseases.

 Most importantly, our physical fitness is responsible for the postponement of the process of aging. A healthy body is
home for a healthy mind. Physical fitness facilitates a sound psychological state, thus protecting us from mental
diseases.

 A physically fit individual is happier than an unhealthy one. Physical fitness coupled with a healthy lifestyle is one of the
vital factors contributing to quality of life.

 As physical fitness is responsible for the overall well-being of an individual, the maintenance of physical fitness should
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 be one's top priority. Engaging in some daily physical activity is necessary in the need of the sedentary life of today.
After all, health is the only wealth that is going to remain with us for a lifetime.
Benefits of Physical Activity
 Physical activity helps in the reduction of excess body fat; it decreases blood triglycerides and increases the energy levels
of the body. It improves blood circulation and helps in keeping all the body organs fit and functioning. Exercise benefits
the body by increasing its capacity to take in oxygen. It increases the ability of the blood to carry oxygen.

 Physical activity is responsible for improving the process of digestion, thus avoiding constipation and digestion-related
disorders. The loss of extra body fat helps prevent diseases like diabetes, hypertension and other obesity disorders. It
improves our cardiovascular health by increasing maximal cardiac output and stroke volume, and helps in the prevention
of diabetes by improving glucose resistance. Research has shown that a regular physical activity reduces the possibility of
getting certain types of cancer. Studies have revealed that breast cancer is less often found in sportswomen and that
intestinal cancers are more prevalent in physically inactive people.

 Physical activity results in the strengthening of our bones and muscles. It can substantially reduce the risk or arthritis and
other bone diseases. Daily exercise helps us prevent fractures and bone injuries that take place due to weak bones.

 Exercise helps us decrease stress. It makes us feel energetic and happy. Daily physical activity helps us remain active and
fresh throughout the day. Physical activity helps us deal with stress and fight depression. It is beneficial for our mental
well-being as it is responsible for the release of certain hormones that are responsible for our psychological well-being.

 The many fold benefits of physical fitness can come into effect only through regular physical activity. Hope the benefits of
physical fitness inspire you to engage in some form of daily exercise. Happy exercising!

Sedentary lifestyle

Sedentary lifestyle is a medical term used to denote a type of lifestyle

with no or irregular physical activity. A person who lives a sedentary
lifestyle may colloquially be known as a couch potato. It is commonly
found in both the developed and developing world. Sedentary activities
include sitting, reading, watching television and computer use for much of
the day with little or no vigorous physical exercise. A sedentary lifestyle
can contribute to many preventable causes of death.

Negative Health effects of a sedentary lifestyle

A lack of physical activity is one of the leading causes of preventable death worldwide. A sedentary lifestyle and lack of physical
activity can contribute to or be a risk factor for:

• Anxiety
• Cardiovascular disease (arterosclerosis)
• Mortality in elderly men by 30% and double the risk in elderly women
• Deep vein thrombosis
• Depression
• Diabetes (type 2)
• Colon cancer
• High blood pressure (hypertensive)
• Obesity
• Osteoporosis
• Metabolic syndrome
• Lipid disorders
• Kidney stones
• Increased stress
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 Adapting exercise fitness program for disabled clients

Disabled people need exercise just as much if not more than a physically abled person. A disabled person has to keep their
muscles, strong and toned and increase their flexibility, strength and mobility. Regular exercise also aids in weight loss and
improves your cardiovascular capacity.

When planning an exercise program for a disabled client always start the workout session with around 10 minutes of warm up
and end it with a cool down regimen that takes about the same time. (Stretching a little can be enough for someone in a
wheelchair but make sure they do not overdo it as it can hurt them).

A disabled client must bear the following in mind: -

 If they are going to do weights, they must start slowly and work their way up to heavier weights gradually.

 Start with exercises that are simple and then move on to routines that are more complicated.

 It is also important that they include a weight-loss eating plan with their exercise program. In the case of a client
in a wheelchair → Remaining seated everyday will do a lot to increase their weight, which will not be reduced by
exercise alone.

There are 2 kinds of exercises that are appropriate for disabled people. Resistance

1.Training Exercise for Disabled People

With this kind of training, the client will be making use of resistance bands, which are actually large rubber bands, which can
be stretched. They can be wrapped around a firm object such as the wheelchair arm or the door and pulled towards them and
away from them to give their muscles the workout they need. Depending on your client’s disability, resistance bands can also be
used for shoulder rotation, pull downs as well as arm and leg extensions.

2. Strength Training Exercise for Disabled People

With strength training dumbbells or free weights are used. If your client does not have the equipment, they can find other
objects that are heavy enough around the house such as cans of foods. They must find those that can fit nicely in their hands.

Whatever thing they choose, they must take the time to have it weighed first. They will want something that weighs from one
to two kilograms at first, gradually working up to heavier ones. Three sets with 12 repetitions each will suffice, with enough
rest periods between each set.

Benefits of Strength Training for Disabled People

With strength training, disabled people can better perform regular tasks such as transferring to and from the wheelchair,
pushing it and carrying and holding things. It is widely observed that people who are confined to wheelchairs do not have
enough “push”. By doing an exercise for disabled people for just a few minutes every day, the right muscles are strengthened,
and they will find it easier to perform many tasks that they had found difficult previously regardless of the disability.

Regular exercise is also important in maintaining emotional health. Just like other people, disabled person feels angry,
frustrated, confused and depressed. However, because of their situation, these feelings may be more intense with disabled
persons. With a regular workout, they will have a great antidote to depression.

Considerations
Staying focused and having a positive attitude has been pointed out to be essential by people who are disabled themselves.
Each exercise for a disabled client must be planned out carefully to save time and allow decision making in advance. It is also
recommended to undertake activities, which are enjoyable to you personally.

If your client has not been active physically for some time, it is recommended that they have a transitional exercise for a
disabled client, which will strengthen important muscle groups and increase the range of their movements. Client must have a
rest day between sessions and must not concentrate on the same group of muscles for two succeeding sessions.

Any co-morbidities should always be kept in mind when working with someone with a disability. Special considerations
should be implemented and a training programme should be adjusted according to the client’s needs and ability to perform
the exercises.