Experiment No -7

Aim: Create a program to find out the inode number of any desired file.
Theory & Command Codes:
1. INODE
Every file in a Linux system has unique ID known as inode number. These unique IDs allow Linux
system to easily manage files in its filesystem database. In Linux, whenever a new file is created, it is
given a file name and an inode number. This number works as the unique identifier for that file. As a
user, we will use the file name to access the file but Linux OS will first map that filename with an
Inode number in a database to access the fil.

An inode is a data structure that points refer to the individual blocks, making the file. All of the
administrative data required to read a file is included in the inode. The metadata for each file is kept in
inodes in a table structure and this data includes:
 File types ( executable, block special etc )
 Permissions ( read, write etc )
 UID ( Owner )
 GID ( Group )
 FileSize
 Time stamps including last access, last modification and last inode number change.
 File deletion time
 Number of links ( soft/hard )
 Location of ile on harddisk.
 Some other metadata about file.
2. Commands:
 Using ls command: The -i option with ls commands displays inode number.
Example: $ ls -li

 Using stat command: stat command is used to view inode number of single file. It
basically provides lot of details about given file/directory, along with its inode number.
Example:$ stat ./html

OUTPUT
(NOTE: Output must draw on plane pages.)
 Experiment No -8
Aim: Study & use of the Command for changing file permissions.
Theory & Command Codes:
1. FILE PERMISSIONS
File permissions are core to the security model used by Linux systems. They determine who can access
files and directories on a system and how. For effective security, Linux divides authorization into 2
levels.
1. Ownership
2. Permission
1.1 Linux File Ownership:
Every file and directory in Linux system is assigned 3 types of owner. They are:
1. User: A user is the owner of the file. By default, the person who created a file becomes its
owner. Hence, a user is also sometimes called an owner.
2. Group: A user- group can contain multiple users. All users belonging to a group will have the
same Linux group permissions access to the file.
3. Other: Any other user who has access to a file. This person has neither created the file, nor he
belongs to a user group who could own the file.
1.1 Linux File Permissions:
Every file and directory in /Linux system has following 3 permissions defined for all the 3 owners.
They are:
1. Read: This permission give you the authority to open and read a file. Read permission on a
directory gives you the ability to lists its content.
2. Write: The write permission gives you the authority to modify the contents of a file. The
write permission on a directory gives you the authority to add, remove and rename files
stored in the directory.
3. Execute: In Linux, we cannot run a program unless the execute permission is set.
2. COMMANDS
 ls – l

r = read permission
w = write permission
x = execute permission
– = no permission

 CHMOD Command
chmod’ command which stands for ‘change mode’. Using the command, we can set permissions (read,
write, execute) on a file/directory. There are 2 ways to use the command –
 Absolute mode
 Symbolic mode

Absolute(Numeric) Mode in Linux

In this mode, file permissions are not represented as characters but a three-digit octal number.
The table below gives numbers for all for permissions types.
Number Permission Type Symbol
0 No Permission —
1 Execute –x
2 Write -w-
3 Execute + Write -wx
4 Read r–
5 Read + Execute r-x
6 Read +Write rw-
7 Read + Write +Execute rwx
Symbolic Mode in Linux
In the Absolute mode, you change permissions for all 3 owners. In the symbolic mode, you can modify
permissions of a specific owner. It makes use of mathematical symbols to modify the Unix file
permissions.
Operator Description
+ Adds a permission to a file or directory

– Removes the permission

= Sets the permission and overrides the permissions set earlier.

The various owners are represented as –

User Denotations
u user/owner

g group

o other

a all

EXAMPLES:
1. $ chmod 755 public_dir
2. $ chmod 700 my_script

OUTPUT
(NOTE: Output must draw on plane pages.)

$ ls -ld public_dir
drwxr--r-- 1 ignatz staff 6023 Nov 2 12:06 public_dir
$ chmod 755 public_dir
$ ls -ld public_dir
drwxr-xr-x 1 ignatz staff 6023 Aug 5 12:06 public_dir

$ ls -l my_script
-rw------- 1 ignatz staff 6023 Nov 2 12:06 my_script
$ chmod 700 my_script
$ ls -l my_script
-rwx------ 1 ignatz staff 6023 Aug 5 12:06 my_script
 Experiment No -9
Aim: Write a shell script that accepts any number of arguments and prints them in
the reverse order.
Theory & Command Codes:

1. SHELL SCRIPTING
Shell Scripting is a program to write a series of commands for the shell to execute. It can combine
lengthy and repetitive sequences of commands into a single and simple script that can be stored and
executed anytime which, reduces programming efforts. Shell Scripts are written using text editors.
Each shell script is saved with `.sh` file extension e.g., myscript.sh.
A shell script comprises the following elements –
 Shell Keywords – if, else, break etc.
 Shell commands – cd, ls, echo, pwd, touch etc.
 Functions
 Control flow – if..then..else, case and shell loops etc.

Need of shell scripts

There are many reasons to write shell scripts:

 To avoid repetitive work and automation

 System admins use shell scripting for routine backups.
 System monitoring
 Adding new functionality to the shell etc.

2. Shell Script to print command line arguments in reverse

#!/bin/sh
if [ $# -eq 00 ]
then
echo "no arguments given"
exit
fi
echo "Total number of arguments: $#"
echo "The arguments are: $*"
echo "The arguments in reverse order:"
rev=" "
for i in $*
do
rev=$i" "$rev
done
echo $rev

OUTPUT
(NOTE: Output must draw on plane pages.)

Output 1
$ ./print-arguments-in-reverse.sh
no arguments given

Output 2
$ ./print-arguments-in-reverse.sh Indians are great
Total number of arguments: 3
The arguments are: Indians are great
The arguments in reverse order:
great are Indians
 Experiment No -10
Aim: Write a shell script to find the smallest of three numbers that are read from
the keyboard.
Theory & Command Codes:

2. Shell Script

.#!/bin/bash
echo "Enter 3 numbers"
read a
read b
read c
if [ $a -eq $b -a $b -eq $c ]
then
echo "All numbers are equal"
exit
fi
if [ $a -lt $b ]
then
s1=$a
s2=$b
else
s1=$b
s2=$a
fi
if [ $s1 -gt $c ]
then
s2=$s1
s1=$c
fi
echo "smallest number is $s1
OUTPUT
(NOTE: Output must draw on plane pages.)
Output 1
$ ./reverse.sh
Enter 3 numbers
589
smallest number is 5

Output 2
$ ./reverse.sh
Enter 3 numbers
888
All numbers are equal