ELECTRIC MACHINES

Unit 5: Electric drives

Alberto Berrueta Irigoyen

alberto.berrueta@unavarra.es
Electrical, Electronic and Communications Engineering Department
2022-2023

Contents

5.1- Introduction

5.2- Induction machine single-speed drives

5.3- Induction machine variable-speed drives

5.4- Synchronous machine single-speed

drives

5.5- Synchronous machine variable-speed

drives
 Contents

5.1- Introduction

5.2- Induction machine single-speed drives

5.3- Induction machine variable-speed drives

5.4- Synchronous machine single-speed

drives

5.5- Synchronous machine variable-speed

drives

5.1. Introduction
5.1.1. Definition
• A drive is a device used to operate a mechanism as desired by the user.
• Most drives entail a moving component.
• They can be classified according to the type of energy involved in the process
Pneumatic drive
– Pneumatic drive: compressed air.
– Hydraulic drive: oil under pressure.
– Thermal drive: combustion.
– Electric drive: electric machines.
• Electric drives represent more than 50% of industrial and home electricity consumption. Hydraulic drive

Systems that require different types of electric drives

187
 5.1. Introduction
5.1.2. Classification
The electric drives available for each type of machine can be classified in:
Single-speed drives Variable-speed drives
• Single torque – speed characteristic of the drive • Various torque – speed characteristics that build up
an operating area
• The machine is usually directly coupled to the grid
• Require a power converter for grid connection

T T
Grid Operating area Grid
Tm
~ ~ AC DC

Tload
~ Motor Load
Tload
~ Motor Load

Ω= 0
Ω𝑚𝑚
Ω ~ Ω
~ DC AC
Ω= 0

• They can operate in open loop (no measurement) or

closed loop (speed measurement and control)

188

Contents

5.1- Introduction

5.2- Induction machine single-speed drives

5.3- Induction machine variable-speed drives

5.4- Synchronous machine single-speed

drives

5.5- Synchronous machine variable-speed

drives

189
5.2. Induction machine single-speed drives
5.2.1. Steady-state operation
• As studied in Unit 4, the operating point of the system built by an induction machine and a mechanical load is
the cut-off between both torque – speed characteristics (Tm, and Tload).
• Once that point is reached, the speed of the system is not moved.
• In regular operation 0 ≤ 𝑠𝑠 ≤ 𝑠𝑠𝑁𝑁 .
• This operating point depends on the load. Therefore, a graph with the demanded power as independent
variable is the most informative about steady-state operation.
𝑅𝑅𝑟𝑟 2
3 𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉
Τ𝑚𝑚 = 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠
2
T 𝑅𝑅𝑟𝑟
+ 𝑋𝑋𝑒𝑒2
𝜔𝜔𝑠𝑠
𝑠𝑠
+ 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 Ωm
1
ΩN= 0.96
ηmax= 92.5% ηN= 90.5%
0.8
Tm

Variablesinenp.u.
η

pu
0.6

Is

Variables
TN 0.4
Ωm
0.2
Tload
Ω, s 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Pmec (pu)
Ω= 0 sN Ωs Ωs ΩN
s=1 s=0 s=0 s = sN
190

5.2. Induction machine single-speed drives

5.2.2. Starting the induction machine
Relevant information
• An induction motor can be directly connected to the grid. The so-called
direct starting is the most used method. for lab session 5
𝑑𝑑Ω𝑚𝑚 3𝑝𝑝 ⋅ 𝑅𝑅𝑟𝑟 ⋅ 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠2 800

𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 − 𝑇𝑇𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝐽𝐽 ⋅ 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑙𝑙𝑟𝑟𝑠𝑠 = 700

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 + 𝑅𝑅𝑟𝑟 2 + 𝑋𝑋𝑒𝑒2 ⋅ 𝜔𝜔𝑠𝑠 Tm
600
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠
(Nm)

𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑙𝑙𝑟𝑟𝑠𝑠 = 500
Par (Nm)

𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 + 𝑅𝑅𝑟𝑟 2 + 𝑋𝑋𝑒𝑒2

Torque

400
Tstart TN
300
• However, a direct start entails some drawbacks: Tload
200
– Overtemperature: relevant for systems with high inertia or frequent 100
start-stop maneuvers. 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
– Undesired trigger of circuit breakers: with a current 8 time higher than Velocidad mecánica (rpm)
Mechanical speed (rpm)
the rated current of the breaker, it will be triggered in around 10 ms. 300
Is,start
Special circuit breakers (magnetic starters) are required. 250

– Voltage drops at the connection 200

(A)
Corriente(A)

point, given the grid non-ideality. I

r
Current

150
I
s
100
Is,N
50

0
Magnetic starter for the connection 0 200 400 600 800 1000
of an induction motor Velocidad mecánica (rpm)
Mechanical speed (rpm) 191
 5.2. Induction machine single-speed drives
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠
Various techniques can be used to decrease current during startup. 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑙𝑙𝑟𝑟𝑠𝑠 =
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 + 𝑅𝑅𝑟𝑟 2 + 𝑋𝑋𝑒𝑒2

5.2.2.a. Reduced supply voltage 5.2.2.b.Addition of rotor resistances

• The starting current is proportional to Vs. • Connection of additional resistance to the rotor of an
induction machine.
• However, the torque is proportional to Vs . 2

𝑅𝑅 • Only applicable to wound-rotor machines.

3𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑟𝑟 ⋅ 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠2
𝑇𝑇 = • The starting current is reduced, and the torque –
𝑅𝑅 2 speed characteristic is modified.
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 + 𝑠𝑠𝑟𝑟 + 𝑋𝑋𝑒𝑒2 ⋅ 𝜔𝜔𝑠𝑠

800 𝑅𝑅𝑟𝑟 = 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠2 + 𝑋𝑋𝑒𝑒2

800
2Rr0
700 Rr0
Vs,N 700
600
600
(Nm)
(Nm)

Par motor(Nm)
(Nm)
500
500
Is
Par motor

400 Rs Xe
Torque

Torque
VS,N / √2 400
+ I0
300 300
Vs,N / 2 Ir Rr
200
R0
Vs X0 200
1 − 𝑠𝑠
100 𝑅𝑅𝑟𝑟 100
−
𝑠𝑠
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Velocidad mecánica (rpm) Velocidad mecánica (rpm)
Mechanical speed (rpm) Mechanical speed (rpm) 192

5.2. Induction machine single-speed drives

5.2.2.a. Starting methods based on a reduced supply voltage
Wye – Delta starter RVSS (reduced voltage soft starter)

• Only applicable to Delta motors • Electronic switches based on semiconductor devices

(thyristors, triacs, etc.) are used to produce a soft,
• Widely used in low power engines (≤ 25 kVA).
increasing supply voltage from 0 to VN, keeping the
• The motor is started in Wye connection, so that it same frequency.
starts at a phase voltage and phase current √3
• This is the preferred method for induction machines
times lower. After a few seconds, the connection is
with power larger than 25 kVA
changed to delta by means of automatic contactors,
Us
so that the supply voltage has the rated value.
UN

Direct start Wye – delta start

Ustart
I∙ √3 Acceleration time t
I/ √3
400 V Z 400 / √3 V
400 V
I Istart,ph  1 / √3 Z

Istart,grid  1/3

193
5.2. Induction machine single-speed drives
Power electronics of the RVSS
• Any power electronic converter consists in various switches built by a semiconductor.
• These semiconductor devices only operate as an open or closed switch
Switch
• There are various types of semiconductor devices that can be used for such power It is the schematic
switches, based on the functionalities required in each application. representation of any type
of semiconductor device.
• Some typical semiconductors are:

Diode SCR thyristor IGBT MOSFET

ik ik ik ik

vk vk vk vk
No control ON control ON & OFF control ON & OFF control
Frequency: -- Frequency: 100s Hz Frequency: kHz Frequency: 100s kHz
Current: kA Current: kA Current: 100s A Current: 10s A
ik ik ik ik

vk vk vk vk

194

5.2. Induction machine single-speed drives

• The RVSS is based on SCR thyristors

• Due to the alternating nature of the current, two SCR need to be assembled in each of
the phases in antiparallel:

• A thyristor bridge feeds the induction machine with a chopped 50 Hz three-phase set
of voltages. Two thyristors with different
rated currents.
• A Fourier analysis of such waveform would provide a 50 Hz fundamental component Source: Wikipedia
with a lower amplitude than the original Vgrid, and a set of higher-frequency
harmonics that entail a vibration with no useful net torque.

~ Motor

~
Vgrid, fgrid Vs, fgrid 195
5.2. Induction machine single-speed drives
500
V1N
Voltage (V)

0
V2N
-500
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
𝛼𝛼 = 60°
1 T1
T2
Trigger (V)

0.5

T1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 1 2
Time (ms) N ~
T2
500
Voltage (V)

-500
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
𝛼𝛼 = 30°

1
Trigger (V)

0.5

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time (ms) 196

5.2. Induction machine single-speed drives

5.2.2.b. Starting methods based on the addition of rotor resistances
• Consists of the connection of additional resistances on the rotor of an induction machine.
• The maximum torque is kept constant (does not depend on Rr), 300

but the slip that provides this maximum torque is increased. 250
Rr0
estator(A)
(A)

3 𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠2 1 𝑅𝑅𝑟𝑟 200

𝑇𝑇 𝑚𝑚𝑙𝑙𝑚𝑚 = 𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑚𝑙𝑙𝑚𝑚 =
Current

𝜔𝜔𝑠𝑠 2 2Rr0
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠2 + 𝑋𝑋𝑒𝑒2 + 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠2 + 𝑋𝑋𝑒𝑒2 150
Corriente

• Besides a reduction of the starting current, this method allows an 100

𝑅𝑅𝑟𝑟 = 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠2 + 𝑋𝑋𝑒𝑒2
increase of the starting torque, being possible to have the 50
maximum torque with s = 1.
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
• Take into account that the resistance is connected to the rotor. Velocidad mecánica (rpm)
Mechanical speed (rpm)
Therefore, the transformation ratio needs to be used for its
inclusion in the equivalent circuit. 800
Rr0
700
2Rr0
(Nm)

600
R
motor (Nm)

500
Torque

400
S 𝑅𝑅𝑟𝑟 = 𝑅𝑅𝑟𝑟𝑟 + 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝑎𝑎2
300 𝑅𝑅𝑟𝑟 = 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠2 + 𝑋𝑋𝑒𝑒2
Par

T 200 Is,N
100
Variable three-
0
phase resistance 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Velocidad mecánica (rpm)
Mechanical speed (rpm) 197
 5.2. Induction machine single-speed drives
5.2.2.c. Comparison of different starting methods for induction machines
Wye – delta starter Reduced voltage soft starter Rotor resistances

Configurable switching time Configurable initial voltage and time Not suitable for squirrel-cage IMs
Simple and cheap Simple and cheap Requires external resistors, slip
rings and brushes
2 torque shocks Soft start
One large torque shock
Starting torque divided by 3 Reduced starting torque
Increase in starting torque
Only for delta connection Low-frequency harmonics
150
Reduced use in 150 150
favor of RVSS or
100
VSD. 100 100
Torque (Nm)

Torque (Nm)

Torque (Nm)
50 50 50

0 0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50

m (Hz) 150 m (Hz) 150 m (Hz) 150

100 100 100

Current (A)

Current (A)

Current (A)
50 50 50

0 0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50

m (Hz) m (Hz) m (Hz) 198

Contents

5.1- Introduction

5.2- Induction machine single-speed drives

5.3- Induction machine variable-speed drives

5.4- Synchronous machine single-speed

drives

5.5- Synchronous machine variable-speed

drives
 5.3. Induction machine variable-speed drives
5.3.1. General analysis
• The speed of an induction machine is given by:
𝜔𝜔𝑠𝑠 2𝜋𝜋𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠
Ω𝑚𝑚 = Ω𝑠𝑠 1 − 𝑠𝑠 = 1 − 𝑠𝑠 = 1 − 𝑠𝑠
𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝

• Therefore, if this speed wants to be modified, one of the three involved variables should be controlled:

p (number of pairs of poles) 5.3.2. s (slip) 5.3.3. fs (synchronous frequency)

Dahlander pole changing motors. Can be modified by changing the supply With the availability of power electronic
Currently not used for the availability voltage or by adding rotor resistances. converters, this is the control variable
of more convenient options. selected for most drives.
(Not analysed in this course)
Torque
800 800

700 700

600 600 Tload

(Nm)

(Nm)

500 500
Par (Nm)
Par (Nm)
Torque

Torque

400 400

300 300 ΩsN Speed ​(Ω)

200 200 slip
Tload Tload
100 100

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Velocidad mecánica
speed (rpm) Velocidad mecánica
Mechanical (rpm) Mechanical speed (rpm)
(rpm)
199

5.3. Induction machine variable-speed drives

5.3.2. Slip variation
• The operating point is determined by the cut-off between motor and load torques.
• A variation of the motor torque-speed characteristic entails a different operating point.
• The synchronous frequency is not modified.
• The torque – speed characteristic can be modified by the two methods studied for the
starting of the induction machine: reduced supply voltage or addition of rotor resistances.

3 𝑝𝑝 𝑅𝑅𝑟𝑟 ⁄𝑠𝑠 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠2

Τ𝑚𝑚 = 2
𝑅𝑅𝑟𝑟
𝜔𝜔𝑠𝑠 + 𝑋𝑋𝑒𝑒2
𝑠𝑠 + 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠

200
5.3. Induction machine variable-speed drives
Slip variation by a reduced supply voltage Slip variation by the connection of rotor resistances

The torque (T) is proportional to the square of the An increased rotor resistance moves the maximum
supply voltage (Vs). A variation of Vs scales the torque point towards higher slip, keeping its value
torque – speed characteristic. constant.
800 800

700 700

600 600
(Nm)

(Nm)
500 500
Par (Nm)

Par (Nm)
Torque

Torque
400 400

300 300

200 200
Tload Tload
100 100

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Velocidad mecánica
Mechanical (rpm)
speed (rpm) Velocidad mecánica
Mechanical (rpm)
speed (rpm)

The speed range is very small: 0 < s < sn Only applicable to wound rotor machines

Reduced efficiency due to the increase in the slip entailed by both methods (ηr = 1 – s).
None of them allows a speed increase above synchronism (grid frequency)
201

5.3. Induction machine variable-speed drives

5.3.3. Frequency variation – the variable speed drive (VSD) or adjustable speed drive (ASD)
• The speed-variation methods presented above (variation of number of poles and supply voltage) are limited.
• The method used nowadays for speed control is the variation of the synchronous frequency.
• To do so, an AC/AC power converter is required.
• The power converter used for this control is called variable speed drive (VSD) or adjustable speed drive (ASD).

Electric drive
Electric Mechanical
Electric
power VSD load (or power
machine
source source)
GRID

Ref
Controller

400V, 50 Hz

202
5.3. Induction machine variable-speed drives
5.3.3. a. Power electronic converters
• Power electronics is the branch of Electrical Engineering that deals with the transformation and control of
high voltages and currents.
• It is based on a wise combination of diodes and fast-commutating (>kHz) solid-state relays manufactured
with semiconducting materials (mosfets, IGBTs).

• The current cheap prices of semiconductor devices has led to a great development of power electronics.
• Power electronic converters are currently present in most sectors: industrial, home, services, transportation,
power generation and transmission, aerospace, etc.

203

5.3. Induction machine variable-speed drives

• A power converter allows the power exchange between two power sources with different characteristics.
• The characteristics of these two sources determine the required power converter.

DC-DC converters DC-AC converters (inverters) AC-DC converters (rectifiers) AC-AC converters

DC AC AC

DC AC
~ ~ DC
~ AC
~
DC ~ ~ ~ ~
DC AC AC
~ ~ ~ ~
Power AC DC AC
~ ~ ~ ~

Power Power Power

204
5.3. Induction machine variable-speed drives
5.3.3. b. Operation quadrants of an electric drive
• Rotating electric machines exchange power between electrical and mechanical systems. They are always reversible.
V, I T, Ω
Electric power Electric Mechanical
(power electronics) Pelec machine Pmec power

• The mechanical power is Pmec = Tm ·Ωm. If Pmec > 0 with passive sign convention, the machine operates as a motor, while
if Pmec < 0, it operates as a generator.
• The power electronics converter is the electrical power source. Similarly, assuming passive sign convention, if Pelec > 0
the machine is working as a motor, while if Pelec < 0 it operates as generator.
• The operation quadrants of an electric drive are defined based on the sign of torque and speed.

205

5.3. Induction machine variable-speed drives

T

Tm Tm
IV I
Ωm Ωm Positive rotation

Brake Motor
(Generator)
Tm Tm Ω
Ωm Ωm

III Motor Brake II Tm

T
Tm

Ωm IV I Ωm
(Generator)
Elevator Elevator
going going up
down
The operation quadrants required from an electric drive Ω
depend on its application: Cabin mass > Counterweight
Tm Tm
T
• Quadrant I: fan, pump, electric bike. Ωm IV I Ωm

• Quadrants I and IV: crane, elevator without counterweight. Elevator goin

down
Elevator
going up

• Quadrants I and II: escalator with brake. Tm Tm

Ω
Ωm Ωm

• Quadrants I, II, III and IV: train, electric car.

III II
206
Counterweight mass > Cabin
5.3. Induction machine variable-speed drives

• The operating limits of the electric drive are related to the rated voltage (speed) as well as the rated current (torque).
• While the rated voltage should not be surpassed at any time, a current higher than the rated can be managed during short
periods of time.

Transient operating region

T
(Imax) Tmax
(IN) TN PN

Ω= 0 ΩN
Steady-state operating (VN)
area

207

5.3. Induction machine variable-speed drives

5.3.3. c. Why does the voltage need to be modified?
• The induction machine has a magnetic circuit with two air gaps:
𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠 − 𝑁𝑁𝑟𝑟 𝑖𝑖𝑟𝑟 = 𝜙𝜙𝑀𝑀 ℜ𝑚𝑚
φM φM ℜg
is ir 𝑁𝑁𝑟𝑟 𝜙𝜙𝑀𝑀 ℜ𝑚𝑚
+ + 𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠 − 𝑖𝑖 =
vs N1 N2 vr 𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑟 𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠
N s is N r ir
𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠
𝜙𝜙𝑀𝑀 = 𝑖𝑖
ℜ𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚

• The rated flux is desired in a machine (highest torque available while avoiding saturation).
• im should be kept constant.
𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 φ
𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠 = 𝐿𝐿𝑟 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 = + i0 + +
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑠𝑠 𝐿𝐿𝑟 φ > φN
is ir
φN
• Therefore, in order to keep 𝜙𝜙 = 𝜙𝜙𝑁𝑁 : vs im L0 N s Nr

𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠,𝑁𝑁 im
= = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑑𝑑 V/F control − − −
𝜔𝜔𝑠𝑠 𝜔𝜔𝑠𝑠,𝑁𝑁 im, N

208
5.3. Induction machine variable-speed drives
5.3.3. d. Torque – speed characteristic with varying frequency
• The variation of the power supply frequency modifies the synchronous speed. Ωs
Fmms
𝜔𝜔𝑠𝑠 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠
Ω𝑚𝑚 = Ω𝑠𝑠 1 − 𝑠𝑠 = 1 − 𝑠𝑠 = 1 − 𝑠𝑠
𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝 C'
B
• According to Ferraris’ Theorem, the rotating field created in the air gap by means Fmmr c'
of the stator winding rotates at synchronous speed Ωs. TO' Ωs t T
b o O
• The VSD moves the torque-speed characteristic along the X axis. Ωm
to' b'
𝑅𝑅𝑟𝑟 𝑅𝑅𝑟𝑟 3 𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠2 C c
smax = ≈ 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚𝑙𝑙𝑚𝑚 = B'
2
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 + 𝜔𝜔𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒 2 𝜔𝜔𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒 2 𝜔𝜔 ⋅ 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠2 + 𝜔𝜔𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒 2 + 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠
𝑠𝑠

𝑅𝑅𝑟𝑟 3𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠2 3𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠2

Ω𝑚𝑚𝑙𝑙𝑚𝑚 = 1 − 𝑠𝑠𝑚𝑚𝑙𝑙𝑚𝑚 ⋅ Ω𝑠𝑠 = Ω𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚𝑙𝑙𝑚𝑚 ≈ ≈
𝑝𝑝 ⋅ 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒 2𝜔𝜔𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝜔𝜔𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒 + 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 2𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒 ⋅ 𝜔𝜔𝑠𝑠2
T

Tload

ΩsN Ω
Tload

209

5.3. Induction machine variable-speed drives

5.3.3. e. Open-loop control of the VSD
• A mechanical speed Ωm,ref wants to be achieved
• The synchronous speed can be imposed by means of the VSD: 𝜔𝜔𝑠𝑠 = 𝑝𝑝 ⋅ Ω𝑠𝑠 = 𝑝𝑝 ⋅ Ω𝑚𝑚,𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑟
𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 = 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠,𝑁𝑁 ⋅
𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠,𝑁𝑁
• The machine reaches the speed Ω𝑚𝑚 = (1 − 𝑠𝑠) ⋅ Ω𝑠𝑠 = (1 − 𝑠𝑠) ⋅ Ω𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑟

• The slip leads to an error, which is usually small (< 5%).

Ωm = 587 rpm 700

240V, 30 Hz
600

Power
Power Electric Mechanical 500
source
(Nm)

machine load
Par (Nm)

converter 400
(grid)
Torque

300

p=3 200

100

Ωref = 600 rpm

Controller 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Velocidad mecánica
Mechanical speed(rpm)
(rpm)

p = 3, Fnet= 50 Hz Fs = 30 Hz Ωm = 587 rpm

Despite this error, the control is robust and widely used
Ωref = 600 rpm Ωs = 600 rpm Ωm = 574 rpm 210
5.3. Induction machine variable-speed drives
Slip compensation

• In order to have a more accurate speed control in open loop, the synchronous frequency is slightly increased.
• The synchronous frequency to be imposed is calculated as:
700
Ω𝑠𝑠 = Ω𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑟 + ΔΩ𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑚𝑚𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑙 ⇒ Ω𝑚𝑚 ≈ Ω𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑟
600
31.3 Hz

(Nm)(Nm)
500
• For the computation of ΔΩ𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑚𝑚𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑙 : 30 Hz
400

Torque
– Linearize the torque – speed characteristic from s = 0
(T = 0) to s =sN (T =TN).

Par
300
Ω𝑠𝑠,𝑁𝑁 − Ω𝑁𝑁
𝑚𝑚 = 200 Tload
𝑇𝑇𝑁𝑁
100
– Estimate the torque, if it is not known, from the consumed
power. 0
3 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠 cos 𝜑𝜑𝑠𝑠 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
𝑇𝑇𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑚𝑚𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑙 = Velocidad mecánica
Ω𝑠𝑠 Mechanical speed (rpm)
(rpm)

– Compute ΔΩ𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑚𝑚𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑙 .
p = 3, Fgrid = 50 Hz
ΔΩ𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑚𝑚𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑙 =𝑚𝑚·𝑇𝑇𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑚𝑚𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑙 Ωref = 600 rpm Ωm ≈ 600 rpm ✔

Fs = 31.3 Hz Error <0.5%

Almost all commercial drives in open loop include the slip compensation. Ωs = 626 rpm
211

5.3. Induction machine variable-speed drives

5.3.3. f. Closed-loop control of the VSD
• If the speed of the machine can be measured, the error is compensated by means of a closed-loop controller.

Power Vs, Fs
Electronic Electric Mechanical
source Ωm
converter machine load
(grid)

Ωref Measurement
Controller
(T, Ω, θ)

✔ Ω m = Ω ref

212
5.3. Induction machine variable-speed drives
5.3.3. g. Low-speed performance – IR compensation
• When the rotor rotates close to rated speed, the induced voltage in the stator Es is very similar to the supply
voltage, Es ≈ Vs . Therefore, the flux is close to the rated flux.
Is Xs Rs Ir Xr Rr

Im
Vs Es R0 X0 𝑅𝑅 1 − 𝑠𝑠 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠
𝑟𝑟 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 ≈ = 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚,𝑁𝑁 𝜙𝜙𝑀𝑀 = 𝜙𝜙𝑀𝑀,𝑁𝑁
𝑠𝑠 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑠𝑠 𝐿𝐿𝑟

• However, for low speeds, the supply voltage is reduced, and the voltage drop across Rs becomes relevant.

𝐸𝐸̄ = 𝑉𝑉̄𝑠𝑠 − 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼̄𝑠𝑠 − 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑠𝑠 𝐿𝐿𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼̄𝑠𝑠 Case study

Small 𝜔𝜔𝑠𝑠 𝐸𝐸 ≈ 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 − 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠 VS, N = 380 V, fS, N = 50 Hz, IS, N = 10 A, RS = 1Ω
Assume PF=1
- fs = 50 Hz ,
𝐸𝐸𝑠𝑠 𝐸𝐸 ≈ 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 − 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠 = 370𝑉𝑉 ΔV = 2.5%
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 = < 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚,𝑁𝑁 𝜙𝜙𝑀𝑀 < 𝜙𝜙𝑀𝑀,𝑁𝑁 Vs = 380 V
𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑠𝑠 𝐿𝐿𝑟
- fs = 5 Hz,
𝐸𝐸 ≈ 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 − 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠 = 28𝑉𝑉 ΔV = 26%
Vs = 38 V

213

5.3. Induction machine variable-speed drives

• The reduced flux entails a lower torque capability

• To avoid this problem, the voltage drop in Rs is compensated by feeding the machine at a higher voltage,
calculated as:
𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 = 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠,𝑁𝑁 ⋅ + 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠
𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠,𝑁𝑁

800
50 Hz
700
40 Hz Is Xs Rs Ir Xr Rr
600
Par (Nm)(Nm)

30 Hz
500 I0
20 Hz
Torque

400
10 Hz Vs Es R0 X0 1 − 𝑠𝑠
300 𝑅𝑅𝑟𝑟
𝑠𝑠
200 Tload
100

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Velocidad mecánica (rpm)
Mechanical speed (rpm)

214
5.3. Induction machine variable-speed drives
Grid
5.3.3. h. High-speed performance – Ω𝑆𝑆 > Ω𝑆𝑆,𝑁𝑁
• Due to its topology, the VSD cannot provide an output
Vgrid, fgrid ~ AC DC Vs, fs

voltage ​higher than the input. However, the frequency can be

increased, driving the machine at a speed above rated speed.
~ Motor

~ DC AC

• However, it is not possible to keep a constant V / f ratio when Ω𝑆𝑆 > Ω𝑆𝑆,𝑁𝑁 , thereby reducing the maximum
torque that can be provided by the machine.
800
50 Hz
700

600 60 Hz
Par (Nm)(Nm)

500
70 Hz
Torque

400 Overspeed
operation
300 Tload
200
Tload
100

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 Ω𝑁𝑁 Ω
Velocidad
Mechanicalmecánica
speed(rpm)
(rpm)

𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 > 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠,𝑁𝑁 , 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 = 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠,𝑁𝑁 ⇒ 𝜙𝜙 < 𝜙𝜙𝑁𝑁

215

5.3. Induction machine variable-speed drives

5.3.4. Power electronics for the VSD
5.3.4. a. Power electronics topology

• The electricity grid is an AC voltage source: imposed voltage effective value frequency.
• However, the VSD feeds the machine with variable voltage and frequency.
• Therefore, an AC / AC conversion device is required.
• AC to AC conversions need to be tackled in two stages (AC/DC and DC/AC).

Grid Rectifier Inverter

~
~
AC
Motor
~ AC DC bus DC

~
AC ~ Motor

Vgrid, fgrid Vs, fs

~ DC AC

Vgrid, fgrid AC/AC converter Vs, fs

• A power converter is made up of semiconductor devices used as power switches.

• The type of semiconductors used in each converter is determined by the required reversibility in voltage
and current. 216
5.3. Induction machine variable-speed drives

• The power converters are made up of elementary switching cells, consisting in 2 complementary switches.
In the case of the power variator, the internal structure is as follows:

Rectifier Inverter
VDC

VR S1

VS IM

VT
S2

Basic switching cell

• Depending on the required operating quadrants (reversibility in power, current and voltage), the semiconductor
device is selected in accordance.

217

5.3. Induction machine variable-speed drives

Rectifier
• Diodes are the most common option as power electronic switches for the rectifiers used in electric machines
drives.
• They allow operation in quadrants I and III, as a motor. Power reversibility is avoided.
Rectifier Rectifier
VDC VDC
Ik

Vk
VR VR

VS VS
Ik
VT VT

Vk

DC bus

• The rectifier (three-phase diode bridge) provides a DC voltage that is stabilized by means of the set of
capacitors called DC bus.

218
 5.3. Induction machine variable-speed drives
• Analysis of the six-pulse full-bridge rectifier.
o The highest voltage among the three phases is connected to DC bus +.
o The lowest voltage among the three phases is connected to DC bus –.

v VDC VDC,mean

iDC

VR
+
VS
VDC

t VT –

DC bus
VST VTR VRS

Result
Inversion of the negative parts of the three line-to-line voltages and connection of the highest one to the DC bus.
219

5.3. Induction machine variable-speed drives

Inverter
• By means of an elementary switching cell, alternating voltages can be obtained with 2 switching states F:

Inverter Single-phase analysis Switching states

VDC

F=1

VDC/2 v10 = VDC/2

IM 0
1

F=0
VDC/2
v10 = –VDC/2

Example. VDC = 800 V

Average value <v>
• Desired output voltage:
240 V ‹v10›= 240 V

• Desired output voltage:

-240 V ‹v10›= −240 V

220
5.3. Induction machine variable-speed drives
• By dynamically changing the opening and closing times (duty cycle) a sinusoidal voltage can be achieved:

• Given the inductive nature of electric machines, a filter is usually not required in the output of the power converter.
• Considering the three phases of the system, three voltage levels build up the line-to-line voltage.

Voltage Current

221

5.3. Induction machine variable-speed drives

• IGBT transistors are the most usual power electronic switches for inverters.
• By the addition of an antiparallel diode (which is usually included in the IGBT package) current reversibility is
allowed.
Inverter
VDC Inverter
Ik
Ik
Ik
Ik
VDC

+
Vk Vk
Vk Vk

Ik
Ik

Vk
Vk

• The final structure of the inverter is reversible in power  can therefore also work as a rectifier (AC / DC).

222
5.3. Induction machine variable-speed drives

5.3.4. b. Power reversibility in the VSD

Variable-speed drive

Pelec Pelec
Vgrid, fgrid Vs, fs
DC bus
IM

Rectifier Inverter

• Only the inverter is reversible in power, while the rectifier is not.

• Given the series connection of both power converters, the resulting VSD does not allow power reversibility.
• This structure therefore only allows operation in quadrants I and III (as a motor).

Vs, Fs
R
Vgrid, fgrid S IM
T

223

5.3. Induction machine variable-speed drives

• Even when the electric drives operates as a motor, a braking operation (quadrants II and IV) may be required.
• The inverter can operate in these quadrants, extracting power from the induction machine and delivering it to
the DC bus.
• In such case, the voltage of the DC bus increases, storing this power:

Vs, Fs
R
Rbraking
Vgrid, fgrid S IM
T

Capacitor Machine
Kinetic energy
energy braking
1 2 1 2
𝐸𝐸𝐶𝐶 = 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉 𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 = 𝐼𝐼Ω
2 𝐷𝐷𝐶𝐶 2 𝑚𝑚
• A braking resistance is used to allow machine braking avoiding overvoltage risk in the DC bus.
• Another solution would be to make the structure totally reversible by replacing the rectifier with another inverter
(more complex and expensive structure) and return the energy to the grid

224
 5.3. Induction machine variable-speed drives
5.3.5. Comparison of VSD with other induction machine drives
Allows fine speed control in the whole range. Requires a power electronics converter (VSD).
In motor operation, speeds higher than the rated. Slip error.
Keeps a small slip (high efficiency) for any load Behavior at low speeds.
torque – speed characteristic and speed.
Behavior at speeds higher than rated.
Starting current is limited.
Starting torque can be close to Tmax. ~ AC DC
Vgrid, Fgrid
~ Motor Load

300 ~ DC AC Vs, Fs

250 800
50 Hz
estator (A)
(A)

700
200 50 Hz
Stator current

600
40 Hz 40 Hz

(Nm)
500
150

Par (Nm)
30 Hz
Corriente

400

Torque
30 Hz
100 300

200 Tload
50
100

0
0 0 200 400 600 800 1000
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Mechanical speed
Velocidad mecánica (rpm)
(rpm)
Velocidad mecánica (rpm)
Mechanical speed (rpm) s3 ≠ s2 ≠ s1 225

Contents

5.1- Introduction

5.2- Induction machine single-speed drives

5.3- Induction machine variable-speed drives

5.4- Synchronous machine single-speed

drives

5.5- Synchronous machine variable-speed

drives
5.4. Synchronous machine single-speed drives
• The synchronous machine is a rotating machine whose main characteristic is that, unlike the induction
machine, only produces torque at synchronous speed. In other words, the rotor speed is imposed by the
stator frequency.
• Torque – speed characteristic of a synchronous machine:

𝑇𝑇 = −𝑘𝑘 𝐹𝐹̄𝐴𝐴 ∧ 𝐹𝐹̄𝑙𝑙 = −𝑘𝑘𝐹𝐹𝐴𝐴 𝐹𝐹𝑙𝑙 sin(𝑝𝑝𝜃𝜃𝑚𝑚 )

T
Fs 𝛺𝛺𝑠𝑠
Tm
C'
B
𝜃𝜃𝑚𝑚
Fr
A' A
𝛺𝛺𝑟𝑟 Ω𝑚𝑚
a
Tload
C
B' Ω

Ω= 0 Ωs
• The rotor field rotates fixed to the rotor (Ωm = Ωr )
• If the rotor rotates at synchronous speed (Ωs = Ωr ):

𝑇𝑇 = −𝑘𝑘 · 𝐹𝐹𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑟𝑟 · 𝐹𝐹𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 · 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑐𝑐 𝑝𝑝𝜃𝜃𝑚𝑚 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑑𝑑

226

5.4. Synchronous machine single-speed drives

The problem of a direct start with a synchronous machine
• If a synchronous machine is directly connected to a network, a three-phase set of currents is established in a few milliseconds,
and thus a rotating field is created in the stator Fmm,s which turns at a frequency Ωs.
• The rotor dynamics are much slower, given 𝐽𝐽 𝑑𝑑𝜔𝜔𝑚𝑚
Fs 𝛺𝛺𝑠𝑠 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 − 𝑇𝑇𝑙𝑙 = ⋅
its mechanical inertia. 𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• Therefore, at t ≈ 0, Ωr ≈ 0. 𝜃𝜃𝑚𝑚 F Considering that 𝛺𝛺𝑠𝑠 ≫ 𝛺𝛺𝑟𝑟 :
r

𝛺𝛺𝑟𝑟 ≈ 0 Ω𝑟𝑟 ≈ 0

𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 = −𝑘𝑘 · 𝐹𝐹𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑟𝑟 · 𝐹𝐹𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 · sin 𝜃𝜃𝑚𝑚 + 𝛺𝛺𝑠𝑠 − 𝛺𝛺𝑟𝑟 · 𝑑𝑑 ≈ −𝑘𝑘 · 𝐹𝐹𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑟𝑟 · 𝐹𝐹𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 · sin 𝛺𝛺𝑠𝑠 · 𝑑𝑑
Ωs t (number of turns)

Tm (Nm) • Direct start example: fs = 50 Hz, p = 1Ωs= 3000 rpm.

• Ωr is far from Ωs, so the motor has an oscillating torque.
• The machine cannot be directly started.
Ωr = ωr (rpm)

227
 5.4. Synchronous machine single-speed drives

• Drawbacks of a synchronous motor directly connected to a grid (constant frequency):

– Cannot start by itself, the rotor must be brought up to synchronous speed by another machine.
– The speed cannot be modified.
• Despite its high efficiency, and the ability to supply / absorb reactive power, the lack of self-starting capability
prevents all use of synchronous machine as motor for single-speed operation
T
Tm

Ω𝑚𝑚
Tload
Ω

Ω= 0 Ωs

• With the development of power electronic converters, and specifically the variable-speed drive,
synchronous machines are used as variable speed drive (the frequency of the power supplied to the
stator is controlled).
228

Contents

5.1- Introduction

5.2- Induction machine single-speed drives

5.3- Induction machine variable-speed drives

5.4- Synchronous machine single-speed

drives

5.5- Synchronous machine variable-speed

drives
5.5. Synchronous machine variable-speed drives

• The DC machine has been historically used for applications requiring high accuracy
• The permanent-magnet synchronous machine, along with a modern power converter, allows the same control
accuracy as the DC machine, with remarkable advantages:
– No brushes required.
– Higher torque / inertia ratio (faster drive).
– No power losses in the rotor.
– Higher power / volume ratio.
• These characteristics have led to a great increase in the use of the synchronous machine in servo systems,
which require fast actions (machine tool, robotics, etc.).
• The synchronous machine, together with a DC/AC power converter is known as brushless DC machine.

Brushless DC machine
Grid

~ AC DC DC

~ SM
Battery or other
DC source SM

~ DC AC AC

229

5.5. Synchronous machine variable-speed drives

• There are several types of permanent-magnet synchronous machines:

– Permanent magnet synchronous motor Note that wound rotors are usually
avoided for motors, due to its lower
– Brushless DC motor efficiency, and the need for brushes
– Variable reluctance motor
• The permanent magnet synchronous motor has better efficiency and power / weight ratio than induction
machines  It is used in applications where weight and efficiency are relevant: on-board systems (airplanes,
electric vehicles, etc.).
• Brushless DC and variable reluctance motors are the preferred selection for duty applications.

230
 5.5. Synchronous machine variable-speed drives
Power electronics topology for the permanent-magnet synchronous motor
• The VSD analyzed for induction machines can be used for the DC bus
permanent-magnet synchronous motor. Vs, fs
R
• The inverter can create, by means of the PWM modulation, a
S SM
sinusoidal voltage with the desired voltage Vs and frequency fs,
T
which is fed to the stator of the machine. Vgrid
• Sinusoidal currents with a frequency fs are thereby established. fgrid

• The duty cycle needs to be dynamically modified to achieve this

performance.
v10 1 ia Phase R
• The drive can be schematically represented by means of a three-
phase squared voltage source feeding a wye-connected motor. v20 2 ib Phase S
0 N
• The current fed into the synchronous motor is controlled by v30 3 ic Phase T
means of the average voltage applied to each phase.

Inverter Y motor

The inverter can determine In order to control the

the phase voltages phase currents
<v10>, <v20>, <v30> ia, ib, ic
231

5.5. Synchronous machine variable-speed drives

• Constant duty-cycle voltage fed to an RL circuit: v(t)

vDC
R
𝑣𝑣𝐷𝐷𝐶𝐶 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠
L 𝑖𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝐷𝐷 · 1 − 𝑒𝑒 − 𝐿𝐿
𝑅𝑅
t
In steady state: i(t) iavg
v(t)
𝑣𝑣𝐷𝐷𝐶𝐶
𝐼𝐼𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝐷𝐷 ·
𝑅𝑅
t
With D (duty cycle):
D = tON / T

• Operation in a synchronous machine: Voltage Current

o The voltage fed to the machine is a
commutated waveform.
o The fundamental component has the
desired frequency
o The current is a filtered waveform with
the desired frequency

232
5.5. Synchronous machine variable-speed drives

• A current control entails the control of amplitude and position of the stator magnetomotive force.

ia (t ) = I ⋅ sin (θ s )
Position of Fmm, s  θs
ib (t ) = I ⋅ sin (θ s − 2π 3)
Amplitude of Fmm, s  Ks∙I Magnetic axis
ic (t ) = I ⋅ sin (θ s + 2π 3) of phase A

Full control over Fmm,s

C'
B

A
A Fmm, s A' A
+
+
Magnetic axis Magnetic axis
of phase B of phase C
C
Fmm, s
B'

B C+
B C
+ +
+
𝜃𝜃𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑1 = 0 𝜃𝜃𝑠𝑠 (𝑑𝑑2 ) = 90°
𝑖𝑖𝑙𝑙 (𝑑𝑑1 ) = 0 𝑖𝑖𝑙𝑙 (𝑑𝑑) = 𝐼𝐼
− 3 𝐼𝐼
𝑖𝑖𝑏𝑏 𝑑𝑑1 = ⋅ 𝐼𝐼 𝑖𝑖𝑏𝑏 𝑑𝑑 = −
2 2
3 𝐼𝐼
𝑖𝑖𝑐𝑐 (𝑑𝑑1 ) = ⋅ 𝐼𝐼 𝑖𝑖𝑐𝑐 (𝑑𝑑) = −
2 2
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5.5. Synchronous machine variable-speed drives

Starting the permanent-magnet synchronous motor
• At t = 0, the rotor is stopped (ωr = 0). Its position at this time (θr) can be measured.
• By controlling the current, the stator's magnetic field can be established as θs = θr + 90º  θm = 90º.
• At this time, a torque is generated between the two fields. If the motor torque is greater than the load torque, the
shaft starts rotating.
𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 = 𝐾𝐾 ⋅ 𝐹𝐹𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚,𝑟𝑟 ⋅ 𝐹𝐹𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚,𝑠𝑠
𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 > 𝑇𝑇𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 ⇒ 𝜔𝜔𝑟𝑟 ↑
• ωr increases slightly, and θr is measured again. θs is updated to achieve again θs = θr + 90º  θm = 90º.
• ωr and ωs increase, always maintaining 90º, until the desired speed is reached.
• Once the desired speed is reached, θm can be modified to achieve Tm = TC.
• By imposing θm = 90º, the desired torque is achieved with the minimum current.
Tm
Tm Fmm, r
Fmm,s
Fmm, r
ωr
ωs ωr Fmm,s
θm θr ωs

234
5.5. Synchronous machine variable-speed drives
Final assembly of the drive
• The power source can be an AC grid (main electricity grid, a train catenary, a stand-alone grid of an airplane, etc.) or a
DC battery (electric vehicle, drone, etc.).
• A rectifier is required in the case of an AC grid.

Optional: If braking is required

and the rectifier is not reversible

Braking DC Inverter
Vgrid, fgrid branch bus Vs, fs Encoder
DC
MS
AC

Rectifier 𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐𝑙𝑙𝑐𝑐1 𝑖𝑖𝑙𝑙,𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑠

𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐𝑙𝑙𝑐𝑐2 𝑖𝑖𝑏𝑏,𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑠
𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐𝑙𝑙𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑖𝑖𝑐𝑐,𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑠

Tref
θr
Control

235