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The North Temperate Zone, with strong seasonal changes in temperature and weather, is the zone of
the highest civilization and of the greatest energy of man. How does a heavy snowstorm affect travel
and transportation. These slight movements are magnified by means of levers, a chain, and a spindle,
and are made to turn an index hand or pointer on the face of the instrument. Another new column
must be added in the record book for the cloudiness. Farmers and shippers of fruit, meat, and
vegetables anxiously watch the bulletins of cold or warm waves, and guard against damage by frost
or excessive heat. On account of this equal pressure in all directions, we speak of the pressure of the
air instead of its weight. Moist and unstable air—Produces widespread cloud masses in which
altocumulus, cumulonimbus, and thunderstorms are embedded. Shallow clouds might seem more
benign, but play a critical role in Earth’s energy balance and cover much of the Earth’s oceans. Its
tube is narrowed just above the bulb, in such a way that the mercury passes through the constriction
with some difficulty. This process, called four-dimensional data assimilation (see below), improves
the accuracy of the weather model. Mercury is the liquid universally employed in barometers. Were
the temperature changes more sudden and marked. Prevailingly overcast skies have a depressing
effect. The object of magnifying the amount in this way is to measure a very small quantity more
easily. In order that thermometers may indicate this temperature, they must, if possible, be placed in
an open space where there is an unobstructed circulation of the air, and they must be protected from
the direct rays of the sun. Brief instructions concerning the care and adjustments of these instruments
are sent out by the makers with each instrument. The words fair, stormy, etc., which frequently
appear on the face of aneroid barometers, are of little use in foretelling weather changes, as no
definite pressures always occur with the same weather conditions. Is it usually uncomfortably cold
during a snowstorm. Unless the air is saturated with water vapor, the evaporation from the surface of
the wet-bulb thermometer will lower the temperature indicated by that instrument below that shown
by the dry-bulb thermometer next to it, from which there is no evaporation. On the famous Lady
Franklin Bay Expedition (1881-1884) of Lieutenant (now General) A. W. Greely, of the United
States Army, meteorological observations were kept up by the few feeble survivors, after death by
disease and starvation had almost wiped out the party altogether, and when those who were left had
but a few hours to live unless rescue came at once. Does the pressure seem to vary more or less in the
colder months than in the warmer. An ordinary aneroid barometer is shown in Fig. 6. FIG. 6. In this
instrument the changes in atmospheric pressure are measured by their effects in altering the shape of
a small metallic box, known as the vacuum chamber. Cold-front occlusion —Occurs when the
coldest air is under the cold front. AIRMASS Body of air with uniform temperature and moisture,
ORIGINATING from land “Continental”or from water “Maritime”. This barometer may be hung
against the wall of a room. A proper amount of bright sunshine is essential for the ripening of crops,
but too much sunshine may parch soil and vegetation, and become injurious. In civilized countries
lumbering is apt to be an important occupation in districts of heavy rainfall, as in Oregon and
Washington in our own country, and in Southern Chile in South America. When the total rainfall
more than fills the measuring tube, i.e., exceeds 2 inches, the receiver should first be lifted off and
the tube removed with great care so as not to spill any water. Temperature and State of Sky.—Do you
notice any relation between the temperature and the state of the sky. Torricelli had proved what he
had expected, viz., that the height of the column of liquid which replaces and balances an air column
of the same size varies with the weight of that liquid.
On account of this equal pressure in all directions, we speak of the pressure of the air instead of its
weight. The observation hour is preferably 8 P.M., but if this is inconvenient, or impracticable, the
reading may be made earlier in the afternoon. Man finds it easy to live without much work, and the
inhabitants of the Torrid Zone have not, as a rule, advanced far in the scale of civilization. The
February curve illustrates well the large and irregular fluctuations in pressure, characteristic of our
winter months; while the May curve shows clearly the more even quality of the pressure changes in
our summer. This region is known as the “Doldrums.” The temperatures that are felt at the surface of
the skin, especially where the skin is exposed, as on the face and hands, have been named sensible
temperatures. Meteorologists often focus on a specific scale in their wor%. The amount of moisture
in the air, or the humidity of the air, varies according to the temperature and other conditions. In the
Torrid Zone the changes of temperature are, as a whole, small. The weather forecasts for the day in
the newspaper are read even before the telegraphic despatches of important events. Where there is
very little rainfall deserts are found. When you fan yourself on a very hot day in summer, the
evaporation of the moisture on your face takes away some of the heat from the skin, and you feel
cooler. Have you noticed any regular change in your feelings as to warmth and cold during three or
four successive days. Hence they are important agents in preserving health. Wet-bulb readings at the
various stations of the Weather Bureau are entered on all our daily weather maps. As the temperature
falls, the mercury or alcohol contracts, and therefore stands at a lower level in the tube. Showers and
thunderstorms develop along the surface position, and a line of thunderstorms (squall line) frequently
develops ahead of the front. The number of calms should also be recorded. Rainfall.—The total
monthly precipitation is obtained by adding together all the separate amounts of rainfall noted in
your record book, and expressing the total, in inches and hundredths, at the bottom of the rainfall
column. References Blackadar, A.K. (1978). Modeling pollutant transfer during daytime convection.
It feeds lakes and rivers, thus furnishing means of transportation, power for running mills and
factories, and water supplies for cities. Is it common or uncommon for us to have a storm lasting
three or four days. These standards are the freezing and boiling points of distilled water. Did the last
month have more high winds than the one before. Sailors about to put to sea govern themselves
according to the storm warnings of our Weather Bureau. It should be used in conjunction with
lectures, discussions, textbooks and other teaching material. You will now be able to give fairly
definite answers to many of the questions asked in Chapter I. Weather can change from hour to hour,
day to day, and season to season. Is there any difference between the temperature of morning, noon,
afternoon, and evening. At best, however, this compensation is but imperfect, and this fact, together
with the friction of the different parts, the changes in the spring with age, and the need of frequent
adjustments, makes aneroids rather inaccurate. Moist and stable air —Produces clouds that are
stratiform and widespread over the shallow front. What changes of wind direction have you noted
before, during, and after any storm.
Cold fronts generally move faster and have a steeper slope than warm fronts. Sea breezes bring in
fresh, cool, pure air from the ocean on hot summer days. Even the hot, dry air of deserts contains
some moisture. References Blackadar, A.K. (1978). Modeling pollutant transfer during daytime
convection. This mean temperature should be written at the bottom of the temperature column, and
marked “Mean.” The mean monthly temperature is one of the important meteorological data in
considering the climatic conditions of any place. Wind.—Determine the frequency of the different
wind directions by counting the total number of times the wind has blown from N., NE., E., etc.,
during the month. The wind which you have observed the greatest number of times is the prevailing
wind. Frequent comparison with a mercurial barometer is necessary, the adjustment of the barograph
being made by turning a screw, underneath the column of shells, on the lower side of the wooden
case. FIG. 13. Barograph records are fully as interesting as those made by the thermograph. Do you
notice any systematic changes in wind direction which are often repeated. Shallow clouds might
seem more benign, but play a critical role in Earth’s energy balance and cover much of the Earth’s
oceans. The energy absorbed by airborne molecules via radiation can cause them to break apart and
react with other compounds and initiate much of the photochemistry in the atmosphere. Fasten a
narrow strip 3 inches wide across the window outside, and from 8 to 12 inches from the window-
pane. Has the warmer or cooler weather continued for a day or so, or has another change quickly
followed the first. Brief instructions concerning the care and adjustments of these instruments are
sent out by the makers with each instrument. This tube, closed at the top and open at the bottom, is
filled with mercury, the lower, open end dipping into a cup of mercury known as the cistern. When
the air contains as much water vapor as it can hold, it is said to be saturated. Have you discovered
any rule as to the time of day when rainstorms or snowstorms begin. Man finds it easy to live
without much work, and the inhabitants of the Torrid Zone have not, as a rule, advanced far in the
scale of civilization. Scientific approach Conceptually, atmospheric radiation is divided into two
broad categories: Incoming solar radiation consists of shorter wavelengths (ultra-violet and visible).
Another new column must be added in the record book for the cloudiness. When this is done, a
column of water rises in the tube until the top of this column is about 34 feet above the level of the
rest of the water in the well. The difference between the pressure marked by this set pointer and that
shown by the index hand at the next observation is the measure of the change of pressure in the
interval. If any water happens to be spilled during its removal from the overflow attachment, then
the amount in the tube will be less than 2 inches, and it must be carefully measured before the latter
is emptied. Students will be reviewed initially at the end of their second semester on campus and
each academic year thereafter. M eteorology focuses on the lower parts of the atmosphere, primarily
the troposphere, where most weather ta%es place. Plans can change based on demand or other
factors, so we appreciate your patience if we need to make changes. In the standard Weather Bureau
gauges the ratio of the area of the receiver to the area of the measuring tube is such that the depth of
rainfall is magnified exactly ten times. A cold, calm day is pleasanter than a cold, windy day. It
affects very markedly our bodily sensations of heat or cold. The object of magnifying the amount in
this way is to measure a very small quantity more easily. The minimum thermometer is filled with
alcohol, and contains within its tube a small black object, called the index, which resembles a
double-headed black pin. When invisible it is known as water vapor, and is a gas.
AIRMASS Body of air with uniform temperature and moisture, ORIGINATING from land
“Continental”or from water “Maritime”. In summer, cloudy, cool days come as a sudden relief when
we have been suffering from intense heat, with brilliant sunshine. In general, inexperienced learners
and younger learners will require more guidance than more-experienced and older learners who are
better equipped to take responsibility for their learning. State of the Sky.—By the state of the sky is
meant the condition of the sky as to its cloudiness. This mean temperature should be written at the
bottom of the temperature column, and marked “Mean.” The mean monthly temperature is one of the
important meteorological data in considering the climatic conditions of any place. Wind.—Determine
the frequency of the different wind directions by counting the total number of times the wind has
blown from N., NE., E., etc., during the month. The wind which you have observed the greatest
number of times is the prevailing wind. Also-most often associated with warm fronts rather than
cold fronts. When there are a few clouds in the sky, are these usually scattered all over the sky, or
are they in groups. Does there seem to be more wind from one compass point than from another. The
number of calms should also be recorded. Rainfall.—The total monthly precipitation is obtained by
adding together all the separate amounts of rainfall noted in your record book, and expressing the
total, in inches and hundredths, at the bottom of the rainfall column. Can you make any general rules
for weather prediction based on the action of the barometer. By means of tables, constructed on the
basis of laboratory experiments, we may, knowing the readings of the wet and dry-bulb
thermometers, easily determine the dew-point and the relative humidity of the air—important factors
in meteorological observations (see Chapter XXVI). Are these changes related in any way to the
changes in the other weather elements. A strong steel spring, inside or outside of the vacuum
chamber, holds apart the corrugated surfaces, which tend to collapse, owing to the pressure of the
external air upon them. Before beginning observations with the ordinary instruments, accustom
yourself to making and recording observations of a general character, such as may be carried out
without the use of any instruments whatever. The surface layer similarity functions are estimated by
analytical approximations from state variables. This fact need not, however, be taken into account by
the observer, for the numbers used in graduating the measuring sticks have all been divided by 10,
and therefore they represent the actual rainfall. Does a sky wholly covered with clouds always give
us rain or snow. Whether you are a freshman, a transfer student, or a student with a previous degree,
we will find a plan that fits your goals. The observation hour is preferably 8 P.M., but if this is
inconvenient, or impracticable, the reading may be made earlier in the afternoon. The outer margin of
the face, underneath the glass, is graduated into inches and hundredths, and the pressure may thus be
read at once. Hence it follows that, if the temperature is lowered when air is saturated, the capacity
of the air is diminished. In this form of psychrometer there is no vessel of water and no wick, but the
muslin cover of the wet-bulb thermometer must be thoroughly wet, by immersion in water, just
before each observation. Precipitation is continuous and induces widespread stratus in the cold air.
When invisible it is known as water vapor, and is a gas. Below is a tentative plan for which
semesters we plan to offer which course. In place of the vague and untrustworthy statements
concerning hot and cold, warm and cool days, we now have actual degrees of temperature to serve
as a basis for comparison of day with day or month with month. The prerequisites listed on this math
prerequisite page should help you determine which math you are ready for. The greater the pressure
on the surface of the water in the well, the higher will be the top of the water in the pump. Has the
velocity of the wind any relation to the rain or snowstorm. Continue your non-instrumental record of
the time of beginning and ending of the precipitation as before.
Pleim-Xiu Land Surface Model The PX LSM (Pleim and Xiu, 2003; Xiu and Pleim, 2001), originally
based on the ISBA model (Noilhan and Planton, 1989), includes a 2-layer force-restore soil
temperature and moisture model. Observers taking regular weather records are stationed at thousands
of different places in all parts of the world, and the observations which they make are used by
meteorologists in preparing daily weather maps and forecasts, and in studying the conditions of
temperature, winds, and rainfall. The above processes all act simultaneously with complicated
interdependencies. The cylinder revolves once in a week, being driven by clock-work contained
within it. Nightlight Studios and the authors of this guide developed the game, which should be the
culminating experience in learning about meteorology as the learner has the opportunity to better
understand the dynamics of hurricanes. Wind and State of Sky.—Has the direction of the wind
anything to do with the cloudiness. Have you noticed any regular change in your feelings as to
warmth and cold during three or four successive days. Students will be reviewed initially at the end
of their second semester on campus and each academic year thereafter. Report this Document
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now Jump to Page You are on page 1 of 2 Search inside document. Fasten a narrow strip 3 inches
wide across the window outside, and from 8 to 12 inches from the window-pane. The non-
instrumental observations, suggested in the preceding chapter, prepare the way for the more exact
records of the weather elements which are obtainable only by the use of instruments. Either water or
mercury may be used as the liquid in the barometer. In what weather conditions do the sensible
temperatures differ most from the air temperatures. On the other hand, when the temperature falls,
the index is drawn towards the bulb by the surface cohesion of the alcohol, the top or right end of
the index thus marking the lowest temperature reached. The movements of the shells are magnified
by being carried through a series of levers, and, as in the thermograph, the motion is finally given to
a pen at the end of the long lever. Are there any fairly regular differences between the sensible
temperatures observed at your own station and the Weather Bureau stations. Denser cold air close to
the surface forces the warm air to slide over it. Steam and electric railways prepare their snow-plows
when a severe snowstorm is predicted. Can you make a list describing some of the clouds that you
see most often. Precipitation induced fog: evaporation from falling rain (verydense). The
temperature at which this change begins is called the dew-point of the air. The record book will need
two additional columns when wind observations are begun, as follows: — SAMPLE RECORD OF
TEMPERATURE AND WIND. Transport Processes Air pollutants do not generally remain where
they are emitted because of transport by the wind. Therefore, in convective conditions, the ACM2
can simulate rapid upward transport in buoyant plumes and local shear induced turbulent diffusion.
The February curve illustrates well the large and irregular fluctuations in pressure, characteristic of
our winter months; while the May curve shows clearly the more even quality of the pressure changes
in our summer. In place of the vague and untrustworthy statements concerning hot and cold, warm
and cool days, we now have actual degrees of temperature to serve as a basis for comparison of day
with day or month with month. Is there any difference between the temperature of morning, noon,
afternoon, and evening. It will readily be seen that, as the mercury in the tube rises, the level of the
mercury in the cistern falls, and vice versa, so that there is a varying relation between the two levels.
If it varies, is there any apparent system in the variations. The barograph may be placed upon a shelf
in the schoolroom, where it can remain free from disturbance, and yet where the record may be
clearly seen.
In this turbulent environment, mixing and random movement of eddies result in a diffusion-like
transport that is orders of magnitude larger than molecular diffusion. It is so heavy that only a small
column of it is necessary to balance the atmospheric pressure. The temperatures then recorded are the
highest and lowest reached during the preceding 24 hours. There is no end to the number and the
variety of our illustrations of these processes. Warm Front: Warmer air rides above and overtakes
cooler air. Thus, air with a relative humidity of 50% has just half as much water vapor in it as it
could hold. Can you make any general rules for weather prediction based on the action of the
barometer. On account of this equal pressure in all directions, we speak of the pressure of the air
instead of its weight. Cold fronts generally move faster and have a steeper slope than warm fronts.
The object of magnifying the amount in this way is to measure a very small quantity more easily. The
minimum thermometer, when attached to its support, is either exactly horizontal or else slopes
downward somewhat towards the bulb end, as shown in Fig. 7. These instruments, as their names
imply, register the highest and the lowest temperatures, respectively, which occur during each day of
24 hours. Obsgrid pre-processor is used to generate soil nudging inputs for the PX LSM. On one side
of this opening there is a strip of metal, graduated to inches and tenths or twentieths, by means of
which the height of the barometer is determined. Are we likely to have rainy weather with rising
barometer. What is the greatest difference in pressure which you have observed in a day. Do clouds
seem to have certain definite shapes and appearances which are to be seen often. Often a “line of
confrontation”with serious flying hazards. The upper end of the thermometer is firmly fastened, by
means of a screw, to a brass support, while the lower end rests upon a notched arm. Does most of
our rain come in brief showers, or in storms lasting a day or two. At sea level the normal barometer
reading is about 30 inches. The cross-arms are fixed upon a vertical axis having an endless screw at
its lower end. When the total rainfall more than fills the measuring tube, i.e., exceeds 2 inches, the
receiver should first be lifted off and the tube removed with great care so as not to spill any water. M
eteorology focuses on the lower parts of the atmosphere, primarily the troposphere, where most
weather ta%es place. Note the temperatures indicated by the wet and dry bulbs, and, by means of the
table in Chapter XXVI, obtain the dew-point and the relative humidity of the air at each observation.
Valpo meteorology students have also served internships at several regional broadcast stations and
many work for the campus radio and cable television stations. Does the sky usually become quickly
covered with clouds before a rain. Just as we have, in the earlier work, become familiar with our
typical weather changes and types, so we shall now have our eyes opened to the actual values of the
temperatures and precipitation connected with these changes. FIG. 1. The ordinary thermometer
(Greek: heat measure), the most commonly used and most widely known of all meteorological
instruments, was in an elementary form known to Galileo, and was used by him in his lectures at the
University of Padua during the years 1592 to 1609. Frequent comparison with a mercurial barometer
is necessary, the adjustment of the barograph being made by turning a screw, underneath the column
of shells, on the lower side of the wooden case. FIG. 13. Barograph records are fully as interesting
as those made by the thermograph. Do you discover any variation of cloudiness during the day, i.e.,
is it apt to be more cloudy in the afternoon than in the morning or at night. Over deserts the air is
often so hot and dry that evaporation from the face and hands is very great, and the skin is burned
and blistered.
At best, however, this compensation is but imperfect, and this fact, together with the friction of the
different parts, the changes in the spring with age, and the need of frequent adjustments, makes
aneroids rather inaccurate. The minimum thermometer is filled with alcohol, and contains within its
tube a small black object, called the index, which resembles a double-headed black pin. In the winter
does the temperature show any changes before a snowstorm. Are any particular kinds of clouds
associated with rain or with snowstorms? With brief showers. Mercury is most commonly used as
the liquid in thermometers, because it readily indicates changes of temperature, and because over
most of the world the winter cold is not sufficient to freeze it. Can you give these common kinds of
clouds some names of your own that shall describe them briefly. Continue your non-instrumental
record of the time of beginning and ending of the precipitation as before. A clear sky is one that is
less than 3? 10 cloudy; a fair sky is from 3? 10 to 7? 10 cloudy; and a cloudy sky is over 7? 10
cloudy. Each column exactly balances an air column of similar cross-section. When the lower end of
the tube was below the surface of the mercury in the dish, he removed his finger. For these reasons,
clouds play an integral role in the ability to precisely model air quality. The purpose of this divided
tail is to steady the vane and to make it more sensitive to light currents. F IG. 3. A common wind
vane on a neighboring church steeple or flagstaff will usually serve sufficiently well for ordinary use.
Many activities offered in this guide build upon each other and use the inquiry in the previous
activity to assist in the activity that follows. Another column must now be added to the record book
(preferably between the columns devoted to temperature and wind) to receive the “Pressure in
Inches and Hundredths.” Is the pressure constant (i.e., are the readings always the same) or does it
vary. The algorithm transitions smoothly from eddy diffusion in stable conditions to the combined
local and non-local transport in unstable conditions. Before making a reading, the surface of the
mercury in the cistern must be raised or lowered until it just reaches this black line. This barometer
he used for some months, and made predictions of coming weather changes by means of it. Cold
Front: Colder air slips beneath and overtakes warmer air. The leading edge of a warm air mass
overtakes and replaces colder air. A still simpler method of exposure is described in the “Instructions
for Voluntary Observers” (United States Weather Bureau, 1892) as follows: “Select a north window,
preferably of an unoccupied room, especially in winter. Are the winds that give us the most
cloudiness warm or cold winds in winter and in summer. The wet- and dry-bulb thermometers,
together commonly known as the psychrometer (Greek: cold measure), are simply two ordinary
mercurial thermometers, the bulb of one of which is wrapped in muslin, and kept moist by means of
a wick leading from the muslin cover to a small vessel of water attached to the frame (see Fig. 8).
The wick carries water to the bulb just as a lamp wick carries oil to the flame. Neither advection nor
dispersion change the total pollutant mass concentration, just the spatial distribution. The simpler
instruments are the ordinary thermometer, the wind vane, the rain gauge, and the mercurial barometer
(in a modified form). With rising temperature, the liquid in the tube expanding more than the metallic
casing, by reason of its greater sensitiveness to heat, tends to straighten the tube, while with falling
temperature the elasticity of the tube turns it into a sharper curve. Torricelli saw that the column of
water, held up by the pressure of the air in the tube of the pump, must exactly balance a similar
column of air, reaching from the surface of the water in the well to the top of the atmosphere. In its
common form the thermometer consists of a glass tube, closed at the top, and expanding at its lower
end into a hollow spherical or cylindrical glass bulb. The study of the meteorological conditions
prevailing over the earth has thus become of world-wide importance. Hence they are important
agents in preserving health.