ADVANCED COMPUTER NETWORK

(1) Responsibilities of Network Layer (M2018)

The network Layer is the third layer in the OSI model of computer networks. Its main function is to
transfer network packets from the source to the destination. It is involved both the source host and the
destination host. At the source, it accepts a packet from the transport layer, encapsulates it in a
datagram, and then delivers the packet to the data link layer so that it can further be sent to the
receiver. At the destination, the datagram is decapsulated, and the packet is extracted and delivered to
the corresponding transport layer.
RESPONSIBILITIES:
1. Packetizing
The process of encapsulating the data received from the upper layers of the network (also called
payload) in a network layer packet at the source and decapsulating the payload from the network layer
packet at the destination is known as packetizing.
2. Routing
Routing is the process of moving data from one device to another device. These are two other services
offered by the network layer. In a network, there are a number of routes available from the source to
the destination. The network layer specifies some strategies which find out the best possible route. This
process is referred to as routing.
3. Forwarding
Forwarding is simply defined as the action applied by each router when a packet arrives at one of its
interfaces. When a router receives a packet from one of its attached networks, it needs to forward the
packet to another attached network (unicast routing) or to some attached networks (in the case of
multicast routing).
4. Logical Addressing: The data link layer implements the physical addressing and network layer
implements the logical addressing. Logical addressing is also used to distinguish between source and
destination system. The network layer adds a header to the packet which includes the logical addresses
of both the sender and the receiver.
5. Fragmentation: The fragmentation is a process of breaking the packets into the smallest individual
data units that travel through different networks.

Other services: Flow control, error control and congestion control

(2) Classful vs Classless addressing (E2017)

 Parameter Classful Addressing Classless Addressing

Basics In Classful addressing IP Classless addressing came

addresses are allocated to replace the classful
according to the classes- addressing and to handle
A to E. the issue of rapid
exhaustion of IP addresses.

Practical It is less practical. It is more practical.

Network ID and The changes in the There is no such restriction

Host ID Network ID and Host ID of class in classless
depend on the class. addressing.

Troubleshooting Troubleshooting and It is not as easy compared to

and Problem problem detection are classful addressing.
detection easy than classless
addressing because of
the division of network,
host and subnet parts in
the address.

Division of  Network  Host

Address  Host  Subnet
 Subnet

Classful addressing (1980s)

-Before 1980, out of 32 bits first 8 bits were reserved for network number and next 24 were reserved for Host
bit Number.
-Network 10 was called ARPANET, where 10 was network ID and number of host possible in a network is 2 ^
24.
- Number of network possible = 2^8.
a) Class A (0-127)
o Number of Ip address in class A = 2^ 31
o In a class A address, the first bit of the first octet is always ‘0’.
o First octet represents the network ID while other 24 bits represent the host ID.
o Number of networks possible = 2^7 (128) but only 126 are usable as 0 and 127 are reserved for
diagnostic functions.
o Number of host possible in each network=2^24 but only 2^24-2 are usable (When calculating
hosts IP addresses, 2 IP addresses are decreased because they cannot be assigned to hosts i.e.,
the first IP of a network is network number and the last IP is reserved for Broadcast IP.)
o Default mask = 255.0.0.0
o How to find NETID = AND of default mask and given IP address (M2017)
 b) Class B (128-191)
o In a class B address, the first octet would always start with ’10’.
o The first 16 bits or the first two octets denote the network portion and the remaining 16 bits or
two octets belong to the host portion.
o Its Subnet mask is 255.255.0.0.
o Number of network possible = 2^14
o Number of IP address = 2^30 (25% of total)
o Number of host possible in each network= 2^16 but usable = 2^16-2
o Used by IRCTC and universities.

c) Class C (192-223)
o In a class C address, the first octet would always start with ‘110’.
o The first 24 bits or the first three octets denote the network portion and the rest 8 bits or the
remaining one octet belong to the host portion.
o Its Subnet mask is 255.255.255.0.
o Number of IP address possible = 2^29 (12.5% of total)
o Number of network possible= 2^21
o Number of host possible in each network=2^8 but usable 2^8-2
d) Class D (224-239)
o first octet would always start with ‘1110’ (11100000-11101111).
o Its Subnet mask is not defined.
o Number of IP address possible= 2^28(6.25% of total)
o It has no network or host Id because all address of this classes are reserved for multicasting and
group broadcasting.
e) Class E (240-255)
o The first octet in a class E address starts with ‘1111’.
o Its Subnet mask is not defined.
o Class E addresses are reserved for research purposes, military purposes and future use.
o Number of IP addresses possible = 2^^28 (6.25% of total).

Classless Addressing / CIDR

- CIDR or Class Inter-Domain Routing was introduced in 1993 to replace classful addressing. It allows the
user to use VLSM or Variable Length Subnet Masks.
- In CIDR subnet masks are denoted by /X where x represents number of 1s in network and also helps in
finding mask
- Block/Network Id can be determined by: replacing all the host bits with 0.

(3) IPv4
- IP stands for Internet Protocol and v4 stands for Version Four (IPv4). IPv4 was the primary version
brought into action for production within the ARPANET in 1983.
- Connectionless and datagram Service
- Network layer protocol
- It operates on a best-effort delivery model, in which neither delivery is guaranteed, nor proper
sequencing or avoidance of duplicate delivery is assured.
- IPv4 could be a 32-Bit IP Address.
- The number of header fields is twelve and the size of the header ranges form 20-60 bytes.

Header Format

- VERSION: Version of the IP protocol (4 bits-0100), which is 4 for IPv4

- HLEN: IP header length (4 bits), which is the number of 32bit words in the header. The minimum value
for this field is 5 and the maximum is 15.
- Type of service: Low Delay, High Throughput, Reliability (8 bits), Low Cost.
- Total Length: Length of header + Data (16 bits), which has a minimum value 20 bytes and the
maximum is 65,535 bytes.
- Identification: Unique Packet Id for identifying the group of fragments of a single IP datagram (16 bits)
- Flags: 3 flags of 1 bit each: reserved bit (must be zero), do not fragment flag, more fragments flag
(same order). The next bit DF when set to the value “0” indicates that the datagram can be fragmented
if necessary. MF indicates if the packet has more fragments to come. When set to “1”, more fragments
will follow the packet, and when set to “0”, it means that either no more fragments will follow or the
packet was not fragmented.
- Fragment Offset: Represents the number of Data Bytes ahead of the particular fragment in the
particular Datagram. Specified in terms of number of 8 bytes, which has the maximum value of 65,528
bytes.
- Time to live: Datagram’s lifetime (8 bits), It prevents the datagram to loop through the network by
restricting the number of Hops taken by a Packet before delivering to the Destination.
- Protocol: Name of the protocol to which the data is to be passed (8 bits)
- Header Checksum: 16 bits header checksum for checking errors in the datagram header
- Source IP address: 32 bits IP address of the sender
- Destination IP address: 32 bits IP address of the receiver
- Option and padding: Optional information such as source route, record route. Used by the Network
administrator to check whether a path is working or not.

Fragmentation in IPv4
In IPv4, when a packet is larger than the Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU) of the network link it
needs to traverse, it is fragmented into smaller packets. Each of these fragments contains a portion of
the original packet, along with additional information that identifies the fragment’s position in the
original packet and how it fits into the sequence of fragments.
When a packet is received at the router, destination address is examined and MTU is determined. If size
of the packet is bigger than the MTU, and the ‘Do not Fragment (DF)’ bit is set to 0 in header, then the
 packet is fragmented into parts and sent one by one. The maximum size of each fragment is the MTU
minus the IP header size (Minimum 20 bytes and Maximum 60 bytes).
Each fragment is converted to a packet and the following changes happen in the datagram header:
(a) The total length field is changed to the size of the fragment.
(b) The More Fragment bit (MF bit) is set for all the fragment packets except the last one.
(c) The fragment offset field is set, based on the number of fragments that is being set and the MTU.
(d) Header Checksum is re-calculated.

FRAGMENTATION VS ASSEMBLY (E2017, E2018, M2018)

- IP fragmentation occurs when the receiving system cannot handle a datagram in its full form (limited
MTU), and therefore the datagram is fragmented to accommodate the recipient MTU. IP reassembly
occurs at the final recipient of the message, after all fragmented datagrams have taken whatever
lowest cost path was available to them have arrived.
- IP fragmentation can be performed by the sender or intermediate routers, and the fragments are
reassembled at the destination device.
Limitations of IPv4: (M2017)
- Complex host and routing configuration, non-hierarchical addressing, difficult to re-numbering
addresses, large routing tables, non-trivial implementations in providing security, QoS (Quality of
Service), mobility and multi-homing, multicasting etc. are the big limitation of IPv4 so that’s why IPv6
came into the picture.

(4) IPv6
o 128-bit IP address

 Version (4-bits): Indicates version of Internet Protocol which contains bit sequence 0110.
 Traffic Class (8-bits): The Traffic Class field indicates class or priority of IPv6 packet which is
similar to Service Field in IPv4 packet. It helps routers to handle the traffic based on the priority
of the packet. If congestion occurs on the router, then packets with the least priority will be
discarded.
 Flow Label (20-bits): Flow Label field is used by a source to label the packets belonging to the
same flow in order to request special handling by intermediate IPv6 routers, such as non-default
quality of service or real-time service. In order to distinguish the flow, an intermediate router
can use the source address, a destination address, and flow label of the packets. Between a
source and destination, multiple flows may exist because many processes might be running at
the same time. Routers or Host that does not support the functionality of flow label field and
 for default router handling, flow label field is set to 0. While setting up the flow label, the source
is also supposed to specify the lifetime of the flow.
 Payload Length (16-bits): It is a 16-bit (unsigned integer) field, indicates the total size of the
payload which tells routers about the amount of information a particular packet contains in its
payload. The payload Length field includes extension headers (if any) and an upper-layer packet.
In case the length of the payload is greater than 65,535 bytes (payload up to 65,535 bytes can
be indicated with 16-bits), then the payload length field will be set to 0 and the jumbo payload
option is used in the Hop-by-Hop options extension header.
 Next Header (8-bits): Next Header indicates the type of extension header (if present)
immediately following the IPv6 header. Whereas in some cases it indicates the protocols
contained within upper-layer packets, such as TCP, UDP.
 Hop Limit (8-bits): Hop Limit field is the same as TTL in IPv4 packets. It indicates the maximum
number of intermediate nodes IPv6 packet is allowed to travel. Its value gets decremented by
one, by each node that forwards the packet and the packet is discarded if the value decrements
to 0. This is used to discard the packets that are stuck in an infinite loop because of some
routing error.
 Source Address (128-bits): Source Address is the 128-bit IPv6 address of the original source of
the packet.
 Destination Address (128-bits): The destination Address field indicates the IPv6 address of the
final destination (in most cases). All the intermediate nodes can use this information in order to
correctly route the packet.
 Extension Headers: In order to rectify the limitations of the IPv4 Option Field, Extension Headers
are introduced in IP version 6. The extension header mechanism is a very important part of the
IPv6 architecture. The next Header field of IPv6 fixed header points to the first Extension Header
and this first extension header points to the second extension header and so on.

IPV6 ADDRESSING TYPE (M2017)

The three types of IPv6 addresses are: unicast, anycast, and multicast.
IPv6 has no broadcast addresses: multicast addresses took over.
Unicast address: The unicast address specifies a single interface. A packet sent to a unicast address destination
travels from one host to the destination host.
The two regular types of unicast addresses include:
- Link-local address: Link-local addresses are designed for use on a single local link (local network). Link-
local addresses are automatically configured on all interfaces. Routers do not forward packets with a
destination or source address containing a link-local address.
- Global address:Global addresses are designed for use on any network. The prefix used for a global
address begins with binary 001.
There are two special unicast addresses defined:
- Unspecified address: The unspecified address is 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0. You can abbreviate the address with
two colons (::). The unspecified address indicates the absence of an address, and it can never be
assigned to a host.
 - Loopback address: The loopback address is 0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:1. You can abbreviate the address as ::1. The
loopback address is used by a node to send a packet to itself.
Anycast address: An anycast address specifies a set of interfaces, possibly at different locations, that all share a
single address. A packet sent to an anycast address goes only to the nearest member of the anycast group.
Multicast address: The multicast address specifies a set of interfaces, possibly at multiple locations. The prefix
used for a multicast address is ff. If a packet is sent to a multicast address, one copy of the packet is delivered
to each member of the group. The IBM i operating system currently provides basic support for multicast
addressing.
ADVANTAGES OF IPv6 over IPv4:
- Larger Address Space: IPv6 has a greater address space than IPv4, which is required for expanding the
IP Connected Devices. IPv6 has 128-bit IP Address rather and IPv4 has a 32-bit Address.
- Improved Security: IPv6 has some improved security which is built in with it. IPv6 offers security like
Data Authentication, Data Encryption, etc. Here, an Internet Connection is more Secure.
- Simplified Header Format: As compared to IPv4, IPv6 has a simpler and more effective header
Structure, which is more cost-effective and also increases the speed of Internet Connection.
- Prioritize: IPv6 contains stronger and more reliable support for QoS features, which helps in increasing
traffic over websites and increases audio and video quality on pages.
- Improved Support for Mobile Devices: IPv6 has increased and better support for Mobile Devices. It
helps in making quick connections over other Mobile Devices and in a safer way than IPv4.

(5) IPv4 vs IPv6 (E2017, E2018, M2019)

IPv4 IPv6

IPv4 has a 32-bit address length IPv6 has a 128-bit address length
In IPv4 end to end, connection integrity is In IPv6 end-to-end, connection integrity is
Unachievable Achievable

It can generate 4.29×109 address space The address space of IPv6 is quite large it can
produce 3.4×1038 address space

The Security feature is dependent on the IPSEC is an inbuilt security feature in the IPv6
application protocol

Address representation of IPv4 is in decimal Address Representation of IPv6 is in hexadecimal

Fragmentation performed by Sender and In IPv6 fragmentation is performed only by the

forwarding routers sender

In IPv4 Packet flow identification is not In IPv6 packet flow identification are Available and
available uses the flow label field in the header
 In IPv4 checksum field is available In IPv6 checksum field is not available

It has a broadcast Message Transmission In IPv6 multicast and anycast message transmission
Scheme scheme is available

In IPv4 Encryption and Authentication facility In IPv6 Encryption and Authentication are provided
not provided

IPv4 has a header of 20-60 bytes. IPv6 has a header of 40 bytes fixed

IPv4’s IP addresses are divided into five IPv6 does not have any classes of the IP address.
different classes. Class A, Class B, Class C, Class
D, Class E.

IPv4 supports VLSM (Variable Length subnet IPv6 does not support VLSM.
mask).
Example of IPv4: 66.94.29.13 Example of IPv6:
2001: 0000: 3238: DFE1:0063:0000:0000:FEFB

(6) Routing Protocols

- Routing is the process of selecting an optimal path across one or more networks. The Routing is
performed on many types of networks like circuit-switched and packet-switching on the internet, where
packets are forwarded from one node to another node with the help of a packet forwarding system.
- The set of predefined rules used by the routers to maintain the communication between the source
and the destination are known as Routing Protocols. These protocols help to find the routes between
two nodes on the computer network.

(7) Distance vector routing vs Link state Routing (2017,2018,2019)

Distance Vector Routing Link State Routing

Bandwidth required is less due to local sharing, small Bandwidth required is more due to flooding and
packets and no flooding. sending of large link state packets.

Based on local knowledge, since it updates table Based on global knowledge, it has knowledge about
based on information from neighbors. entire network.

Make use of Bellman Ford Algorithm. Make use of Dijakstra’s algorithm.

Traffic is less. Traffic is more.

Converges slowly i.e, good news spread fast and bad Converges faster.
news spread slowly.

Count of infinity problem. No count of infinity problem.

Persistent looping problem i.e, loop will be there No persistent loops, only transient loops.
forever.

Practical implementation is RIP and IGRP. Practical implementation is OSPF and ISIS.

Distance Vector Routing:

- Distant vector routing protocol also called as Bellman-Ford algorithm or Ford Fulkerson algorithm used
to calculate a path. A distance-vector protocol calculates the distance and direction of the vector of the
next hop from the information obtained by the neighboring router. It is necessary to keep track of the
topology and inform neighboring devices if any changes occur in the topology.
- Distance vector routing is an asynchronous algorithm in which node x sends the copy of its distance
vector to all its neighbors. When node x receives the new distance vector from one of its neighboring
vector, v, it saves the distance vector of v and uses the Bellman-Ford equation to update its own
distance vector.
- dx(y) = minv{ c(x,v) + dv(y)} for each node y in N
- Easy to implement and has low redundancy for small networks.
- Faces count to infinity problem, traffic occurs due to periodic change in topologies, faces a slow
coverage problem, as it requires more time to get accurate information for the routing table.

COUNT TO INFINITY PROBLEM (2016, E2019)

- This problem occurs when nodes in the network use the Distance Vector Protocol(DVP). Routing loops
are fundamental issues with the Distance Vector algorithm because the Bellman-Ford Algorithm, which
is commonly used in distance vector routing is unable to prevent these loops.
- This happens when a node sends information to a neighbor, thinking it has discovered a shorter route
to a destination node through that neighbor. The node then updates its distance based on this
information and acknowledges the updated estimate to its neighboring. As soon as the neighbor
updates its own routing database, it broadcasts the new data to all of its neighbors, including the
original node. This procedure can go on forever, creating a loop and possibly clogging the network.
- Solutions:
Split Horizon is a method to avoid the count to infinity problem. The basic approach in this method is
to prevent the nodes from broadcasting the routing information back to the node from which they had
received it. It excludes the routes that it learned from the neighbor to it was advertised. It helps in
preventing the routing loop and avoids the problem.
 Route Poisoning is a technique that prevents the router from sending packets through a route that has
become unreachable. It broadcasts an update to all its neighbors with the neighbor’s distance set to
infinity. This technique of poisoning the route that is unreachable is called Route Poisoning

LINK STATE ROUTING

- Uses Dijkstra’s Algorithm
- The Link State Routing Algorithm is an interior protocol used by every router to share information or
knowledge about the rest of the routers on the network.
- The link state routing algorithm is a distributed algorithm using which every router computes its routing
table. With the knowledge of the network topology, a router can make its routing table.
- The routing table created by each router is exchanged with the rest of the routers present in the
network which helps in faster and more reliable data delivery. This information exchange only occurs
when there is a change in the information.
- The process of transferring the information about a router's neighbors is termed flooding. A router
transfers the information to all the inter-network routers except its neighbors.
- The link state routing algorithm consists of two phases. In the first phase (Reliable Flooding), the
information about neighbors is gathered and transmitted. In the second phase (route calculation),
every router uses the shortest path computation algorithm to calculate the most optimal route to every
router.

(8) ARP AND RARP

ARP (2017)
- Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a communication protocol used to find the MAC (Media Access
Control) address of a device from its IP address. This protocol is used when a device wants to
communicate with another device on a Local Area Network or Ethernet.
- It broadcast a packet to all the devices of the source network. The devices of the network peel the
header of the data link layer from the Protocol Data Unit (PDU) called frame and transfer the packet to
the network layer (layer 3 of OSI) where the network ID of the packet is validated with the destination
IP’s network ID of the packet and if it’s equal then it responds to the source with the MAC address of
the destination.
- After resolving the MAC address, the ARP sends it to the source where it is stored in a table for future
reference. The subsequent communications can use the MAC address from the table.
- ARP request(broadcast): broadcasting a packet over the network to validate whether we came across
the destination MAC address or not.
o The physical address of the sender.
o The IP address of the sender.
o The physical address of the receiver is FF:FF:FF:FF:FF: FF or 1’s.
o The IP address of the receiver.
- ARP response/reply(unicast): It is the MAC address response that the source receives from the
destination which aids in further communication of the data.
RARP (2018)
- The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) is a networking protocol that is used to map a physical
(MAC) address to an Internet Protocol (IP) address.
 - RARP was developed in the early days of computer networking as a way to provide IP addresses to
diskless workstations or other devices that could not store their own IP addresses. With RARP, the
device would broadcast its MAC address and request an IP address, and a RARP server on the network
would respond with the corresponding IP address.
- employed by a client computer to request its IP address from a gateway server’s Address Resolution
Protocol table or cache. The network administrator creates a table in gateway-router, which is used to
map the MAC address to corresponding IP address.

RARP vs ARP (2016, 2019)

RARP ARP

A protocol used to map a physical (MAC) A protocol used to map an IP address to a

address to an IP address physical (MAC) address

To obtain the IP address of a network device To obtain the MAC address of a network device
when only its MAC address is known when only its IP address is known

Client broadcasts its MAC address and Client broadcasts its IP address and requests a
requests an IP address, and the server MAC address, and the server responds with
responds with the corresponding IP address the corresponding MAC address

Rarely used in modern networks as most Widely used in modern networks to resolve IP
devices have a pre-assigned IP address addresses to MAC addresses

RARP stands for Reverse Address Resolution ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol
Protocol
In RARP, we find our own IP address In ARP, we find the IP address of a remote
machine
The MAC address is known and the IP address The IP address is known, and the MAC address
is requested is being requested

It uses the value 3 for requests and 4 for It uses the value 1 for requests and 2 for
responses responses

(9) Header Format ARP and RARP(E2018)

ARP

- Hardware type: This is 16 bits field defining the type of the network on which ARP is running. Ethernet
is given type 1.
- Protocol type: This is 16 bits field defining the protocol. The value of this field for the IPv4 protocol is
0800H.
- Hardware length: This is an 8 bits field defining the length of the physical address in bytes. Ethernet is
the value 6.
- Protocol length: This is an 8 bits field defining the length of the logical address in bytes. For the IPv4
protocol, the value is 4.
- Operation (request or reply): This is a 16 bits field defining the type of packet. Packet types are ARP
request (1), and ARP reply (2).
- Sender hardware address: This is a variable length field defining the physical address of the sender. For
example, for Ethernet, this field is 6 bytes long.
- Sender protocol address: This is also a variable length field defining the logical address of the sender
For the IP protocol, this field is 4 bytes long.
- Target hardware address: This is a variable length field defining the physical address of the target. For
Ethernet, this field is 6 bytes long. For the ARP request messages, this field is all Os because the sender
does not know the physical address of the target.
- Target protocol address: This is also a variable length field defining the logical address of the target. For
the IPv4 protocol, this field is 4 bytes long.
RARP

Hardware Address Type: It is 2-byte field. It is type of hardware MAC address present in the packet. For
Ethernet, the value of this field is 1.
Protocol Address Type (PTYPE): It is 2-byte field. It is type of the protocol address requested for the MAC
address. For IP address the value of this field is 0*100.
Hardware length (HLEN): It is 1–byte field. It indicates the size of the hardware MAC address. For Ethernet,
the value of this field is 6.
Protocol length (PLEN): It is 1 byte field. It indicates the size of the protocol address. For IP, the value of this
field is 4.
Operation: It is a 2-byte field. It indicates the type of operation being performed. The value of this field can
be 3 (RARP request) or 4 (RARP reply).
Sender Hardware Address: It is 6-byte field. In a RARP request packet, this is the hardware MAC address of
the source host. In a RARP reply packet, this is the hardware MAC address of the RARP server sending the
RARP reply.
 Sender Protocol Address: It is 4-byte field. In a RARP request packet, this is undefined. In a RARP reply
packet, this is the IP address of the RARP server sending the RARP reply.
Target Hardware Address: It is 6–byte field. In a RARP request packet, this is the hardware MAC address of
the source host. In a RARP reply packet, this is the hardware MAC address of the host, that sent the RARP
request packet.
Target Protocol Address: It is 4-byte field. In a RARP request packet, this is undefined. In a RARP reply
packet, this is the IP address of the host that sent the RARP request packet.
(10) ICMP (M2018)
- Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a network layer protocol used to diagnose communication
errors by performing an error control mechanism.
- ICMP is used for error reporting if two devices connect over the internet and some error occurs, So, the
router sends an ICMP error message to the source informing about the error.
- It doesn’t need to establish a connection with the destination device before sending any message as it
is a connectionless protocol.
- ICMP or Internet Control Message Protocol is one of the major protocols of the TCP/IP. ICMP is a
mechanism used by the host, routers, and gateways to send error messages back to the sender. As the
IP does not provide any mechanism for error reporting and control, ICMP has been designed to
compensate for these deficiencies of the IP. However, it only reports the error and doesn't correct the
error.

- TYPES OF ERRORS HANDLED BY ICMP (M2019)

(1) Destination Unreachable: When any router or gateway determines that the packet cannot be sent
(due to link failure, congestion, etc.) to the final destination then it sends an ICMP destination
unreachable message to the source.
(2) Source Quench: A source quench is a request by the receiver to the sending host or sender to
reduce the rate at which the sender is sending the data.
(3) Parameter Problem: When the packet is received by the router then the calculated checksum
should be equal to the received checksum. If there is any ambiguity then the packet is dropped by
the router and the parameter problem message is sent.
(4) Time Exceeded: Whenever the TTL (Time to Live) field of the datagram reduces to zero then the
router discards the datagram and sends the time exceeded message to the source.
(5) Route Redirect: If any router determines that the host has incorrectly sent the packet to the
different router the router uses the route redirect message to inform the host to update its
routing information. So, it helps in improving the efficiency of the routing process.
(11) IGRP vs EIGRP
S. IGRP EIGRP
No.
1. IGRP stands for Interior Gateway Routing EIGRP stands for Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing
Protocol. Protocol.
2. Interior Gateway Routing Protocol is Classful While Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol is a
routing technique. classless routing technique.
3. IGRP is a slow convergence. While it is a fast convergence.
4. In IGRP, Bellman ford algorithm is used. While in this, DUAL (Diffusing Update Algorithm) is used.
5. IGRP needs more or high bandwidth. While EIGRP needs low or less bandwidth.
6. The symbol “I” is used in the routing table to The symbol “D” is used in the routing table to represent
represent IGRP. EIGRP.
7. It does not support Variable Length Subnet It supports Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM).
Mask (VLSM).

(12) Ques: Why do HTTP, FTP, SMTP and POP3 run on top of TCP rather than UDP?
TCP is a connection-oriented Protocol and is suited for applications which use high reliability and where
transmission time is relatively less critical for applications than that use UDP.
o Whereas UDP needs applications that need fast, efficient transmission such as games.
o Its feature of handling small queries from huge number of clients is useful for servers. Hence, this is
the reason why TCP is the most commonly used application protocol for HTTP, FTP, SMTP, IMAP,
POP3.
o Also, Because TCP is more reliable, and HTTP, FTP, SMTP, and POP3cannot be affordable using UDP
while UDP cannot transmit packet and guarantee a well order delivery.
TCP is a connected-oriented network so packet will be delivered to the destination.

(13) Ques: How IP is best effort delivery system?

IP provides a best-effort delivery system, which means that IP tries to avert data loss as much as possible.
Data loss occurs only in exceptional situations, such as problems in the network due to a hardware failure.
best effort" means that IP does not have safeguards to guarantee that all packets are delivered to their
destination. This is best illustrated by what happens when a router receives an IP packet for which it
doesn't have a route to. The router will simply drop the packet, resulting in a communication failure.

(14) OSPF
- Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is a link-state routing protocol that is used to find the best path
between the source and the destination router using its own Shortest Path First).
- It is an intradomain protocol, which means that it is used within an area or a network. It is an interior
gateway protocol that has been designed within a single autonomous system.
 - OSPF divides the autonomous systems into areas where the area is a collection of networks, hosts, and
routers. Like internet service providers divide the internet into a different autonomous system for easy
management and OSPF further divides the autonomous systems into Areas. Routers that exist inside
the area flood the area with routing information. In Area, the special router also exists. The special
routers are those that are present at the border of an area, and these special routers are known as
Area Border Routers. This router summarizes the information about an area and shares the
information with other areas. All the areas inside an autonomous system are connected to the
backbone routers, and these backbone routers are part of a primary area. The role of a primary area is
to provide communication between different areas.

- Packet Format:

- Version: It is an 8-bit field that specifies the OSPF protocol version.

- Type: It is an 8-bit field. It specifies the type of the OSPF packet.
- Message: It is a 16-bit field that defines the total length of the message, including the header.
Therefore, the total length is equal to the sum of the length of the message and header.
- Source IP address: It defines the address from which the packets are sent. It is a sending routing IP
address.
- Area identification: It defines the area within which the routing takes place.
- Checksum: It is used for error correction and error detection.
- Authentication type: There are two types of authentications, i.e., 0 and 1. Here, 0 means for none that
specifies no authentication is available and 1 means for pwd that specifies the password-based
authentication.
- Authentication: It is a 32-bit field that contains the actual value of the authentication data.
(15) RIP