POPULATION

& RELATED
ISSUES

Alba Castro
Contents
DETERMINANTS OF DEMOGRAPHIC TRENDS
POPULATION CHANGES & STRUCTURES
POPULATION DISTRIBUTION
IMPLICATIONS OF RAPID POPULATION
GROWTH
MEASURES OF POPULATION CONTROL
DEMOGRAPHIC TRENDS
A popular term for any measurable change
in the characteristics of a population over
time—e.g., increased or decreased
concentration of a particular ethnic group,
sex ratio, etc.
 DETERMINANTS OF
DEMOGRAPHIC TRENDS
POPULATION SIZE
FERTILITY
MORTALITY
URBANIZATION
AGEING
INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
1.POPULATION SIZE
The “demographic transition” refers to a process of
long-range demographic change observed historically in
populations around the world. A transition usually takes
a century or more to unfold and is accompanied by the
transformation of traditional agricultural societies into
modern industrial ones. During the transition, initially
high mortality and high fertility decline to low levels
(mortality first, fertility after a delay) with a period of
rapid population growth in the middle. Over the course
of the transition, population size multiplies many times.
2.FERTILITY
Before the demographic transition, contraceptive use was rare, and
women typically had around six or seven births. Declines in fertility first
began in the MDCs in the 19th century as these societies experienced
rapid socio-economic changes. The cost of children (e.g. for education)
rose and their economic value (e.g. for labor and old age security) declined
leading couples to limit family size. The fertility transition in the MDCs was
complete by the 1970s. The fertility transitions in Asia and Latin America
started in the late 1960s and are now nearly complete. In contrast, sub-
Saharan Africa has experienced only limited reproductive change by 2020
(Figure 2). High fertility remains the main driver of future population growth
in Africa.
UN projections for coming decades assume that fertility will eventually
stabilize around or slightly below 2 births per woman everywhere.
3. MORTALITY
Before the 18th century, epidemics, famines and wars were
frequent, and life expectancy was only about 30 years. One
of the most notable achievements of modern societies is
the large rise in human longevity over the past two
centuries. The mortality transition started in Northern
Europe around 1800 as public health measures reduced
water- and food-borne diseases, better nutrition improved
resistance to disease, and inoculation and vaccination
prevented certain infectious diseases. Mortality decline in
MDCs accelerated after 1900 with the wide acceptance of
the germ theory of disease and the development of
antibiotics, resulting in today’s life expectancy of 80 years.
The LDCs experienced only modest mortality declines
before 1950 when life expectancy was still only 38 years in
Africa, 42 years in Asia and 51 years in Latin America. Since
1950 change has been rapid due to access to medical care,
public health measures and the availability of antibiotics and
other drugs. Today, life expectancies in Latin America (75)
and Asia (72) are similar to those of Europe in the 1970s.
Africa still lags even though life expectancy has risen to 60
years. Projections of life expectancy to 2100 assume
continued improvements in all regions, with the MDCs
reaching near 90 years and the LDCs 81 years.
4. URBANIZATION
The current era of rapid urbanization began with the onset
of the Industrial Revolution as surplus labor from rural
areas moved to cities in search of a better life.
Urbanization was more rapid in MDCs than in LDCs with the
1950 proportion living in urban areas reaching 55% and
18%, respectively2. Over the past half century urbanization
has proceeded everywhere with the world average
doubling from 30% in 1950 to 56 % in 2020. UN projections
expect the urban proportion to reach 87% in MDCs and
66% in LDCs by 20503.
In recent decades, overall population growth and rising
urbanization produced extremely rapid growth in the urban
populations of LDCs. This expansion has been difficult to
absorb in the poorest countries where urban infrastructure
has not kept pace, resulting in lack of public transportation,
housing, clean water and sanitation, and overcrowded
schools and health facilities. The scarcity of housing has led
to the explosive growth of slum areas where the poor and
marginalized live with limited access to infrastructure and
services. A large proportion of the billions of people
expected to be added to the LDCs in the future will end up
living in very poor conditions.
5. AGEING
Over the course of the demographic transition, populations
age as the proportion of young people declines and the
proportion of old people rises – the result of declining
fertility and rising lifespans. Today the proportion over 65
ranges from a low of 3% in sub-Saharan Africa to a high of
18% in Europe and Northern America
The ageing process starts in the middle of the demographic
transition with the decline in the birth rate. This decline
initially has a beneficial economic effect as the reduction in
the young population temporarily raises the proportion of
the population in the labor force, thus giving the economy a
boost (aka the “demographic dividend”). However, late in the
transition the proportion above age 65 rises rapidly, thus
putting pressure on pension and healthcare systems, and
slowing economic growth. This is now the situation in most
MDCs. By 2100 populations everywhere will age further
with proportions over 65 ranging up to a third of the total
population.
6. INTERNATIONAL
MIGRATION
The stock of international migrants reached 272 million in
2019 (3.5% of the global population), an increase of 51
million since 20105. Europe hosted the largest number of
international migrants (82 million), followed by Northern
America (59 million) and Northern Africa and Western Asia
(49 million). The other regions have been net senders of
migrants during 2010-2020.
Forced displacements across international borders are still
rising. The global number of refugees and asylum seekers
increased by about 13 million between 2010 and 2017,
accounting for close to a quarter of the increase in the
number of all international migrants. Northern Africa and
Western Asia hosted around 46 percent of the global
number of refugees and asylum seekers, followed by sub-
Saharan Africa (close to 21 percent).
 POPULATION CHANGES
AND STRUCTURE
Population numbers change over time, influenced by births,
deaths and migration into or out of the area. Global
population levels, having grown slowly for most of human
history, are now rising.
 CAUSES AND RATES OF
POPULATION CHANGE
The three main causes of population change
Births - usually measured using the birth rate (number
of live births per 1,000 of the population per year).
Deaths - usually measured using the death rate (number
of deaths per 1,000 of the population per year).
§Migration - the movement of people in and out of an
area.
 RATE CHANGES
Births and deaths are natural causes of population
change. The difference between the birth rate and the
death rate of a country or place is called the natural
increase. The natural increase is calculated by
subtracting the death rate from the birth rate.
 POPULATION DISTRIBUTION
The spread of people across the world, i.e. where people
live.

Factors influencing global population distribution

Population density is the number of people living in a

particular area – usually 1 square kilometer – and can
be written as total population/land area.
Physical factors
*Climate
*Types of land
*Natural resources
Human Factors
*Employment opportunities
*Transport link
* Population Patterns
*Urbanization rates
Implication Rapid Growth
*Investment
*Over-use of Resources
* Urbanization
*Per capita income
*Standard of Living
Agricultural Development
Employment
Social infrastructure
Labour force
Capital formation
Environment Rapid Population Growth Leads
to Environmental Damage
Scarcity of land due to rapidly increasing population pushes large
number of people to ecologically sensitive areas such as hillsides
and tropical forests. It leads to overgrazing and cutting of forests
for cultivation leading to severe environmental damage.
Moreover, the pressure of rapid growth of population forces
people to obtain more food for themselves and their livestock. As
a result, they over-cultivate the semi-arid areas. This leads to
desertification over the long run when land stops yielding anything.
Besides, rapid population growth leads to the migration of large
numbers to urban areas with industrialization. This results in
severe air, water and noise pollution in cities and towns.
 Measures of Population Control
Population control is the methodology or the practice used to control
and maintain the type, location and number of people that inhabit the
earth.
 Social Measures
Minimum age of Marriage: As fertility depends on the age of
marriage therefore the minimum age of marriage should be
raised. For example, in India minimum age for marriage is 21 years
for men and 18 years for Women fixed by law. This law should be
strongly implemented and people should also be made aware of
this through promotion.
Raising the Status of Women: There is still favoritism to the
women. They are restricted to house. They are still confined to
rearing and bearing of children. So, women should be given
opportunities to develop socially and economically. Free education
should be given to them.
Spread education: The spread of education changes the views of
people. The educated men take mature decisions and prefer to
delay marriage and adopt small family custom. Educated women
are health mindful and avoid frequent pregnancies and thus help in
lowering birth rate.
Adoption is also effective way to curb population. Some parents
do not have any child, despite expensive medical treatment. It is
recommended that they should adopt orphan children. It will be
helpful to orphan children and children to couples.
Change in Social Outlook: Social outlook of the people should
undergo a change. It must be taught that marriage should no
longer be considered a social compulsory.
 Economic Measures
Social Security: It is responsibility of government to include more
and more people under-social security schemes. So that they do
not depend upon others in the event of old age, sickness,
unemployment with these facilities they will have no desire for
more children.
Government policies: Government must devise policies for more
employment opportunities.
Employment opportunities: Its need of the day to increase job
opportunities in rural as well as urban areas. Generally in rural
areas there is disguised joblessness.
Urbanization process can reduce population increase. It is
reported that people in urban areas have low birth rate than
those living in rural areas. Urbanization should be encouraged.
Late Marriage as this will reduce the period of reproduction
among the females and bring down the birth rate.
Many practitioners advocated that self-control is one of the
dominant methods to control the population.
The govt. can give different types of incentives to the people to
adopt birth control measures. Financial incentives and other
facilities like leave and promotion can be extended to the working
class which adopts small family norms.
Employment to Woman is effective method to check the
population. Women should be given incentive to give services in
different fields.