Physics

Chapter Four

MOVING CHARGES
AND MAGNETISM

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Both Electricity and Magnetism have been known for more than 2000
years. However, it was only about 200 years ago, in 1820, that it was
realised that they were intimately related*. During a lecture demonstration
in the summer of 1820, Danish physicist Hans Christian Oersted noticed
that a current in a straight wire caused a noticeable deflection in a nearby
magnetic compass needle. He investigated this phenomenon. He found
that the alignment of the needle is tangential to an imaginary circle which
has the straight wire as its centre and has its plane perpendicular to the
wire. This situation is depicted in Fig.4.1(a). It is noticeable when the
current is large and the needle sufficiently close to the wire so that the
earth’s magnetic field may be ignored. Reversing the direction of the
current reverses the orientation of the needle [Fig. 4.1(b)]. The deflection
increases on increasing the current or bringing the needle closer to the
wire. Iron filings sprinkled around the wire arrange themselves in
concentric circles with the wire as the centre [Fig. 4.1(c)]. Oersted
concluded that moving charges or currents produced a magnetic field
in the surrounding space.
Following this, there was intense experimentation. In 1864, the laws
obeyed by electricity and magnetism were unified and formulated by

132 * See the box in Chapter 1, Page 3.

2022-23
 Moving Charges and
Magnetism
James Maxwell who then realised that light was electromagnetic waves.
Radio waves were discovered by Hertz, and produced by J.C.Bose and
G. Marconi by the end of the 19th century. A remarkable scientific and
technological progress took place in the 20th century. This was due to
our increased understanding of electromagnetism and the invention of
devices for production, amplification, transmission and detection of
electromagnetic waves.

FIGURE 4.1 The magnetic field due to a straight long current-carrying

wire. The wire is perpendicular to the plane of the paper. A ring of
compass needles surrounds the wire. The orientation of the needles is
shown when (a) the current emerges out of the plane of the paper,
(b) the current moves into the plane of the paper. (c) The arrangement of
iron filings around the wire. The darkened ends of the needle represent
north poles. The effect of the earth’s magnetic field is neglected.

In this chapter, we will see how magnetic field exerts

forces on moving charged particles, like electrons,

HANS CHRISTIAN OERSTED (1777–1851)

protons, and current-carrying wires. We shall also learn
how currents produce magnetic fields. We shall see how
particles can be accelerated to very high energies in a
cyclotron. We shall study how currents and voltages are
detected by a galvanometer.
In this and subsequent Chapter on magnetism,
we adopt the following convention: A current or a
field (electric or magnetic) emerging out of the plane of the
paper is depicted by a dot (!). A current or a field going
into the plane of the paper is depicted by a cross ( ⊗ )*.
Figures. 4.1(a) and 4.1(b) correspond to these two Hans Christian Oersted
situations, respectively. (1777–1851) Danish
physicist and chemist,
4.2 MAGNETIC FORCE professor at Copenhagen.
He observed that a
4.2.1 Sources and fields compass needle suffers a
Before we introduce the concept of a magnetic field B, we deflection when placed
near a wire carrying an
shall recapitulate what we have learnt in Chapter 1 about
electric current. This
the electric field E. We have seen that the interaction discovery gave the first
between two charges can be considered in two stages. empirical evidence of a
The charge Q, the source of the field, produces an electric connection between electric
field E, where and magnetic phenomena.

* A dot appears like the tip of an arrow pointed at you, a cross is like the feathered
tail of an arrow moving away from you.
133

2022-23
 Physics
E=Q / (4πε0)r2 (4.1)
where r̂ is unit vector along r, and the field E is a vector
field. A charge q interacts with this field and experiences
a force F given by
F = q E = q Q r̂ / (4πε0) r 2 (4.2)
As pointed out in the Chapter 1, the field E is not
just an artefact but has a physical role. It can convey
energy and momentum and is not established
instantaneously but takes finite time to propagate. The
concept of a field was specially stressed by Faraday and
was incorporated by Maxwell in his unification of
electricity and magnetism. In addition to depending on
each point in space, it can also vary with time, i.e., be a
HENDRIK ANTOON LORENTZ (1853 – 1928)

function of time. In our discussions in this chapter, we

Hendrik Antoon Lorentz will assume that the fields do not change with time.
(1853 – 1928) Dutch The field at a particular point can be due to one or
theoretical physicist, more charges. If there are more charges the fields add
professor at Leiden. He
vectorially. You have already learnt in Chapter 1 that
investigated the relationship
this is called the principle of superposition. Once the field
between electricity, magnetism,
and mechanics. In order to is known, the force on a test charge is given by Eq. (4.2).
explain the observed effect of Just as static charges produce an electric field, the
magnetic fields on emitters of currents or moving charges produce (in addition) a
light (Zeeman effect), he magnetic field, denoted by B (r), again a vector field. It
postulated the existence of has several basic properties identical to the electric field.
electric charges in the atom, It is defined at each point in space (and can in addition
for which he was awarded the
depend on time). Experimentally, it is found to obey the
Nobel Prize in 1902. He derived
a set of transformation
principle of superposition: the magnetic field of several
equations (known after him, sources is the vector addition of magnetic field of each
as Lorentz transformation individual source.
equations) by some tangled
mathematical arguments, but 4.2.2 Magnetic Field, Lorentz Force
he was not aware that these Let us suppose that there is a point charge q (moving
equations hinge on a new with a velocity v and, located at r at a given time t) in
concept of space and time.
presence of both the electric field E (r) and the magnetic
field B (r). The force on an electric charge q due to both
of them can be written as
F = q [ E (r) + v × B (r)] ≡ Felectric +Fmagnetic (4.3)
This force was given first by H.A. Lorentz based on the extensive
experiments of Ampere and others. It is called the Lorentz force. You
have already studied in detail the force due to the electric field. If we
look at the interaction with the magnetic field, we find the following
features.
(i) It depends on q, v and B (charge of the particle, the velocity and the
magnetic field). Force on a negative charge is opposite to that on a
positive charge.
(ii) The magnetic force q [ v × B ] includes a vector product of velocity
134 and magnetic field. The vector product makes the force due to magnetic

2022-23
 Moving Charges and
Magnetism
field vanish (become zero) if velocity and magnetic field are parallel
or anti-parallel. The force acts in a (sideways) direction perpendicular
to both the velocity and the magnetic field.
Its direction is given by the screw rule or
right hand rule for vector (or cross) product
as illustrated in Fig. 4.2.
(iii) The magnetic force is zero if charge is not
moving (as then |v|= 0). Only a moving
charge feels the magnetic force.
The expression for the magnetic force helps
us to define the unit of the magnetic field, if
one takes q, F and v, all to be unity in the force
FIGURE 4.2 The direction of the magnetic
equation F = q [ v × B] =q v B sin θ n̂ , where θ
force acting on a charged particle. (a) The
is the angle between v and B [see Fig. 4.2 (a)].
force on a positively charged particle with
The magnitude of magnetic field B is 1 SI unit, velocity v and making an angle θ with the
when the force acting on a unit charge (1 C), magnetic field B is given by the right-hand
moving perpendicular to B with a speed 1m/s, rule. (b) A moving charged particle q is
is one newton. deflected in an opposite sense to –q in the
Dimensionally, we have [B] = [F/qv] and the unit presence of magnetic field.
of B are Newton second / (coulomb metre). This
unit is called tesla ( T ) named after Nikola Tesla
(1856 – 1943). Tesla is a rather large unit. A smaller unit (non-SI) called
gauss (=10–4 tesla) is also often used. The earth’s magnetic field is about
3.6 × 10–5 T. Table 4.1 lists magnetic fields over a wide range in the
universe.

TABLE 4.1 ORDER OF MAGNITUDES OF MAGNETIC FIELDS IN A VARIETY OF PHYSICAL SITUATIONS

Physical situation Magnitude of B (in tesla)

Surface of a neutron star 108

Typical large field in a laboratory 1
Near a small bar magnet 10 –2
On the earth’s surface 10 –5
Human nerve fibre 10 –10
Interstellar space 10 –12

4.2.3 Magnetic force on a current-carrying conductor

We can extend the analysis for force due to magnetic field on a single
moving charge to a straight rod carrying current. Consider a rod of a
uniform cross-sectional area A and length l. We shall assume one kind
of mobile carriers as in a conductor (here electrons). Let the number
density of these mobile charge carriers in it be n. Then the total number
of mobile charge carriers in it is nlA. For a steady current I in this
conducting rod, we may assume that each mobile carrier has an average 135

2022-23
 Physics
drift velocity vd (see Chapter 3). In the presence of an external magnetic
field B, the force on these carriers is:
F = (nlA)q vd × B
where q is the value of the charge on a carrier. Now nq vd is the current
density j and |(nq vd )|A is the current I (see Chapter 3 for the discussion
of current and current density). Thus,
F = [(nq vd )l A] × B = [ jAl ] × B
= Il × B (4.4)
where l is a vector of magnitude l, the length of the rod, and with a direction
identical to the current I. Note that the current I is not a vector. In the last
step leading to Eq. (4.4), we have transferred the vector sign from j to l.
Equation (4.4) holds for a straight rod. In this equation, B is the external
magnetic field. It is not the field produced by the current-carrying rod. If
the wire has an arbitrary shape we can calculate the Lorentz force on it
by considering it as a collection of linear strips dlj and summing
F = ∑ Idl j × B
j

This summation can be converted to an integral in most cases.

ON PERMITTIVITY AND PERMEABILITY

In the universal law of gravitation, we say that any two point masses exert a force on
each other which is proportional to the product of the masses m1, m2 and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance r between them. We write it as F = Gm1m2/r 2
where G is the universal constant of gravitation. Similarly, in Coulomb’s law of electrostatics
we write the force between two point charges q1, q2, separated by a distance r as
F = kq1q 2/r 2 where k is a constant of proportionality. In SI units, k is taken as
1/4πε where ε is the permittivity of the medium. Also in magnetism, we get another
constant, which in SI units, is taken as µ/4π where µ is the permeability of the medium.
Although G, ε and µ arise as proportionality constants, there is a difference between
gravitational force and electromagnetic force. While the gravitational force does not depend
on the intervening medium, the electromagnetic force depends on the medium between
the two charges or magnets. Hence, while G is a universal constant, ε and µ depend on
the medium. They have different values for different media. The product εµ turns out to
be related to the speed v of electromagnetic radiation in the medium through εµ =1/ v 2.
Electric permittivity ε is a physical quantity that describes how an electric field affects
and is affected by a medium. It is determined by the ability of a material to polarise in
response to an applied field, and thereby to cancel, partially, the field inside the material.
Similarly, magnetic permeability µ is the ability of a substance to acquire magnetisation in
magnetic fields. It is a measure of the extent to which magnetic field can penetrate matter.
EXAMPLE 4.1

Example 4.1 A straight wire of mass 200 g and length 1.5 m carries
a current of 2 A. It is suspended in mid-air by a uniform horizontal
magnetic field B (Fig. 4.3). What is the magnitude of the magnetic
field?
136

2022-23
 Moving Charges and
Magnetism

FIGURE 4.3

Solution From Eq. (4.4), we find that there is an upward force F, of

magnitude IlB,. For mid-air suspension, this must be balanced by
the force due to gravity:
m g = I lB
mg
B=
Il

EXAMPLE 4.1

http://www.phys.hawaii.edu/~teb/optics/java/partmagn/index.html
Interactive demonstration:
Charged particles moving in a magnetic field.
0.2 × 9.8
= = 0.65 T
2 × 1.5
Note that it would have been sufficient to specify m/l, the mass per
unit length of the wire. The earth’s magnetic field is approximately
4 × 10–5 T and we have ignored it.

Example 4.2 If the magnetic field is parallel to the positive y-axis

and the charged particle is moving along the positive x-axis (Fig. 4.4),
which way would the Lorentz force be for (a) an electron (negative
charge), (b) a proton (positive charge).

FIGURE 4.4
EXAMPLE 4.2

Solution The velocity v of particle is along the x-axis, while B, the

magnetic field is along the y-axis, so v × B is along the z-axis (screw
rule or right-hand thumb rule). So, (a) for electron it will be along –z
axis. (b) for a positive charge (proton) the force is along +z axis.

4.3 MOTION IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

We will now consider, in greater detail, the motion of a charge moving in
a magnetic field. We have learnt in Mechanics (see Class XI book, Chapter
6) that a force on a particle does work if the force has a component along
(or opposed to) the direction of motion of the particle. In the case of motion 137

2022-23
 Physics
of a charge in a magnetic field, the magnetic force is
perpendicular to the velocity of the particle. So no work is done
and no change in the magnitude of the velocity is produced
(though the direction of momentum may be changed). [Notice
that this is unlike the force due to an electric field, q E, which
can have a component parallel (or antiparallel) to motion and
thus can transfer energy in addition to momentum.]
We shall consider motion of a charged particle in a uniform
magnetic field. First consider the case of v perpendicular to B.
The perpendicular force, q v × B, acts as a centripetal force and
produces a circular motion perpendicular to the magnetic field.
The particle will describe a circle if v and B are perpendicular
to each other (Fig. 4.5).
If velocity has a component along B, this component
FIGURE 4.5 Circular motion
remains unchanged as the motion along the magnetic field will
not be affected by the magnetic field. The motion
in a plane perpendicular to B is as before a
circular one, thereby producing a helical motion
(Fig. 4.6).
You have already learnt in earlier classes
(See Class XI, Chapter 4) that if r is the radius
of the circular path of a particle, then a force of
m v2 / r, acts perpendicular to the path towards
the centre of the circle, and is called the
centripetal force. If the velocity v is
perpendicular to the magnetic field B, the
magnetic force is perpendicular to both v and
B and acts like a centripetal force. It has a
magnitude q v B. Equating the two expressions
for centripetal force,
m v 2/r = q v B, which gives
r = m v / qB (4.5)
FIGURE 4.6 Helical motion for the radius of the circle described by the
charged particle. The larger the momentum,
the larger is the radius and bigger the circle described. If ω is the angular
frequency, then v = ω r. So,
ω = 2π ν = q B/ m [4.6(a)]
which is independent of the velocity or energy . Here ν is the frequency of
rotation. The independence of ν from energy has important application
in the design of a cyclotron (see Section 4.4.2).
The time taken for one revolution is T= 2π/ω ≡ 1/ν. If there is a
component of the velocity parallel to the magnetic field (denoted by v||), it
will make the particle move along the field and the path of the particle
would be a helical one (Fig. 4.6). The distance moved along the magnetic
field in one rotation is called pitch p. Using Eq. [4.6 (a)], we have
p = v||T = 2πm v|| / q B [4.6(b)]
The radius of the circular component of motion is called the radius of
138 the helix.

2022-23
 Moving Charges and
Magnetism

Example 4.3 What is the radius of the path of an electron (mass

9 × 10-31 kg and charge 1.6 × 10–19 C) moving at a speed of 3 ×107 m/s in
a magnetic field of 6 × 10 –4 T perpendicular to it? What is its
frequency? Calculate its energy in keV. ( 1 eV = 1.6 × 10–19 J).
Solution Using Eq. (4.5) we find

EXAMPLE 4.3
r = m v / (qB ) = 9 ×10–31 kg × 3 × 107 m s–1 / ( 1.6 × 10–19 C × 6 × 10–4 T )
= 28 × 10–2 m = 28 cm
ν = v / (2 πr) = 17×106 s–1 = 17×106 Hz =17 MHz.
E = (½ )mv 2 = (½ ) 9 × 10–31 kg × 9 ×1014 m2/s2 = 40.5 ×10–17 J
–16
≈ 4×10 J = 2.5 keV.

HELICAL MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLES AND AURORA BOREALIS

In polar regions like Alaska and Northern Canada, a splendid display of colours is seen
in the sky. The appearance of dancing green pink lights is fascinating, and equally
puzzling. An explanation of this natural phenomenon is now found in physics, in terms
of what we have studied here.
Consider a charged particle of mass m and charge q, entering a region of magnetic
field B with an initial velocity v. Let this velocity have a component vp parallel to the
magnetic field and a component vn normal to it. There is no force on a charged particle in
the direction of the field. Hence the particle continues to travel with the velocity vp parallel
to the field. The normal component vn of the particle results in a Lorentz force (vn ×B)
which is perpendicular to both vn and B. As seen in Section 4.3.1 the particle thus has a
tendency to perform a circular motion in a plane perpendicular to the magnetic field.
When this is coupled with the velocity parallel to the field, the resulting trajectory will be
a helix along the magnetic field line, as shown in Figure (a) here. Even if the field line
bends, the helically moving particle is trapped and guided to move around the field line.
Since the Lorentz force is normal to the velocity of each point, the field does no work on
the particle and the magnitude of velocity remains the same.

During a solar flare, a large number of electrons and protons are ejected from the sun.
Some of them get trapped in the earth’s magnetic field and move in helical paths along the
field lines. The field lines come closer to each other near the magnetic poles; see figure (b).
Hence the density of charges increases near the poles. These particles collide with atoms
and molecules of the atmosphere. Excited oxygen atoms emit green light and excited
nitrogen atoms emits pink light. This phenomenon is called Aurora Borealis in physics.

139

2022-23
 Physics
4.4 MOTION IN COMBINED ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC
FIELDS
4.4.1 Velocity selector
You know that a charge q moving with velocity v in presence of both
electric and magnetic fields experiences a force given by Eq. (4.3), that is,
F = q (E + v × B) = FE + FB
We shall consider the simple case in which electric and magnetic
fields are perpendicular to each other and also perpendicular to
the velocity of the particle, as shown in Fig. 4.7. We have,
E ! E ˆj, B ! B k
ˆ , v ! v ˆi

(
FE = qE = qE ˆj, FB = qv × B, = q v ˆi × Bk)
ˆ = –qvB ˆj

Therefore, F = q ( E – vB ) ˆj .
Thus, electric and magnetic forces are in opposite directions as
shown in the figure. Suppose, we adjust the value of E and B such
that magnitudes of the two forces are equal. Then, total force on
FIGURE 4.7
the charge is zero and the charge will move in the fields undeflected.
This happens when,
E
qE = qvB or v = (4.7)
http://www.phy.ntnu.edu.tw/ntnujava/index.php?topic=33.0

B
This condition can be used to select charged particles of a particular
velocity out of a beam containing charges moving with different speeds
(irrespective of their charge and mass). The crossed E and B fields, therefore,
serve as a velocity selector. Only particles with speed E/B pass
undeflected through the region of crossed fields. This method was
employed by J. J. Thomson in 1897 to measure the charge to mass ratio
(e/m) of an electron. The principle is also employed in Mass Spectrometer –
a device that separates charged particles, usually ions, according to their
charge to mass ratio.

4.4.2 Cyclotron
Interactive demonstration:

The cyclotron is a machine to accelerate charged particles or ions to high

energies. It was invented by E.O. Lawrence and M.S. Livingston in 1934
to investigate nuclear structure. The cyclotron uses both electric and
magnetic fields in combination to increase the energy of charged particles.
As the fields are perpendicular to each other they mm
are called crossed
I n
Cyclotron

fields. Cyclotron uses the fact that the frequency of revolution of the
charged particle in a magnetic field is independent of its energy. The
particles move most of the time inside two semicircular disc-like metal
containers, D1 and D2, which are called dees as they look like the letter
D. Figure 4.8 shows a schematic view of the cyclotron. Inside the metal
boxes the particle is shielded and is not acted on by the electric field. The
magnetic field, however, acts on the particle and makes it go round in a
circular path inside a dee. Every time the particle moves from one dee to
another it is acted upon by the electric field. The sign of the electric field
is changed alternately in tune with the circular motion of the particle.
140 This ensures that the particle is always accelerated by the electric field.
Each time the acceleration increases the energy of the particle. As energy
2022-23
 Moving Charges and
Magnetism
increases, the radius of the circular path increases. So the path is a
spiral one.
The whole assembly is evacuated to minimise collisions between the
ions and the air molecules. A high frequency alternating voltage is applied
to the dees. In the sketch shown in Fig. 4.8, positive ions or positively
charged particles (e.g., protons) are released at the centre P. They move
in a semi-circular path in one of the dees and arrive in the gap between
the dees in a time interval T/2; where T, the period of revolution, is given
by Eq. (4.6),
1 2πm
T = =
νc qB

qB
or ν c = (4.8)
2 πm
This frequency is called the cyclotron frequency for obvious reasons
and is denoted by νc .
The frequency νa of the applied voltage is adjusted so that the polarity
of the dees is reversed in the same time that it takes the ions to complete
one half of the revolution. The requirement νa = νc is called the resonance
condition. The phase of the supply is adjusted so that when the positive
ions arrive at the edge of D1, D2 is at a lower
potential and the ions are accelerated across the
gap. Inside the dees the particles travel in a region
free of the electric field. The increase in their
kinetic energy is qV each time they cross from
one dee to another (V refers to the voltage across
the dees at that time). From Eq. (4.5), it is clear
that the radius of their path goes on increasing
each time their kinetic energy increases. The ions
are repeatedly accelerated across the dees until
they have the required energy to have a radius
approximately that of the dees. They are then
deflected by a magnetic field and leave the system
via an exit slit. From Eq. (4.5) we have,
qBR
v= (4.9)
m
where R is the radius of the trajectory at exit, and
equals the radius of a dee.
Hence, the kinetic energy of the ions is, FIGURE 4.8 A schematic sketch of the
2 2 2
cyclotron. There is a source of charged
1 q B R particles or ions at P which move in a
mv 2 = (4.10)
2 2m circular fashion in the dees, D1 and D2, on
account of a uniform perpendicular
The operation of the cyclotron is based on the magnetic field B. An alternating voltage
fact that the time for one revolution of an ion is source accelerates these ions to high
independent of its speed or radius of its orbit. speeds. The ions are eventually ‘extracted’
The cyclotron is used to bombard nuclei with at the exit port.
energetic particles, so accelerated by it, and study 141

2022-23
 Physics
the resulting nuclear reactions. It is also used to implant ions into solids
and modify their properties or even synthesise new materials. It is used
in hospitals to produce radioactive substances which can be used in
diagnosis and treatment.

Example 4.4 A cyclotron’s oscillator frequency is 10 MHz. What

should be the operating magnetic field for accelerating protons? If
the radius of its ‘dees’ is 60 cm, what is the kinetic energy (in MeV) of
the proton beam produced by the accelerator.
(e =1.60 × 10–19 C, mp = 1.67 × 10–27 kg, 1 MeV = 1.6 × 10–13 J).
Solution The oscillator frequency should be same as proton’s
cyclotron frequency.
Using Eqs. (4.5) and [4.6(a)] we have
EXAMPLE 4.4

B = 2π m ν/q =6.3 ×1.67 × 10–27 × 107 / (1.6 × 10–19) = 0.66 T

Final velocity of protons is
v = r × 2π ν = 0.6 m × 6.3 ×107 = 3.78 × 107 m/s.
2
E = ½ mv = 1.67 ×10–27 × 14.3 × 1014 / (2 × 1.6 × 10–13) = 7 MeV.

ACCELERATORS IN INDIA

India has been an early entrant in the area of accelerator-based research. The vision of
Dr. Meghnath Saha created a 37" Cyclotron in the Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics in
Kolkata in 1953. This was soon followed by a series of Cockroft-Walton type of accelerators
established in Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), Mumbai, Aligarh Muslim
University (AMU), Aligarh, Bose Institute, Kolkata and Andhra University, Waltair.
The sixties saw the commissioning of a number of Van de Graaff accelerators: a 5.5 MV
terminal machine in Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), Mumbai (1963); a 2 MV terminal
machine in Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Kanpur; a 400 kV terminal machine in Banaras
Hindu University (BHU), Varanasi; and Punjabi University, Patiala. One 66 cm Cyclotron
donated by the Rochester University of USA was commissioned in Panjab University,
Chandigarh. A small electron accelerator was also established in University of Pune, Pune.
In a major initiative taken in the seventies and eighties, a Variable Energy Cyclotron was
built indigenously in Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre (VECC), Kolkata; 2 MV Tandem Van
de Graaff accelerator was developed and built in BARC and a 14 MV Tandem Pelletron
accelerator was installed in TIFR.
This was soon followed by a 15 MV Tandem Pelletron established by University Grants
Commission (UGC), as an inter-university facility in Inter-University Accelerator Centre
(IUAC), New Delhi; a 3 MV Tandem Pelletron in Institute of Physics, Bhubaneswar; and two
1.7 MV Tandetrons in Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research, Hyderabad
and Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam. Both TIFR and IUAC are
augmenting their facilities with the addition of superconducting LINAC modules to accelerate
the ions to higher energies.
Besides these ion accelerators, the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) has developed
many electron accelerators. A 2 GeV Synchrotron Radiation Source is being built in Raja
Ramanna Centre for Advanced Technologies, Indore.
The Department of Atomic Energy is considering Accelerator Driven Systems (ADS) for
power production and fissile material breeding as future options.

142

2022-23
 Moving Charges and
Magnetism

4.5 MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A CURRENT ELEMENT,

BIOT-SAVART LAW
All magnetic fields that we know are due to currents (or moving charges)
and due to intrinsic magnetic moments of particles. Here, we
shall study the relation between current and the magnetic field
it produces. It is given by the Biot-Savart’s law. Figure 4.9 shows
a finite conductor XY carrying current I. Consider an infinitesimal
element dl of the conductor. The magnetic field dB due to this
element is to be determined at a point P which is at a distance r
from it. Let θ be the angle between dl and the displacement vector
r. According to Biot-Savart’s law, the magnitude of the magnetic
field dB is proportional to the current I, the element length |dl|,
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance r. Its
direction* is perpendicular to the plane containing dl and r .
Thus, in vector notation,
I dl ×r
dB ∝
r3 FIGURE 4.9 Illustration of
the Biot-Savart law. The
µ0 I d l × r
= [4.11(a)] current element I dl
4π r3 produces a field dB at a
where µ 0/4π is a constant of proportionality. The above distance r. The ⊗ sign
expression holds when the medium is vacuum. indicates that the
field is perpendicular
The magnitude of this field is,
to the plane of this
µ0 I dl sin θ page and directed
dB = [4.11(b)]
4π r2 into it.
where we have used the property of cross-product. Equation [4.11 (a)]
constitutes our basic equation for the magnetic field. The proportionality
constant in SI units has the exact value,
µ0
= 10 −7 Tm/A [4.11(c)]
4π
We call µ0 the permeability of free space (or vacuum).
The Biot-Savart law for the magnetic field has certain similarities, as
well as, differences with the Coulomb’s law for the electrostatic field. Some
of these are:
(i) Both are long range, since both depend inversely on the square of
distance from the source to the point of interest. The principle of
superposition applies to both fields. [In this connection, note that
the magnetic field is linear in the source I dl just as the electrostatic
field is linear in its source: the electric charge.]
(ii) The electrostatic field is produced by a scalar source, namely, the
electric charge. The magnetic field is produced by a vector source
I dl.

* The sense of dl × r is also given by the Right Hand Screw rule : Look at the
plane containing vectors dl and r. Imagine moving from the first vector towards
second vector. If the movement is anticlockwise, the resultant is towards you.
If it is clockwise, the resultant is away from you. 143

2022-23
 Physics
(iii) The electrostatic field is along the displacement vector joining the
source and the field point. The magnetic field is perpendicular to the
plane containing the displacement vector r and the current element
I dl.
(iv) There is an angle dependence in the Biot-Savart law which is not
present in the electrostatic case. In Fig. 4.9, the magnetic field at any
point in the direction of dl (the dashed line) is zero. Along this line,
θ = 0, sin θ = 0 and from Eq. [4.11(a)], |dB| = 0.
There is an interesting relation between ε0, the permittivity of free
space; µ , the permeability of free space; and c, the speed of light in
0

vacuum:
µ0 1 1 1
ε 0 µ0 = ( 4 π ε 0 )
4π
=
9 × 109
(10 ) = (3 × 10
−7
8 2
)
=
c2
We will discuss this connection further in Chapter 8 on the
electromagnetic waves. Since the speed of light in vacuum is constant,
the product µ0ε0 is fixed in magnitude. Choosing the value of either ε0 or
µ0, fixes the value of the other. In SI units, µ0 is fixed to be equal to
4π × 10–7 in magnitude.

Example 4.5 An element ∆l = ∆x ˆi is placed at the origin and carries

a large current I = 10 A (Fig. 4.10). What is the magnetic field on the
y-axis at a distance of 0.5 m. ∆x = 1 cm.

FIGURE 4.10
Solution
µ 0 I dl sin θ
|dB | = [using Eq. (4.11)]
4π r2
Tm
dl = ∆x = 10 −2 m , I = 10 A, r = 0.5 m = y, µ0 / 4 π = 10 −7
A
θ = 90° ; sin θ = 1
10−7 × 10 × 10 −2
dB = = 4 × 10–8 T
25 × 10 −2
The direction of the field is in the +z-direction. This is so since,
EXAMPLE 4.5

( )
dl × r = ∆x ˆi × y ˆj = y ∆x ˆi × ˆj = y ∆x k
ˆ
We remind you of the following cyclic property of cross-products,
ˆi × ˆj = k
ˆ ; ˆj × k
ˆ = ˆi ; k
ˆ × ˆi = ˆj

144 Note that the field is small in magnitude.

2022-23
 Moving Charges and
Magnetism

In the next section, we shall use the Biot-Savart law to calculate the
magnetic field due to a circular loop.

4.6 MAGNETIC FIELD ON THE AXIS OF A CIRCULAR

CURRENT LOOP
In this section, we shall evaluate the magnetic field due to a circular coil
along its axis. The evaluation entails summing up the effect of infinitesimal
current elements (I dl) mentioned in the previous section.
We assume that the current I is steady and that the
evaluation is carried out in free space (i.e., vacuum).
Figure 4.11 depicts a circular loop carrying a steady
current I. The loop is placed in the y-z plane with its
centre at the origin O and has a radius R. The x-axis is
the axis of the loop. We wish to calculate the magnetic
field at the point P on this axis. Let x be the distance of
P from the centre O of the loop.
Consider a conducting element dl of the loop. This is
shown in Fig. 4.11. The magnitude dB of the magnetic
field due to dl is given by the Biot-Savart law [Eq. 4.11(a)],
µ0 I dl × r
dB = (4.12)
4π r3
FIGURE 4.11 Magnetic field on the
Now r 2 = x 2 + R 2 . Further, any element of the loop
axis of a current carrying circular
will be perpendicular to the displacement vector from loop of radius R. Shown are the
the element to the axial point. For example, the element magnetic field dB (due to a line
dl in Fig. 4.11 is in the y-z plane, whereas, the element dl ) and its
displacement vector r from dl to the axial point P is in components along and
the x-y plane. Hence |dl × r|=r dl. Thus, perpendicular to the axis.
µ0 Idl
dB = (4.13)
(
4π x 2 + R 2 )
The direction of dB is shown in Fig. 4.11. It is perpendicular to the
plane formed by dl and r. It has an x-component dBx and a component
perpendicular to x-axis, dB⊥. When the components perpendicular to
the x-axis are summed over, they cancel out and we obtain a null result.
For example, the dB⊥ component due to dl is cancelled by the contribution
due to the diametrically opposite dl element, shown in
Fig. 4.11. Thus, only the x-component survives. The net contribution
along x-direction can be obtained by integrating dBx = dB cos θ over the
loop. For Fig. 4.11,
R
cos θ = (4.14)
( x 2 + R 2 )1/ 2
From Eqs. (4.13) and (4.14),
µ0 Idl R
d Bx =
4π (x 2
+ R2
3 /2
) 145

2022-23
 Physics
The summation of elements dl over the loop yields 2πR, the
circumference of the loop. Thus, the magnetic field at P due to entire
circular loop is
µ0 I R 2
B = B x ˆi = 3/2
ˆi
(4.15)
(
2 x 2 + R2 )
As a special case of the above result, we may obtain the field at the centre
of the loop. Here x = 0, and we obtain,
µ I
B0 = 0 ˆi (4.16)
2R
The magnetic field lines due to a circular wire form closed loops and
are shown in Fig. 4.12. The direction of the magnetic field is given by
(another) right-hand thumb rule stated below:
Curl the palm of your right hand around the circular wire with the
fingers pointing in the direction of the current. The right-hand thumb
gives the direction of the magnetic field.

FIGURE 4.12 The magnetic field lines for a current loop. The direction of
the field is given by the right-hand thumb rule described in the text. The
upper side of the loop may be thought of as the north pole and the lower
side as the south pole of a magnet.

Example 4.6 A straight wire carrying a current of 12 A is bent into a

semi-circular arc of radius 2.0 cm as shown in Fig. 4.13(a). Consider
the magnetic field B at the centre of the arc. (a) What is the magnetic
field due to the straight segments? (b) In what way the contribution
to B from the semicircle differs from that of a circular loop and in
what way does it resemble? (c) Would your answer be different if the
wire were bent into a semi-circular arc of the same radius but in the
opposite way as shown in Fig. 4.13(b)?
EXAMPLE 4.6

146 FIGURE 4.13

2022-23
 Moving Charges and
Magnetism

Solution
(a) dl and r for each element of the straight segments are parallel.
Therefore, dl × r = 0. Straight segments do not contribute to
|B|.
(b) For all segments of the semicircular arc, dl × r are all parallel to
each other (into the plane of the paper). All such contributions

EXAMPLE 4.6
add up in magnitude. Hence direction of B for a semicircular arc
is given by the right-hand rule and magnitude is half that of a
circular loop. Thus B is 1.9 × 10–4 T normal to the plane of the
paper going into it.
(c) Same magnitude of B but opposite in direction to that in (b).

Example 4.7 Consider a tightly wound 100 turn coil of radius 10 cm,
carrying a current of 1 A. What is the magnitude of the magnetic
field at the centre of the coil?
Solution Since the coil is tightly wound, we may take each circular

EXAMPLE 4.7
element to have the same radius R = 10 cm = 0.1 m. The number of
turns N = 100. The magnitude of the magnetic field is,
µ0 NI 4 π × 10 –7 × 102 × 1 −4
B= = = 2π × 10 −4 = 6.28 × 10 T
2R 2 × 10 –1

4.7 AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW

There is an alternative and appealing way in which the Biot-Savart law
may be expressed. Ampere’s circuital law considers an open surface with
a boundary (Fig. 4.14). The surface has current passing through
it. We consider the boundary to be made up of a number of small
line elements. Consider one such element of length dl. We take
the value of the tangential component of the magnetic field, Bt, at
this element and multiply it by the length of that element dl [Note:
Btdl=B.d l]. All such products are added together. We consider
the limit as the lengths of elements get smaller and their number
gets larger. The sum then tends to an integral. Ampere’s law
states that this integral is equal to µ0 times the total current
FIGURE 4.14
passing through the surface, i.e.,

“B..ddll = µ I
0 [4.17(a)]

where I is the total current through the surface. The integral is taken
over the closed loop coinciding with the boundary C of the surface. The
relation above involves a sign-convention, given by the right-hand rule.
Let the fingers of the right-hand be curled in the sense the boundary is
“
traversed in the loop integral B.dl. Then the direction of the thumb
gives the sense in which the current I is regarded as positive.
For several applications, a much simplified version of Eq. [4.17(a)]
proves sufficient. We shall assume that, in such cases, it is possible to
choose the loop (called an amperian loop) such that at each point of the
loop, either 147

2022-23
 Physics
(i) B is tangential to the loop and is a non-zero constant
B, or
(ii) B is normal to the loop, or
(iii) B vanishes.
Now, let L be the length (part) of the loop for which B
is tangential. Let Ie be the current enclosed by the loop.
Then, Eq. (4.17) reduces to,
BL =µ0Ie [4.17(b)]
When there is a system with a symmetry such as for
a straight infinite current-carrying wire in Fig. 4.15, the
Ampere’s law enables an easy evaluation of the magnetic
field, much the same way Gauss’ law helps in
determination of the electric field. This is exhibited in the
Andre Ampere (1775 – Example 4.9 below. The boundary of the loop chosen is
1836) Andre Marie Ampere a circle and magnetic field is tangential to the
was a French physicist, circumference of the circle. The law gives, for the left hand
mathematician and chemist side of Eq. [4.17 (b)], B. 2πr. We find that the magnetic
who founded the science of field at a distance r outside the wire is tangential and
electrodynamics. Ampere given by
was a child prodigy
who mastered advanced B × 2πr = µ0 I,
mathematics by the age of
B = µ0 I/ (2πr) (4.18)
12. Ampere grasped the
significance of Oersted’s The above result for the infinite wire is interesting
discovery. He carried out a from several points of view.
large series of experiments (i) It implies that the field at every point on a circle of
to explore the relationship radius r, (with the wire along the axis), is same in
between current electricity magnitude. In other words, the magnetic field
and magnetism. These possesses what is called a cylindrical symmetry. The
investigations culminated
field that normally can depend on three coordinates
ANDRE AMPERE (1775 –1836)

in 1827 with the

publication of the
depends only on one: r. Whenever there is symmetry,
‘Mathematical Theory of the solutions simplify.
Electrodynamic Pheno- (ii) The field direction at any point on this circle is
mena Deduced Solely from tangential to it. Thus, the lines of constant magnitude
Experiments’. He hypo- of magnetic field form concentric circles. Notice now,
thesised that all magnetic in Fig. 4.1(c), the iron filings form concentric circles.
phenomena are due to These lines called magnetic field lines form closed
circulating electric loops. This is unlike the electrostatic field lines which
currents. Ampere was
originate from positive charges and end at negative
humble and absent-
minded. He once forgot an
charges. The expression for the magnetic field of a
invitation to dine with the straight wire provides a theoretical justification to
Emperor Napoleon. He died Oersted’s experiments.
of pneumonia at the age of (iii) Another interesting point to note is that even though
61. His gravestone bears the wire is infinite, the field due to it at a non-zero
the epitaph: Tandem Felix distance is not infinite. It tends to blow up only when
(Happy at last). we come very close to the wire. The field is directly
proportional to the current and inversely proportional
to the distance from the (infinitely long) current
148 source.

2022-23
 Moving Charges and
Magnetism
(iv) There exists a simple rule to determine the direction of the magnetic
field due to a long wire. This rule, called the right-hand rule*, is:
Grasp the wire in your right hand with your extended thumb pointing
in the direction of the current. Your fingers will curl around in the
direction of the magnetic field.
Ampere’s circuital law is not new in content from Biot-Savart law.
Both relate the magnetic field and the current, and both express the same
physical consequences of a steady electrical current. Ampere’s law is to
Biot-Savart law, what Gauss’s law is to Coulomb’s law. Both, Ampere’s
and Gauss’s law relate a physical quantity on the periphery or boundary
(magnetic or electric field) to another physical quantity, namely, the source,
in the interior (current or charge). We also note that Ampere’s circuital
law holds for steady currents which do not fluctuate with time. The
following example will help us understand what is meant by the term
enclosed current.

Example 4.8 Figure 4.15 shows a long straight wire of a circular

cross-section (radius a) carrying steady current I. The current I is
uniformly distributed across this cross-section. Calculate the
magnetic field in the region r < a and r > a.

FIGURE 4.15

Solution (a) Consider the case r > a . The Amperian loop, labelled 2,
is a circle concentric with the cross-section. For this loop,
L =2πr
Ie = Current enclosed by the loop = I
The result is the familiar expression for a long straight wire
B (2π r) = µ0I
µ0 I
B= [4.19(a)]
2πr

1
EXAMPLE 4.8

B∝ (r > a)
r
(b) Consider the case r < a. The Amperian loop is a circle labelled 1.
For this loop, taking the radius of the circle to be r,
L =2πr

* Note that there are two distinct right-hand rules: One which gives the direction
of B on the axis of current-loop and the other which gives direction of B
for a straight conducting wire. Fingers and thumb play different roles in
the two.
149

2022-23
 Physics
Now the current enclosed I e is not I, but is less than this value.
Since the current distribution is uniform, the current enclosed is,
 πr2  Ir 2
Ie = I  2 =
 πa  a2

I r2
Using Ampere’s law, B (2 π r ) = µ0
a2

 µ I 
B =  0 2r [4.19(b)]
2 a 
B∝r (r < a)

FIGURE 4.16

Figure (4.16) shows a plot of the magnitude of B with distance r

from the centre of the wire. The direction of the field is tangential to
EXAMPLE 4.8

the respective circular loop (1 or 2) and given by the right-hand

rule described earlier in this section.
This example possesses the required symmetry so that Ampere’s
law can be applied readily.

It should be noted that while Ampere’s circuital law holds for any
loop, it may not always facilitate an evaluation of the magnetic field in
every case. For example, for the case of the circular loop discussed in
Section 4.6, it cannot be applied to extract the simple expression
B = µ0I/2R [Eq. (4.16)] for the field at the centre of the loop. However,
there exists a large number of situations of high symmetry where the law
can be conveniently applied. We shall use it in the next section to calculate
the magnetic field produced by two commonly used and very useful
magnetic systems: the solenoid and the toroid.

4.8 THE SOLENOID AND THE TOROID

The solenoid and the toroid are two pieces of equipment which generate
magnetic fields. The synchrotron uses a combination of both to generate
the high magnetic fields required. In both, solenoid and toroid, we come
across a situation of high symmetry where Ampere’s law can be
conveniently applied.
150

2022-23
 Moving Charges and
Magnetism
4.8.1 The solenoid
We shall discuss a long solenoid. By long solenoid we mean that the
solenoid’s length is large compared to its radius. It consists of a long
wire wound in the form of a helix where the neighbouring turns are closely
spaced. So each turn can be regarded as a circular loop. The net magnetic
field is the vector sum of the fields due to all the turns. Enamelled wires
are used for winding so that turns are insulated from each other.

FIGURE 4.17 (a) The magnetic field due to a section of the solenoid which has been
stretched out for clarity. Only the exterior semi-circular part is shown. Notice
how the circular loops between neighbouring turns tend to cancel.
(b) The magnetic field of a finite solenoid.
Figure 4.17 displays the magnetic field lines for a finite solenoid. We
show a section of this solenoid in an enlarged manner in Fig. 4.17(a).
Figure 4.17(b) shows the entire finite solenoid with its magnetic field. In
Fig. 4.17(a), it is clear from the circular loops that the field between two
neighbouring turns vanishes. In Fig. 4.17(b), we see that the field at the
interior mid-point P is uniform, strong and along the axis of the solenoid.
The field at the exterior mid-point Q is weak and moreover is along the
axis of the solenoid with no perpendicular or normal component. As the
solenoid is made longer it appears like a long cylindrical metal sheet.
Figure 4.18 represents this idealised picture. The field outside the solenoid
approaches zero. We shall assume that the field outside is zero. The field
inside becomes everywhere parallel to the axis.

FIGURE 4.18 The magnetic field of a very long solenoid. We consider a

rectangular Amperian loop abcd to determine the field. 151

2022-23
 Physics
Consider a rectangular Amperian loop abcd. Along cd the field is zero
as argued above. Along transverse sections bc and ad, the field component
is zero. Thus, these two sections make no contribution. Let the field along
ab be B. Thus, the relevant length of the Amperian loop is, L = h.
Let n be the number of turns per unit length, then the total number
of turns is nh. The enclosed current is, Ie = I (n h), where I is the current
in the solenoid. From Ampere’s circuital law [Eq. 4.17 (b)]
BL = µ0Ie, B h = µ0I (n h)
B = µ0 n I (4.20)
The direction of the field is given by the right-hand rule. The solenoid
is commonly used to obtain a uniform magnetic field. We shall see in the
next chapter that a large field is possible by inserting a soft
iron core inside the solenoid.

4.8.2 The toroid

The toroid is a hollow circular ring on which a large number
of turns of a wire are closely wound. It can be viewed as a
solenoid which has been bent into a circular shape to close
on itself. It is shown in Fig. 4.19(a) carrying a current I. We
shall see that the magnetic field in the open space inside
(point P) and exterior to the toroid (point Q) is zero. The
field B inside the toroid is constant in magnitude for the
ideal toroid of closely wound turns.
Figure 4.19(b) shows a sectional view of the toroid. The
direction of the magnetic field inside is clockwise as per the
right-hand thumb rule for circular loops. Three circular
Amperian loops 1, 2 and 3 are shown by dashed lines. By
symmetry, the magnetic field should be tangential to each
of them and constant in magnitude for a given loop. The
circular areas bounded by loops 2 and 3 both cut the toroid:
so that each turn of current carrying wire is cut once by
the loop 2 and twice by the loop 3.
Let the magnetic field along loop 1 be B1 in magnitude.
Then in Ampere’s circuital law [Eq. 4.17(a)], L = 2π r1.
However, the loop encloses no current, so Ie = 0. Thus,
B1 (2 π r1) = µ0(0), B1 = 0
FIGURE 4.19 (a) A toroid carrying Thus, the magnetic field at any point P in the open space
a current I. (b) A sectional view of
inside the toroid is zero.
the toroid. The magnetic field can
be obtained at an arbitrary
We shall now show that magnetic field at Q is likewise
distance r from the centre O of zero. Let the magnetic field along loop 3 be B3. Once again
the toroid by Ampere’s circuital from Ampere’s law L = 2 π r3. However, from the sectional
law. The dashed lines labelled cut, we see that the current coming out of the plane of the
1, 2 and 3 are three circular paper is cancelled exactly by the current going into it. Thus,
Amperian loops. Ie= 0, and B3 = 0. Let the magnetic field inside the solenoid
be B. We shall now consider the magnetic field at S. Once again we employ
Ampere’s law in the form of Eq. [4.17 (a)]. We find, L = 2π r.
The current enclosed Ie is (for N turns of toroidal coil) N I.
152 B (2πr) = µ0NI

2022-23
 Moving Charges and
Magnetism

µ0 NI
B= (4.21)
2π r
We shall now compare the two results: for a toroid and solenoid. We
re-express Eq. (4.21) to make the comparison easier with the solenoid
result given in Eq. (4.20). Let r be the average radius of the toroid and n
be the number of turns per unit length. Then
N = 2πr n = (average) perimeter of the toroid
× number of turns per unit length
and thus,
B = µ0 n I, (4.22)
i.e., the result for the solenoid!
In an ideal toroid the coils are circular. In reality the turns of the
toroidal coil form a helix and there is always a small magnetic field external
to the toroid.

MAGNETIC CONFINEMENT
We have seen in Section 4.3 (see also the box on helical motion of charged particles earlier
in this chapter) that orbits of charged particles are helical. If the magnetic field is
non-uniform, but does not change much during one circular orbit, then the radius of the
helix will decrease as it enters stronger magnetic field and the radius will increase when it
enters weaker magnetic fields. We consider two solenoids at a distance from each other,
enclosed in an evacuated container (see figure below where we have not shown the container).
Charged particles moving in the region between the two solenoids will start with a small
radius. The radius will increase as field decreases and the radius will decrease again as
field due to the second solenoid takes over. The solenoids act as a mirror or reflector. [See
the direction of F as the particle approaches coil 2 in the figure. It has a horizontal component
against the forward motion.] This makes the particles turn back when they approach the
solenoid. Such an arrangement will act like magnetic bottle or magnetic container. The
particles will never touch the sides of the container. Such magnetic bottles are of great use
in confining the high energy plasma in fusion experiments. The plasma will destroy any
other form of material container because of its high temperature. Another useful container
is a toroid. Toroids are expected to play a key role in the tokamak, an equipment for plasma
confinement in fusion power reactors. There is an international collaboration called the
International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER), being set up in France, for
achieving controlled fusion, of which India is a collaborating nation. For details of ITER
collaboration and the project, you may visit http://www.iter.org.

153

2022-23
 Physics
Example 4.9 A solenoid of length 0.5 m has a radius of 1 cm and is
made up of 500 turns. It carries a current of 5 A. What is the
magnitude of the magnetic field inside the solenoid?
Solution The number of turns per unit length is,
500
n = = 1000 turns/m
0.5
EXAMPLE 4.9

The length l = 0.5 m and radius r = 0.01 m. Thus, l/a = 50 i.e., l >> a .
Hence, we can use the long solenoid formula, namely, Eq. (4.20)
B = µ0n I
= 4π × 10–7 × 103 × 5
= 6.28 × 10–3 T

4.9 FORCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL CURRENTS,

THE AMPERE
We have learnt that there exists a magnetic field due to a conductor
carrying a current which obeys the Biot-Savart law. Further, we have
learnt that an external magnetic field will exert a force on
a current-carrying conductor. This follows from the
Lorentz force formula. Thus, it is logical to expect that
two current-carrying conductors placed near each other
will exert (magnetic) forces on each other. In the period
1820-25, Ampere studied the nature of this magnetic
force and its dependence on the magnitude of the current,
on the shape and size of the conductors, as well as, the
distances between the conductors. In this section, we
shall take the simple example of two parallel current-
carrying conductors, which will perhaps help us to
appreciate Ampere’s painstaking work.
Figure 4.20 shows two long parallel conductors a
FIGURE 4.20 Two long straight
and b separated by a distance d and carrying (parallel)
parallel conductors carrying steady
currents Ia and Ib and separated by a currents I a and I b , respectively. The conductor ‘a’
distance d. Ba is the magnetic field set produces, the same magnetic field Ba at all points along
up by conductor ‘a’ at conductor ‘b’. the conductor ‘b’. The right-hand rule tells us that the
direction of this field is downwards (when the conductors
are placed horizontally). Its magnitude is given by Eq. [4.19(a)] or from
Ampere’s circuital law,

µ0 I a
Ba =
2πd

The conductor ‘b’ carrying a current Ib will experience a sideways

force due to the field Ba. The direction of this force is towards the
conductor ‘a’ (Verify this). We label this force as Fba, the force on a
segment L of ‘b’ due to ‘a’. The magnitude of this force is given by
154 Eq. (4.4),

2022-23
 Moving Charges and
Magnetism
Fba = Ib L Ba

µ0 I a I b
= L (4.23)
2 πd
It is of course possible to compute the force on ‘a’ due to ‘b’. From
considerations similar to above we can find the force Fab, on a segment of
length L of ‘a’ due to the current in ‘b’. It is equal in magnitude to Fba,
and directed towards ‘b’. Thus,
Fba = –Fab (4.24)
Note that this is consistent with Newton’s third Law. Thus, at least for
parallel conductors and steady currents, we have shown that the
Biot-Savart law and the Lorentz force yield results in accordance with
Newton’s third Law*.
We have seen from above that currents flowing in the same direction
attract each other. One can show that oppositely directed currents repel
each other. Thus,
Parallel currents attract, and antiparallel currents repel.
This rule is the opposite of what we find in electrostatics. Like (same
sign) charges repel each other, but like (parallel) currents attract each
other.
Let fba represent the magnitude of the force Fba per unit length. Then,
from Eq. (4.23),
µ0 I a I b
f ba = (4.25)
2πd
The above expression is used to define the ampere (A), which is one
of the seven SI base units.
The ampere is the value of that steady current which, when maintained
in each of the two very long, straight, parallel conductors of negligible
cross-section, and placed one metre apart in vacuum, would produce
on each of these conductors a force equal to 2 × 10–7 newtons per metre
of length.
This definition of the ampere was adopted in 1946. It is a theoretical
definition. In practice, one must eliminate the effect of the earth’s magnetic
field and substitute very long wires by multiturn coils of appropriate
geometries. An instrument called the current balance is used to measure
this mechanical force.
The SI unit of charge, namely, the coulomb, can now be defined in
terms of the ampere.
When a steady current of 1A is set up in a conductor, the quantity of
charge that flows through its cross-section in 1s is one coulomb (1C).

* It turns out that when we have time-dependent currents and/or charges in

motion, Newton’s third law may not hold for forces between charges and/or
conductors. An essential consequence of the Newton’s third law in mechanics
is conservation of momentum of an isolated system. This, however, holds even
for the case of time-dependent situations with electromagnetic fields, provided
the momentum carried by fields is also taken into account. 155

2022-23
 Physics
ROGET’S SPIRAL FOR ATTRACTION BETWEEN PARALLEL CURRENTS

Magnetic effects are generally smaller than electric effects. As a consequence, the force
between currents is rather small, because of the smallness of the factor µ. Hence it is
difficult to demonstrate attraction or repulsion between currents. Thus, for 5 A current
in each wire at a separation of 1cm, the force per metre would be 5 × 10–4 N, which is
about 50 mg weight. It would be like pulling a wire by a string going over a pulley to
which a 50 mg weight is attached. The displacement of the wire would be quite
unnoticeable.
With the use of a soft spring, we can increase the effective length of the parallel current
and by using mercury, we can make the displacement of even a few mm observable very
dramatically. You will also need a constant-current
supply giving a constant current of about 5 A.
Take a soft spring whose natural period of
oscillations is about 0.5 – 1s. Hang it vertically and
attach a pointed tip to its lower end, as shown in the
figure here. Take some mercury in a dish and adjust the
spring such that the tip is just above the mercury
surface. Take the DC current source, connect one of its
terminals to the upper end of the spring, and dip the
other terminal in mercury. If the tip of the spring touches
mercury, the circuit is completed through mercury.
Let the DC source be put off to begin with. Let the tip be adjusted so that it just
touches the mercury surface. Switch on the constant current supply, and watch the
fascinating outcome. The spring shrinks with a jerk, the tip comes out of mercury (just
by a mm or so), the circuit is broken, the current stops, the spring relaxes and tries to
come back to its original position, the tip again touches mercury establishing a current
in the circuit, and the cycle continues with tick, tick, tick,... In the beginning, you may
require some small adjustments to get a good effect.
Keep your face away from mercury vapour as it is poisonous. Do not inhale mercury
vapour for long.

Example 4.10 The horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field

at a certain place is 3.0 ×10–5 T and the direction of the field is from
the geographic south to the geographic north. A very long straight
conductor is carrying a steady current of 1A. What is the force per
unit length on it when it is placed on a horizontal table and the
direction of the current is (a) east to west; (b) south to north?
Solution F = I l × B
F = IlB sinθ
The force per unit length is
EXAMPLE 4.10

f = F/l = I B sinθ
(a) When the current is flowing from east to west,
θ = 90°
Hence,
f=IB
156 = 1 × 3 × 10–5 = 3 × 10–5 N m–1

2022-23
 Moving Charges and
Magnetism

This is larger than the value 2×10–7 Nm–1 quoted in the definition
of the ampere. Hence it is important to eliminate the effect of the
earth’s magnetic field and other stray fields while standardising
the ampere.

EXAMPLE 4.10
The direction of the force is downwards. This direction may be
obtained by the directional property of cross product of vectors.
(b) When the current is flowing from south to north,
θ = 0o
f=0
Hence there is no force on the conductor.

4.10 TORQUE ON CURRENT LOOP, MAGNETIC DIPOLE

4.10.1 Torque on a rectangular current loop in a uniform
magnetic field
We now show that a rectangular loop carrying a steady current I and
placed in a uniform magnetic field experiences a torque. It does not
experience a net force. This behaviour is analogous to
that of electric dipole in a uniform electric field
(Section 1.12).
We first consider the simple case when the
rectangular loop is placed such that the uniform
magnetic field B is in the plane of the loop. This is
illustrated in Fig. 4.21(a).
The field exerts no force on the two arms AD and BC
of the loop. It is perpendicular to the arm AB of the loop
and exerts a force F1 on it which is directed into the
plane of the loop. Its magnitude is,
F1 = I b B
Similarly, it exerts a force F2 on the arm CD and F2
is directed out of the plane of the paper.
F2 = I b B = F1
Thus, the net force on the loop is zero. There is a
torque on the loop due to the pair of forces F1 and F2.
Figure 4.21(b) shows a view of the loop from the AD
end. It shows that the torque on the loop tends to rotate
it anticlockwise. This torque is (in magnitude),
a a
τ = F1 + F2
2 2
a a FIGURE 4.21 (a) A rectangular
= IbB + IbB = I (ab ) B current-carrying coil in uniform
2 2
magnetic field. The magnetic moment
=IAB (4.26) m points downwards. The torque τ is
where A = ab is the area of the rectangle. along the axis and tends to rotate the
coil anticlockwise. (b) The couple
We next consider the case when the plane of the loop,
acting on the coil.
is not along the magnetic field, but makes an angle with
it. We take the angle between the field and the normal to 157

2022-23
 Physics
the coil to be angle θ (The previous case
corresponds to θ = π/2). Figure 4.22 illustrates
this general case.
The forces on the arms BC and DA are equal,
opposite, and act along the axis of the coil, which
connects the centres of mass of BC and DA. Being
collinear along the axis they cancel each other,
resulting in no net force or torque. The forces on
arms AB and CD are F1 and F2. They too are equal
and opposite, with magnitude,
F1 = F2 = I b B
But they are not collinear! This results in a
couple as before. The torque is, however, less than
the earlier case when plane of loop was along the
magnetic field. This is because the perpendicular
distance between the forces of the couple has
decreased. Figure 4.22(b) is a view of the
arrangement from the AD end and it illustrates
these two forces constituting a couple. The
magnitude of the torque on the loop is,
a a
τ = F1 sin θ + F2 sin θ
2 2
FIGURE 4.22 (a) The area vector of the loop
ABCD makes an arbitrary angle θ with = I ab B sin θ
the magnetic field. (b) Top view of = I A B sin θ (4.27)
the loop. The forces F1 and F2 acting
on the arms AB and CD As θ ! 0, the perpendicular distance between
are indicated. the forces of the couple also approaches zero. This
makes the forces collinear and the net force and
torque zero. The torques in Eqs. (4.26) and (4.27)
can be expressed as vector product of the magnetic moment of the coil
and the magnetic field. We define the magnetic moment of the current
loop as,
m=IA (4.28)
where the direction of the area vector A is given by the right-hand thumb
rule and is directed into the plane of the paper in Fig. 4.21. Then as the
angle between m and B is θ , Eqs. (4.26) and (4.27) can be expressed by
one expression
(4.29)
This is analogous to the electrostatic case (Electric dipole of dipole
moment pe in an electric field E).
τ = pe × E
As is clear from Eq. (4.28), the dimensions of the magnetic moment are
[A][L2] and its unit is Am2.
From Eq. (4.29), we see that the torque τ vanishes when m is either
parallel or antiparallel to the magnetic field B. This indicates a state of
equilibrium as there is no torque on the coil (this also applies to any
158 object with a magnetic moment m). When m and B are parallel the

2022-23
 Moving Charges and
Magnetism
equilibrium is a stable one. Any small rotation of the coil produces a
torque which brings it back to its original position. When they are
antiparallel, the equilibrium is unstable as any rotation produces a torque
which increases with the amount of rotation. The presence of this torque
is also the reason why a small magnet or any magnetic dipole aligns
itself with the external magnetic field.
If the loop has N closely wound turns, the expression for torque, Eq.
(4.29), still holds, with
m=NIA (4.30)

Example 4.11 A 100 turn closely wound circular coil of radius 10 cm

carries a current of 3.2 A. (a) What is the field at the centre of the
coil? (b) What is the magnetic moment of this coil?
The coil is placed in a vertical plane and is free to rotate about a
horizontal axis which coincides with its diameter. A uniform magnetic
field of 2T in the horizontal direction exists such that initially the
axis of the coil is in the direction of the field. The coil rotates through
an angle of 90° under the influence of the magnetic field.
(c) What are the magnitudes of the torques on the coil in the initial
and final position? (d) What is the angular speed acquired by the
coil when it has rotated by 90°? The moment of inertia of the coil is
0.1 kg m2.
Solution
(a) From Eq. (4.16)
µ0 NI
B=
2R
Here, N = 100; I = 3.2 A, and R = 0.1 m. Hence,
4π × 10 −7 × 102 × 3.2 4 × 10 −5 × 10
B= = (using π × 3.2 = 10)
2 × 10 −1 2 × 10 −1
= 2 × 10–3 T
The direction is given by the right-hand thumb rule.
(b) The magnetic moment is given by Eq. (4.30),
m = N I A = N I π r2 = 100 × 3.2 × 3.14 × 10–2 = 10 A m2
The direction is once again given by the right-hand thumb rule.
(c) τ = m × B [from Eq. (4.29)]
= m B sin θ
Initially, θ = 0. Thus, initial torque τi = 0. Finally, θ = π/2 (or 90º).
Thus, final torque τf = m B = 10 × 2 = 20 N m.
(d) From Newton’s second law,

where I is the moment of inertia of the coil. From chain rule,

EXAMPLE 4.11

Using this,
I 159

2022-23
 Physics
Integrating from θ = 0 to θ = π/2,

EXAMPLE 4.11

Example 4.12
(a) A current-carrying circular loop lies on a smooth horizontal plane.
Can a uniform magnetic field be set up in such a manner that
the loop turns around itself (i.e., turns about the vertical axis).
(b) A current-carrying circular loop is located in a uniform external
magnetic field. If the loop is free to turn, what is its orientation
of stable equilibrium? Show that in this orientation, the flux of
the total field (external field + field produced by the loop) is
maximum.
(c) A loop of irregular shape carrying current is located in an external
magnetic field. If the wire is flexible, why does it change to a
circular shape?
Solution
(a) No, because that would require τ to be in the vertical direction.
But τ = I A × B, and since A of the horizontal loop is in the vertical
direction, τ would be in the plane of the loop for any B.
(b) Orientation of stable equilibrium is one where the area vector A
of the loop is in the direction of external magnetic field. In this
EXAMPLE 4.12

orientation, the magnetic field produced by the loop is in the same

direction as external field, both normal to the plane of the loop,
thus giving rise to maximum flux of the total field.
(c) It assumes circular shape with its plane normal to the field to
maximise flux, since for a given perimeter, a circle encloses greater
area than any other shape.

4.10.2 Circular current loop as a magnetic dipole

In this section, we shall consider the elementary magnetic element: the
current loop. We shall show that the magnetic field (at large distances)
due to current in a circular current loop is very similar in behaviour to
the electric field of an electric dipole. In Section 4.6, we have evaluated
the magnetic field on the axis of a circular loop, of a radius R, carrying a
steady current I. The magnitude of this field is [(Eq. (4.15)],
µ0 I R 2
B= 3/2
(
2 x 2 + R2 )
and its direction is along the axis and given by the right-hand thumb
rule (Fig. 4.12). Here, x is the distance along the axis from the centre of
160 the loop. For x >> R, we may drop the R 2 term in the denominator. Thus,

2022-23
 Moving Charges and
Magnetism

µ0 IR 2
B=
2x 3
Note that the area of the loop A = πR2. Thus,
µ0 IA
B=
2 πx 3
As earlier, we define the magnetic moment m to have a magnitude IA,
m = I A. Hence,
µ m
B! 0 3
2πx
µ0 2 m
= [4.31(a)]
4π x 3
The expression of Eq. [4.31(a)] is very similar to an expression obtained
earlier for the electric field of a dipole. The similarity may be seen if we
substitute,
µ0 → 1/ ε 0
m → pe (electrostatic dipole)
B → E (electrostatic field)
We then obtain,
2pe
E=
4 π ε0 x 3
which is precisely the field for an electric dipole at a point on its axis.
considered in Chapter 1, Section 1.10 [Eq. (1.20)].
It can be shown that the above analogy can be carried further. We
had found in Chapter 1 that the electric field on the perpendicular bisector
of the dipole is given by [See Eq.(1.21)],
pe
E!
4πε0 x 3
where x is the distance from the dipole. If we replace p ! m and µ0 → 1/ ε 0
in the above expression, we obtain the result for B for a point in the
plane of the loop at a distance x from the centre. For x >>R,
µ0 m
B! ; x >> R [4.31(b)]
4π x 3
The results given by Eqs. [4.31(a)] and [4.31(b)] become exact for a
point magnetic dipole.
The results obtained above can be shown to apply to any planar loop:
a planar current loop is equivalent to a magnetic dipole of dipole moment
m = I A, which is the analogue of electric dipole moment p. Note, however,
a fundamental difference: an electric dipole is built up of two elementary
units — the charges (or electric monopoles). In magnetism, a magnetic
dipole (or a current loop) is the most elementary element. The equivalent
of electric charges, i.e., magnetic monopoles, are not known to exist.
We have shown that a current loop (i) produces a magnetic field (see
Fig. 4.12) and behaves like a magnetic dipole at large distances, and 161

2022-23
 Physics
(ii) is subject to torque like a magnetic needle. This led Ampere to suggest
that all magnetism is due to circulating currents. This seems to be partly
true and no magnetic monopoles have been seen so far. However,
elementary particles such as an electron or a proton also carry an intrinsic
magnetic moment, not accounted by circulating currents.

4.10.3 The magnetic dipole moment of a revolving electron

In Chapter 12 we shall read about the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom.
You may perhaps have heard of this model which was proposed by the
Danish physicist Niels Bohr in 1911 and was a stepping stone
to a new kind of mechanics, namely, quantum mechanics.
In the Bohr model, the electron (a negatively charged particle)
revolves around a positively charged nucleus much as a
planet revolves around the sun. The force in the former case
is electrostatic (Coulomb force) while it is gravitational for
the planet-Sun case. We show this Bohr picture of the electron
in Fig. 4.23.
The electron of charge (–e) (e = + 1.6 × 10–19 C) performs
uniform circular motion around a stationary heavy nucleus
of charge +Ze. This constitutes a current I, where,
e
I = (4.32)
FIGURE 4.23 In the Bohr model T
of hydrogen-like atoms, the and T is the time period of revolution. Let r be the orbital
negatively charged electron is
radius of the electron, and v the orbital speed. Then,
revolving with uniform speed
around a centrally placed 2 πr
positively charged (+Z e)
T = (4.33)
v
nucleus. The uniform circular
Substituting in Eq. (4.32), we have I = ev/2πr.
motion of the electron
constitutes a current. The There will be a magnetic moment, usually denoted by µl,
direction of the magnetic associated with this circulating current. From Eq. (4.28) its
moment is into the plane of the magnitude is, µl = Iπr2 = evr/2.
paper and is indicated The direction of this magnetic moment is into the plane
separately by ⊗. of the paper in Fig. 4.23. [This follows from the right-hand
rule discussed earlier and the fact that the negatively charged
electron is moving anticlockwise, leading to a clockwise current.]
Multiplying and dividing the right-hand side of the above expression by
the electron mass me, we have,
e
µl = (m e v r )
2m e
e
= l [4.34(a)]
2m e
Here, l is the magnitude of the angular momentum of the electron
about the central nucleus (“orbital” angular momentum). Vectorially,

µl l = – e l [4.34(b)]
2m e
The negative sign indicates that the angular momentum of the electron
162
is opposite in direction to the magnetic moment. Instead of electron with

2022-23
 Moving Charges and
Magnetism
charge (– e), if we had taken a particle with charge (+q), the angular
momentum and magnetic moment would be in the same direction. The
ratio
µl e
= (4.35)
l 2m e
is called the gyromagnetic ratio and is a constant. Its value is 8.8 × 1010 C /kg
for an electron, which has been verified by experiments.
The fact that even at an atomic level there is a magnetic moment,
confirms Ampere’s bold hypothesis of atomic magnetic moments. This
according to Ampere, would help one to explain the magnetic properties

www.citycollegiate.com/galvanometer_XIIa.htm
Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter and voltmeter:
of materials. Can one assign a value to this atomic dipole moment? The
answer is Yes. One can do so within the Bohr model. Bohr hypothesised
that the angular momentum assumes a discrete set of values, namely,
nh
l = (4.36)
2π
where n is a natural number, n = 1, 2, 3, .... and h is a constant named
after Max Planck (Planck’s constant) with a value h = 6.626 × 10–34 J s.
This condition of discreteness is called the Bohr quantisation condition.
We shall discuss it in detail in Chapter 12. Our aim here is merely to use
it to calculate the elementary dipole moment. Take the value n = 1, we
have from Eq. (4.34) that,
e
( µl )min = h
4 π me

1.60 × 10−19 × 6.63 × 10 −34

=
4 × 3.14 × 9.11 × 10 −31
= 9.27 × 10–24 Am2 (4.37)
where the subscript ‘min’ stands for minimum. This value is called the

magnetic
Bohr magneton. →
Any charge in uniform circular motion would have an associated
magnetic moment given by an expression similar to Eq. (4.34). This dipole
moment
of
an electron inn
moment is labelled as the orbital magnetic moment. Hence, the subscript
‘l’ in µl. Besides the orbital moment, the electron has an intrinsic magnetic
moment, which has the same numerical value as given in Eq. (4.37). It is
called the spin magnetic moment. But we hasten to add that it is not as
though the electron is spinning. The electron is an elementary particle
and it does not have an axis to spin around like a top or our earth.
Nevertheless, it does possess this intrinsic magnetic moment. The
microscopic roots of magnetism in iron and other materials can be traced
back to this intrinsic spin magnetic moment.

4.11 THE MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER

Currents and voltages in circuits have been discussed extensively in
Chapters 3. But how do we measure them? How do we claim that
current in a circuit is 1.5 A or the voltage drop across a resistor is 1.2 V?
Figure 4.24 exhibits a very useful instrument for this purpose: the moving 163

2022-23
 Physics
coil galvanometer (MCG). It is a device whose principle can be understood
on the basis of our discussion in Section 4.10.
The galvanometer consists of a coil, with many turns, free to rotate
about a fixed axis (Fig. 4.24), in a uniform radial magnetic field. There is
a cylindrical soft iron core which not only makes the field radial but also
increases the strength of the magnetic field. When a current flows through
the coil, a torque acts on it. This torque is given by Eq. (4.26) to be
τ = NI AB
where the symbols have their usual meaning. Since the field is radial by
design, we have taken sin θ = 1 in the above expression for the torque.
The magnetic torque NIAB tends to rotate the coil. A spring Sp provides a
counter torque kφ that balances the magnetic torque NIAB; resulting in a
steady angular deflection φ. In equilibrium
kφ = NI AB
where k is the torsional constant of the spring; i.e. the restoring torque
per unit twist. The deflection φ is indicated on the scale by a pointer
attached to the spring. We have
 NAB 
φ= I (4.38)
 k 
The quantity in brackets is a constant for a given
galvanometer.
The galvanometer can be used in a number of ways.
It can be used as a detector to check if a current is
flowing in the circuit. We have come across this usage
in the Wheatstone’s bridge arrangement. In this usage
the neutral position of the pointer (when no current is
flowing through the galvanometer) is in the middle of
the scale and not at the left end as shown in Fig.4.24.
Depending on the direction of the current, the pointer’s
deflection is either to the right or the left.
The galvanometer cannot as such be used as an
ammeter to measure the value of the current in a given
circuit. This is for two reasons: (i) Galvanometer is a
very sensitive device, it gives a full-scale deflection for
a current of the order of µA. (ii) For measuring
currents, the galvanometer has to be connected in
series, and as it has a large resistance, this will change
the value of the current in the circuit. To overcome
these difficulties, one attaches a small resistance rs,
called shunt resistance, in parallel with
FIGURE 4.24 The moving coil
the galvanometer coil; so that most of the current
galvanometer. Its elements are
described in the text. Depending on passes through the shunt. The resistance of this
the requirement, this device can be arrangement is,
used as a current detector or for RG rs / (RG + rs ) ! rs if RG >> rs
measuring the value of the current
(ammeter) or voltage (voltmeter). If rs has small value, in relation to the resistance of
the rest of the circuit Rc, the effect of introducing the
164 measuring instrument is also small and negligible. This

2022-23
 Moving Charges and
Magnetism
arrangement is schematically shown in Fig. 4.25. The scale of this
ammeter is calibrated and then graduated to read off the current value
with ease. We define the current sensitivity of the galvanometer as the
deflection per unit current. From Eq. (4.38) this current sensitivity is,
φ NAB
= (4.39)
I k
A convenient way for the manufacturer to increase the sensitivity is
to increase the number of turns N. We choose galvanometers having
sensitivities of value, required by our experiment.
The galvanometer can also be used as a voltmeter to measure the FIGURE 4.25
voltage across a given section of the circuit. For this it must be connected Conversion of a
in parallel with that section of the circuit. Further, it must draw a very galvanometer (G) to
small current, otherwise the voltage measurement will disturb the original an ammeter by the
set up by an amount which is very large. Usually we like to keep the introduction of a
disturbance due to the measuring device below one per cent. To ensure shunt resistance rs of
this, a large resistance R is connected in series with the galvanometer. very small value in
This arrangement is schematically depicted in Fig.4.26. Note that the parallel.
resistance of the voltmeter is now,
RG + R ! R : large
The scale of the voltmeter is calibrated to read off the voltage value
with ease. We define the voltage sensitivity as the deflection per unit
voltage. From Eq. (4.38),
φ  NAB  I  NAB  1
=  =  (4.40)
V  k V  k R
An interesting point to note is that increasing the current sensitivity
may not necessarily increase the voltage sensitivity. Let us take Eq. (4.39)
which provides a measure of current sensitivity. If N → 2N, i.e., we double FIGURE 4.26
the number of turns, then Conversion of a
galvanometer (G) to a
φ φ
→2 voltmeter by the
I I introduction of a
Thus, the current sensitivity doubles. However, the resistance of the resistance R of large
galvanometer is also likely to double, since it is proportional to the length value in series.
of the wire. In Eq. (4.40), N →2N, and R →2R, thus the voltage sensitivity,
φ φ
→
V V
remains unchanged. So in general, the modification needed for conversion
of a galvanometer to an ammeter will be different from what is needed
for converting it into a voltmeter.

Example 4.13 In the circuit (Fig. 4.27) the current is to be

EXAMPLE 4.13

measured. What is the value of the current if the ammeter shown

(a) is a galvanometer with a resistance R G = 60.00 Ω; (b) is a
galvanometer described in (a) but converted to an ammeter by a
shunt resistance r s = 0.02 Ω; (c) is an ideal ammeter with zero
resistance? 165

2022-23
 Physics

FIGURE 4.27

Solution
(a) Total resistance in the circuit is,
RG + 3 = 63 Ω . Hence, I = 3/63 = 0.048 A.
(b) Resistance of the galvanometer converted to an ammeter is,
RG rs 60 Ω × 0.02Ω
(60 + 0.02)Ω ! 0.02Ω
=

EXAMPLE 4.13
RG + rs
Total resistance in the circuit is,
0.02 Ω + 3 Ω = 3.02 Ω . Hence, I = 3/3.02 = 0.99 A.
(c) For the ideal ammeter with zero resistance,
I = 3/3 = 1.00 A

SUMMARY

1. The total force on a charge q moving with velocity v in the presence of

magnetic and electric fields B and E, respectively is called the Lorentz
force. It is given by the expression:
F = q (v × B + E)
The magnetic force q (v × B) is normal to v and work done by it is zero.
2. A straight conductor of length l and carrying a steady current I
experiences a force F in a uniform external magnetic field B,
F=Il×B
where|l| = l and the direction of l is given by the direction of the
current.
3. In a uniform magnetic field B, a charge q executes a circular orbit in
a plane normal to B. Its frequency of uniform circular motion is called
the cyclotron frequency and is given by:
qB
νc =
2 πm
This frequency is independent of the particle’s speed and radius. This
fact is exploited in a machine, the cyclotron, which is used to
accelerate charged particles.
4. The Biot-Savart law asserts that the magnetic field dB due to an
element dl carrying a steady current I at a point P at a distance r from
the current element is:
µ0 dl × r
dB = I
166 4π r3

2022-23
 Moving Charges and
Magnetism

To obtain the total field at P, we must integrate this vector expression

over the entire length of the conductor.
5. The magnitude of the magnetic field due to a circular coil of radius R
carrying a current I at an axial distance x from the centre is

µ0 IR 2
B=
2( x + R 2 )3 / 2
2

At the centre this reduces to

µ0 I
B=
2R
6. Ampere’s Circuital Law: Let an open surface S be bounded by a loop
C. Then the Ampere’s law states that
! B.d l = µ I where I refers to
∫C
0

the current passing through S. The sign of I is determined from the

right-hand rule. We have discussed a simplified form of this law. If B
is directed along the tangent to every point on the perimeter L of a
closed curve and is constant in magnitude along perimeter then,
BL = µ0 Ie
where Ie is the net current enclosed by the closed circuit.
7. The magnitude of the magnetic field at a distance R from a long,
straight wire carrying a current I is given by:

µ0 I
B=
2πR
The field lines are circles concentric with the wire.
8. The magnitude of the field B inside a long solenoid carrying a current
I is
B = µ0nI
where n is the number of turns per unit length. For a toroid one
obtains,

µ0 NI
B=
2 πr
where N is the total number of turns and r is the average radius.
9. Parallel currents attract and anti-parallel currents repel.
10. A planar loop carrying a current I, having N closely wound turns, and
an area A possesses a magnetic moment m where,
m=NIA
and the direction of m is given by the right-hand thumb rule : curl
the palm of your right hand along the loop with the fingers pointing
in the direction of the current. The thumb sticking out gives the
direction of m (and A)
When this loop is placed in a uniform magnetic field B, the force F on
it is: F = 0
And the torque on it is,
τ=m×B
In a moving coil galvanometer, this torque is balanced by a counter-
torque due to a spring, yielding
kφ = NI AB
167

2022-23
 Physics
where φ is the equilibrium deflection and k the torsion constant of
the spring.
11. An electron moving around the central nucleus has a magnetic moment
µl given by:
e
µl = l
2m
where l is the magnitude of the angular momentum of the circulating
electron about the central nucleus. The smallest value of µl is called
the Bohr magneton µ B and it is µ B = 9.27×10–24 J/T
12. A moving coil galvanometer can be converted into a ammeter by
introducing a shunt resistance rs, of small value in parallel. It can be
converted into a voltmeter by introducing a resistance of a large value
in series.

Physical Quantity Symbol Nature Dimensions Units Remarks

Permeability of free µ0 Scalar [MLT –2A–2] T m A–1 4π × 10–7 T m A–1

space

Magnetic Field B Vector [M T –2A–1] T (telsa)

Magnetic Moment m Vector [L2A] A m2 or J/T

Torsion Constant k Scalar [M L2T –2] N m rad–1 Appears in MCG

POINTS TO PONDER

1. Electrostatic field lines originate at a positive charge and terminate at a

negative charge or fade at infinity. Magnetic field lines always form
closed loops.
2. The discussion in this Chapter holds only for steady currents which do
not vary with time.
When currents vary with time Newton’s third law is valid only if momentum
carried by the electromagnetic field is taken into account.
3. Recall the expression for the Lorentz force,
F = q (v × B + E)
This velocity dependent force has occupied the attention of some of the
greatest scientific thinkers. If one switches to a frame with instantaneous
velocity v, the magnetic part of the force vanishes. The motion of the
charged particle is then explained by arguing that there exists an
appropriate electric field in the new frame. We shall not discuss the
details of this mechanism. However, we stress that the resolution of this
paradox implies that electricity and magnetism are linked phenomena
(electromagnetism) and that the Lorentz force expression does not imply
a universal preferred frame of reference in nature.
4. Ampere’s Circuital law is not independent of the Biot-Savart law. It
can be derived from the Biot-Savart law. Its relationship to the
Biot-Savart law is similar to the relationship between Gauss’s law and
168 Coulomb’s law.

2022-23
Chapter Five

MAGNETISM AND
MATTER

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Magnetic phenomena are universal in nature. Vast, distant galaxies, the
tiny invisible atoms, humans and beasts all are permeated through and
through with a host of magnetic fields from a variety of sources. The earth’s
magnetism predates human evolution. The word magnet is derived from
the name of an island in Greece called magnesia where magnetic ore
deposits were found, as early as 600 BC. Shepherds on this island
complained that their wooden shoes (which had nails) at times stayed
struck to the ground. Their iron-tipped rods were similarly affected. This
attractive property of magnets made it difficult for them to move around.
The directional property of magnets was also known since ancient
times. A thin long piece of a magnet, when suspended freely, pointed in
the north-south direction. A similar effect was observed when it was placed
on a piece of cork which was then allowed to float in still water. The name
lodestone (or loadstone) given to a naturally occurring ore of iron-
magnetite means leading stone. The technological exploitation of this
property is generally credited to the Chinese. Chinese texts dating 400
BC mention the use of magnetic needles for navigation on ships. Caravans
crossing the Gobi desert also employed magnetic needles.
A Chinese legend narrates the tale of the victory of the emperor Huang-ti
about four thousand years ago, which he owed to his craftsmen (whom

2022-23
 Physics
nowadays you would call engineers). These ‘engineers’
built a chariot on which they placed a magnetic figure
with arms outstretched. Figure 5.1 is an artist’s
description of this chariot. The figure swiveled around
so that the finger of the statuette on it always pointed
south. With this chariot, Huang-ti’s troops were able
to attack the enemy from the rear in thick fog, and to
defeat them.
In the previous chapter we have learned that moving
charges or electric currents produce magnetic fields.
This discovery, which was made in the early part of the
nineteenth century is credited to Oersted, Ampere, Biot
and Savart, among others.
In the present chapter, we take a look at magnetism
FIGURE 5.1 The arm of the statuette
as a subject in its own right.
mounted on the chariot always points
south. This is an artist’s sketch of one Some of the commonly known ideas regarding
of the earliest known compasses, magnetism are:
thousands of years old. (i) The earth behaves as a magnet with the magnetic
field pointing approximately from the geographic
south to the north.
(ii) When a bar magnet is freely suspended, it points in the north-south
direction. The tip which points to the geographic north is called the
north pole and the tip which points to the geographic south is called
the south pole of the magnet.
(iii) There is a repulsive force when north poles ( or south poles ) of two
magnets are brought close together. Conversely, there is an attractive
force between the north pole of one magnet and the south pole of
the other.
(iv) We cannot isolate the north, or south pole of a magnet. If a bar magnet
is broken into two halves, we get two similar bar magnets with
somewhat weaker properties. Unlike electric charges, isolated magnetic
north and south poles known as magnetic monopoles do not exist.
(v) It is possible to make magnets out of iron and its alloys.
We begin with a description of a bar magnet and its behaviour in an
external magnetic field. We describe Gauss’s law of magnetism. We then
follow it up with an account of the earth’s magnetic field. We next describe
how materials can be classified on the basis of their magnetic properties.
We describe para-, dia-, and ferromagnetism. We conclude with a section
on electromagnets and permanent magnets.

5.2 THE BAR MAGNET

One of the earliest childhood memories of the famous physicist Albert
Einstein was that of a magnet gifted to him by a relative. Einstein was
fascinated, and played endlessly with it. He wondered how the magnet
could affect objects such as nails or pins placed away from it and not in
174 any way connected to it by a spring or string.

2022-23
 Magnetism and
Matter
We begin our study by examining iron filings sprinkled on a sheet of
glass placed over a short bar magnet. The arrangement of iron filings is
shown in Fig. 5.2.
The pattern of iron filings suggests that the magnet has two poles
similar to the positive and negative charge of an electric dipole. As
mentioned in the introductory section, one pole is designated the North
pole and the other, the South pole. When suspended freely, these poles
point approximately towards the geographic north and south poles,
respectively. A similar pattern of iron filings is observed around a current
carrying solenoid.

5.2.1 The magnetic field lines

The pattern of iron filings permits us to plot the magnetic field lines*. This is FIGURE 5.2 The
shown both for the bar-magnet and the current-carrying solenoid in arrangement of iron
Fig. 5.3. For comparison refer to the Chapter 1, Figure 1.17(d). Electric field filings surrounding a
lines of an electric dipole are also displayed in Fig. 5.3(c). The magnetic field bar magnet. The
lines are a visual and intuitive realisation of the magnetic field. Their pattern mimics
properties are: magnetic field lines.
The pattern suggests
(i) The magnetic field lines of a magnet (or a solenoid) form continuous
that the bar magnet
closed loops. This is unlike the electric dipole where these field lines
is a magnetic dipole.
begin from a positive charge and end on the negative charge or escape
to infinity.
(ii) The tangent to the field line at a given point represents the direction of
the net magnetic field B at that point.

FIGURE 5.3 The field lines of (a) a bar magnet, (b) a current-carrying finite solenoid and
(c) electric dipole. At large distances, the field lines are very similar. The curves
labelled i and ii are closed Gaussian surfaces.

* In some textbooks the magnetic field lines are called magnetic lines of force.
This nomenclature is avoided since it can be confusing. Unlike electrostatics
the field lines in magnetism do not indicate the direction of the force on a
(moving) charge. 175

2022-23
 Physics
(iii) The larger the number of field lines crossing per unit area, the stronger
is the magnitude of the magnetic field B. In Fig. 5.3(a), B is larger
around region ii than in region i .
(iv) The magnetic field lines do not intersect, for if they did, the direction
of the magnetic field would not be unique at the point of intersection.
One can plot the magnetic field lines in a variety of ways. One way is
to place a small magnetic compass needle at various positions and note
its orientation. This gives us an idea of the magnetic field direction at
various points in space.

5.2.2 Bar magnet as an equivalent solenoid

In the previous chapter, we have explained how a current loop acts as a
magnetic dipole (Section 4.10). We mentioned Ampere’s hypothesis that
all magnetic phenomena can be explained in terms of circulating currents.
Recall that the magnetic dipole moment m
associated with a current loop was defined
to be m = NI A where N is the number of
turns in the loop, I the current and A the
area vector (Eq. 4.30).
The resemblance of magnetic field lines
for a bar magnet and a solenoid suggest that
a bar magnet may be thought of as a large
number of circulating currents in analogy
with a solenoid. Cutting a bar magnet in half
is like cutting a solenoid. We get two smaller
solenoids with weaker magnetic properties.
The field lines remain continuous, emerging
from one face of the solenoid and entering
into the other face. One can test this analogy
by moving a small compass needle in the
neighbourhood of a bar magnet and a
current-carrying finite solenoid and noting
that the deflections of the needle are similar
in both cases.
To make this analogy more firm we
calculate the axial field of a finite solenoid
FIGURE 5.4 Calculation of (a) The axial field of a
depicted in Fig. 5.4 (a). We shall demonstrate
finite solenoid in order to demonstrate its similarity
to that of a bar magnet. (b) A magnetic needle
that at large distances this axial field
in a uniform magnetic field B. The resembles that of a bar magnet.
arrangement may be used to Let the solenoid of Fig. 5.4(a) consists of
determine either B or the magnetic n turns per unit length. Let its length be 2l
moment m of the needle. and radius a. We can evaluate the axial field
at a point P, at a distance r from the centre O
of the solenoid. To do this, consider a circular element of thickness dx of
the solenoid at a distance x from its centre. It consists of n dx turns. Let I
be the current in the solenoid. In Section 4.6 of the previous chapter we
have calculated the magnetic field on the axis of a circular current loop.
From Eq. (4.13), the magnitude of the field at point P due to the circular
176 element is

2022-23
 Magnetism and
Matter

µ0n dx I a 2
dB = 3
2[(r − x )2 + a 2 ] 2
The magnitude of the total field is obtained by summing over all the
elements — in other words by integrating from x = – l to x = + l . Thus,
µ0nIa 2 l dx
B=
2
∫ −l [(r − x )2 + a 2 ]3 / 2
This integration can be done by trigonometric substitutions. This
exercise, however, is not necessary for our purpose. Note that the range
of x is from – l to + l . Consider the far axial field of the solenoid, i.e.,
r >> a and r >> l . Then the denominator is approximated by
3
[(r − x )2 + a 2 ] 2
≈ r3
l
µ0 n I a 2
and B =
2r 3 ∫ dx
−l

µ0 n I 2 l a 2
= (5.1)
2 r3
Note that the magnitude of the magnetic moment of the solenoid is,
m = n (2 l) I (π a 2 ) — (total number of turns × current × cross-sectional
area). Thus,
µ0 2m
B= (5.2)
4π r 3
This is also the far axial magnetic field of a bar magnet which one may
obtain experimentally. Thus, a bar magnet and a solenoid produce similar
magnetic fields. The magnetic moment of a bar magnet is thus equal to
the magnetic moment of an equivalent solenoid that produces the same
magnetic field.
Some textbooks assign a magnetic charge (also called pole strength)
+qmto the north pole and –qm to the south pole of a bar magnet of length
2l , and magnetic moment qm(2l). The field strength due to qm at a distance
r from it is given by µ0qm/4πr 2. The magnetic field due to the bar magnet
is then obtained, both for the axial and the equatorial case, in a manner
analogous to that of an electric dipole (Chapter 1). The method is simple
and appealing. However, magnetic monopoles do not exist, and we have
avoided this approach for that reason.

5.2.3 The dipole in a uniform magnetic field

The pattern of iron filings, i.e., the magnetic field lines gives us an
approximate idea of the magnetic field B. We may at times be required to
determine the magnitude of B accurately. This is done by placing a small
compass needle of known magnetic moment m and moment of inertia I
and allowing it to oscillate in the magnetic field. This arrangement is shown
in Fig. 5.4(b).
The torque on the needle is [see Eq. (4.29)],
τ=m×B (5.3) 177

2022-23
 Physics
In magnitude τ = mB sinθ
Here τ is restoring torque and θ is the angle between m and B.
d 2θ
Therefore, in equilibrium I = − mB sin θ
dt 2
Negative sign with mB sinθ implies that restoring torque is in opposition
to deflecting torque. For small values of θ in radians, we approximate
sin θ ≈ θ and get
d 2θ
I ≈ –mB θ
dt 2
d 2θ mB
or, =− θ
dt 2
I
This represents a simple harmonic motion. The square of the angular
frequency is ω 2 = mB/I and the time period is,
I
T = 2π (5.4)
mB

4 π2 I
or B= (5.5)
m T2
An expression for magnetic potential energy can also be obtained on
lines similar to electrostatic potential energy.
The magnetic potential energy Um is given by
U m = ∫ τ (θ )dθ

= ∫ mB sin θ dθ = −mB cos θ

= −m.B (5.6)
We have emphasised in Chapter 2 that the zero of potential energy
can be fixed at one’s convenience. Taking the constant of integration to be
zero means fixing the zero of potential energy at θ = 90°, i.e., when the
needle is perpendicular to the field. Equation (5.6) shows that potential
energy is minimum (= –mB) at θ = 0° (most stable position) and maximum
(= +mB) at θ = 180° (most unstable position).

Example 5.1 In Fig. 5.4(b), the magnetic needle has magnetic moment
6.7 × 10–2 Am2 and moment of inertia I = 7.5 × 10–6 kg m2. It performs
10 complete oscillations in 6.70 s. What is the magnitude of the
magnetic field?
Solution The time period of oscillation is,
6.70
T = = 0.67s
10
From Eq. (5.5)
4π 2 I
EXAMPLE 5.1

B= 2
mT
4 × (3.14)2 × 7.5 × 10−6
=
6.7 × 10 –2 × (0.67)2
178 = 0.01 T

2022-23
 Magnetism and
Matter

Example 5.2 A short bar magnet placed with its axis at 30° with an
external field of 800 G experiences a torque of 0.016 Nm. (a) What is
the magnetic moment of the magnet? (b) What is the work done in
moving it from its most stable to most unstable position? (c) The bar
magnet is replaced by a solenoid of cross-sectional area 2 × 10–4 m2
and 1000 turns, but of the same magnetic moment. Determine the
current flowing through the solenoid.
Solution
(a) From Eq. (5.3), τ = m B sin θ, θ = 30°, hence sinθ =1/2.
Thus, 0.016 = m × (800 × 10–4 T) × (1/2)
m = 160 × 2/800 = 0.40 A m2
(b) From Eq. (5.6), the most stable position is θ = 0° and the most
unstable position is θ = 180°. Work done is given by
W = U m (θ = 180°) − U m (θ = 0°)

EXAMPLE 5.2
= 2 m B = 2 × 0.40 × 800 × 10–4 = 0.064 J
(c) From Eq. (4.30), ms = NIA. From part (a), ms = 0.40 A m2
0.40 = 1000 × I × 2 × 10–4
I = 0.40 × 104/(1000 × 2) = 2A

Example 5.3
(a) What happens if a bar magnet is cut into two pieces: (i) transverse
to its length, (ii) along its length?
(b) A magnetised needle in a uniform magnetic field experiences a
torque but no net force. An iron nail near a bar magnet, however,
experiences a force of attraction in addition to a torque. Why?
(c) Must every magnetic configuration have a north pole and a south
pole? What about the field due to a toroid?
(d) Two identical looking iron bars A and B are given, one of which is
definitely known to be magnetised. (We do not know which one.)
How would one ascertain whether or not both are magnetised? If
only one is magnetised, how does one ascertain which one? [Use
nothing else but the bars A and B.]
Solution
(a) In either case, one gets two magnets, each with a north and south
pole.
(b) No force if the field is uniform. The iron nail experiences a non-
uniform field due to the bar magnet. There is induced magnetic
moment in the nail, therefore, it experiences both force and torque.
The net force is attractive because the induced south pole (say) in
the nail is closer to the north pole of magnet than induced north
pole.
(c) Not necessarily. True only if the source of the field has a net non-
zero magnetic moment. This is not so for a toroid or even for a
straight infinite conductor.
(d) Try to bring different ends of the bars closer. A repulsive force in
EXAMPLE 5.3

some situation establishes that both are magnetised. If it is always

attractive, then one of them is not magnetised. In a bar magnet
the intensity of the magnetic field is the strongest at the two ends
(poles) and weakest at the central region. This fact may be used to
determine whether A or B is the magnet. In this case, to see which 179

2022-23
 Physics

EXAMPLE 5.3
one of the two bars is a magnet, pick up one, (say, A) and lower one of
its ends; first on one of the ends of the other (say, B), and then on the
middle of B. If you notice that in the middle of B, A experiences no
force, then B is magnetised. If you do not notice any change from the
end to the middle of B, then A is magnetised.

5.2.4 The electrostatic analog

Comparison of Eqs. (5.2), (5.3) and (5.6) with the corresponding equations
for electric dipole (Chapter 1), suggests that magnetic field at large
distances due to a bar magnet of magnetic moment m can be obtained
from the equation for electric field due to an electric dipole of dipole moment
p, by making the following replacements:
1 µ
E →B , p ! m , → 0
4 πε 0 4π
In particular, we can write down the equatorial field (BE) of a bar magnet
at a distance r, for r >> l, where l is the size of the magnet:
µ0 m
BE = − (5.7)
4 πr 3
Likewise, the axial field (BA) of a bar magnet for r >> l is:
µ0 2m
BA = (5.8)
4 π r3
Equation (5.8) is just Eq. (5.2) in the vector form. Table 5.1 summarises
the analogy between electric and magnetic dipoles.

TABLE 5.1 THE DIPOLE ANALOGY

Electrostatics Magnetism
1/ε0 µ0
Dipole moment p m
Equatorial Field for a short dipole –p/4πε0r 3 – µ0 m / 4π r 3
Axial Field for a short dipole 2p/4πε0r 3 µ0 2m / 4π r 3
External Field: torque p×E m×B
External Field: Energy –p.E –m.B

Example 5.4 What is the magnitude of the equatorial and axial fields
due to a bar magnet of length 5.0 cm at a distance of 50 cm from its
mid-point? The magnetic moment of the bar magnet is 0.40 A m2, the
same as in Example 5.2.
Solution From Eq. (5.7)
EXAMPLE 5.4

µ0m 10 −7 × 0.4 10 −7 × 0.4

BE = = = −7
4 πr3 (0.5)3 0.125 = 3.2 × 10 T
µ0 2m
From Eq. (5.8), B A = 4 π r 3 = 6.4 × 10 −7 T
180

2022-23
 Magnetism and
Matter

Example 5.5 Figure 5.5 shows a small magnetised needle P placed at

a point O. The arrow shows the direction of its magnetic moment. The
other arrows show different positions (and orientations of the magnetic
moment) of another identical magnetised needle Q.
(a) In which configuration the system is not in equilibrium?
(b) In which configuration is the system in (i) stable, and (ii) unstable
equilibrium?
(c) Which configuration corresponds to the lowest potential energy
among all the configurations shown?

FIGURE 5.5
Solution
Potential energy of the configuration arises due to the potential energy of
one dipole (say, Q) in the magnetic field due to other (P). Use the result
that the field due to P is given by the expression [Eqs. (5.7) and (5.8)]:
µ0 m P
BP = − (on the normal bisector)
4π r 3
µ0 2 mP
BP = (on the axis)
4π r 3
where mP is the magnetic moment of the dipole P.
Equilibrium is stable when mQ is parallel to BP, and unstable when it
is anti-parallel to BP.
For instance for the configuration Q 3 for which Q is along the
perpendicular bisector of the dipole P, the magnetic moment of Q is
parallel to the magnetic field at the position 3. Hence Q3 is stable.
EXAMPLE 5.5

Thus,
(a) PQ1 and PQ2
(b) (i) PQ3, PQ6 (stable); (ii) PQ5, PQ4 (unstable)
(c) PQ6

5.3 MAGNETISM AND GAUSS’S LAW

In Chapter 1, we studied Gauss’s law for electrostatics. In Fig 5.3(c), we
see that for a closed surface represented by i , the number of lines leaving
the surface is equal to the number of lines entering it. This is consistent
with the fact that no net charge is enclosed by the surface. However, in
the same figure, for the closed surface ii , there is a net outward flux, since
it does include a net (positive) charge. 181

2022-23
 Physics
The situation is radically different for magnetic fields
which are continuous and form closed loops. Examine the
Gaussian surfaces represented by i or ii in Fig 5.3(a) or
Fig. 5.3(b). Both cases visually demonstrate that the
number of magnetic field lines leaving the surface is
balanced by the number of lines entering it. The net
magnetic flux is zero for both the surfaces. This is true

↓
for any closed surface.
KARL FRIEDRICH GAUSS (1777 – 1855)

Surface placed
in ⑤
Karl Friedrich Gauss
(1777 – 1855) He was a
uniform
child prodigy and was gifted
in mathematics, physics,
engineering, astronomy
and even land surveying.
The properties of numbers
fascinated him, and in his FIGURE 5.6
work he anticipated major
Consider a small vector area element ∆S of a closed
mathematical development
of later times. Along with
surface S as in Fig. 5.6. The magnetic flux through ÄS is
Wilhelm Welser, he built the defined as ∆φB = B.∆S, where B is the field at ∆S. We divide
first electric telegraph in S into many small area elements and calculate the
1833. His mathematical individual flux through each. Then, the net flux φB is,
theory of curved surface
laid the foundation for the φB = ∑ ∆φ B = ∑ B.∆S = 0 (5.9)
’ all ’ ’ all ’
later work of Riemann.
where ‘all’ stands for ‘all area elements ∆S′. Compare this
with the Gauss’s law of electrostatics. The flux through a closed surface
in that case is given by
q
∑ E.∆S = ε
0
where q is the electric charge enclosed by the surface.
The difference between the Gauss’s law of magnetism and that for
electrostatics is a reflection of the fact that isolated magnetic poles (also
called monopoles) are not known to exist. There are no sources or sinks
of B; the simplest magnetic element is a dipole or a current loop. All
magnetic phenomena can be explained in terms of an arrangement of
dipoles and/or current loops.
Thus, Gauss’s law for magnetism is:
The net magnetic flux through any closed surface is zero.
EXAMPLE 5.6

Example 5.6 Many of the diagrams given in Fig. 5.7 show magnetic
field lines (thick lines in the figure) wrongly. Point out what is wrong
with them. Some of them may describe electrostatic field lines correctly.
Point out which ones.
182

2022-23
 Magnetism and
Matter

FIGURE 5.7
Solution
(a) Wrong. Magnetic field lines can never emanate from a point, as
shown in figure. Over any closed surface, the net flux of B must
EXAMPLE 5.6

always be zero, i.e., pictorially as many field lines should seem to

enter the surface as the number of lines leaving it. The field lines
shown, in fact, represent electric field of a long positively charged
wire. The correct magnetic field lines are circling the straight
conductor, as described in Chapter 4.
183

2022-23
 Physics
(b) Wrong. Magnetic field lines (like electric field lines) can never cross
each other, because otherwise the direction of field at the point of
intersection is ambiguous. There is further error in the figure.
Magnetostatic field lines can never form closed loops around empty
space. A closed loop of static magnetic field line must enclose a
region across which a current is passing. By contrast, electrostatic
field lines can never form closed loops, neither in empty space,
nor when the loop encloses charges.
(c) Right. Magnetic lines are completely confined within a toroid.
Nothing wrong here in field lines forming closed loops, since each
loop encloses a region across which a current passes. Note, for
clarity of figure, only a few field lines within the toroid have been
shown. Actually, the entire region enclosed by the windings
contains magnetic field.
(d) Wrong. Field lines due to a solenoid at its ends and outside cannot
be so completely straight and confined; such a thing violates
Ampere’s law. The lines should curve out at both ends, and meet
eventually to form closed loops.
(e) Right. These are field lines outside and inside a bar magnet. Note
carefully the direction of field lines inside. Not all field lines emanate
out of a north pole (or converge into a south pole). Around both
the N-pole, and the S-pole, the net flux of the field is zero.
(f ) Wrong. These field lines cannot possibly represent a magnetic field.
Look at the upper region. All the field lines seem to emanate out of
the shaded plate. The net flux through a surface surrounding the
shaded plate is not zero. This is impossible for a magnetic field.
The given field lines, in fact, show the electrostatic field lines
around a positively charged upper plate and a negatively charged
lower plate. The difference between Fig. [5.7(e) and (f )] should be
EXAMPLE 5.6

carefully grasped.
(g) Wrong. Magnetic field lines between two pole pieces cannot be
precisely straight at the ends. Some fringing of lines is inevitable.
Otherwise, Ampere’s law is violated. This is also true for electric
field lines.

Example 5.7
(a) Magnetic field lines show the direction (at every point) along which
a small magnetised needle aligns (at the point). Do the magnetic
field lines also represent the lines of force on a moving charged
particle at every point?
(b) Magnetic field lines can be entirely confined within the core of a
toroid, but not within a straight solenoid. Why?
(c) If magnetic monopoles existed, how would the Gauss’s law of
magnetism be modified?
(d) Does a bar magnet exert a torque on itself due to its own field?
Does one element of a current-carrying wire exert a force on another
element of the same wire?
(e) Magnetic field arises due to charges in motion. Can a system have
EXAMPLE 5.7

magnetic moments even though its net charge is zero?

Solution
(a) No. The magnetic force is always normal to B (remember magnetic
force = qv × B). It is misleading to call magnetic field lines as lines
184 of force.

2022-23
 Magnetism and
Matter

(b) If field lines were entirely confined between two ends of a straight
solenoid, the flux through the cross-section at each end would be
non-zero. But the flux of field B through any closed surface must
always be zero. For a toroid, this difficulty is absent because it
has no ‘ends’.
(c) Gauss’s law of magnetism states that the flux of B through any
closed surface is always zero
∫s B .∆s = 0 .
If monopoles existed, the right hand side would be equal to the
monopole (magnetic charge) qm enclosed by S. [Analogous to

Gauss’s law of electrostatics, ∫ B.∆s = µ q

S
0 m where qm is the
(monopole) magnetic charge enclosed by S .]
(d) No. There is no force or torque on an element due to the field
produced by that element itself. But there is a force (or torque) on
an element of the same wire. (For the special case of a straight
wire, this force is zero.)

EXAMPLE 5.7
(e) Yes. The average of the charge in the system may be zero. Yet, the
mean of the magnetic moments due to various current loops may
not be zero. We will come across such examples in connection
with paramagnetic material where atoms have net dipole moment
through their net charge is zero.

5.4 THE EARTH’S MAGNETISM

Earlier we have referred to the magnetic field of the earth. The strength of
the earth’s magnetic field varies from place to place on the earth’s surface;
its value being of the order of 10–5 T.
What causes the earth to have a magnetic field is not clear. Originally
the magnetic field was thought of as arising from a giant bar magnet
placed approximately along the axis of rotation of the earth and deep in
the interior. However, this simplistic picture is certainly not correct. The
magnetic field is now thought to arise due to electrical currents produced
by convective motion of metallic fluids (consisting mostly of molten
iron and nickel) in the outer core of the earth. This is known as the
dynamo effect.
The magnetic field lines of the earth resemble that of a (hypothetical)
magnetic dipole located at the centre of the earth. The axis of the dipole
does not coincide with the axis of rotation of the earth but is presently
titled by approximately 11.3° with respect to the later. In this way of looking
at it, the magnetic poles are located where the magnetic field lines due to
the dipole enter or leave the earth. The location of the north magnetic pole
is at a latitude of 79.74° N and a longitude of 71.8° W, a place somewhere
in north Canada. The magnetic south pole is at 79.74° S, 108.22° E in
the Antarctica.
The pole near the geographic north pole of the earth is called the north
magnetic pole. Likewise, the pole near the geographic south pole is called 185

2022-23
 Physics
the south magnetic pole. There is some confusion in the
nomenclature of the poles. If one looks at the magnetic
field lines of the earth (Fig. 5.8), one sees that unlike in the
case of a bar magnet, the field lines go into the earth at the
north magnetic pole (Nm ) and come out from the south
magnetic pole (Sm ). The convention arose because the
magnetic north was the direction to which the north
pole of a magnetic needle pointed; the north pole of
a magnet was so named as it was the north seeking
pole. Thus, in reality, the north magnetic pole behaves
FIGURE 5.8 The earth as a giant like the south pole of a bar magnet inside the earth and
magnetic dipole. vice versa.

Example 5.8 The earth’s magnetic field at the equator is approximately

0.4 G. Estimate the earth’s dipole moment.
Solution From Eq. (5.7), the equatorial magnetic field is,
µ 0m
BE =
4 πr3
We are given that BE ~ 0.4 G = 4 × 10–5 T. For r, we take the radius of
the earth 6.4 × 106 m. Hence,
EXAMPLE 5.8

4 × 10−5 × (6.4 × 106 )3

m = =4 × 102 × (6.4 × 106)3 (µ0/4π = 10–7)
µ0 / 4 π
= 1.05 × 1023 A m2
This is close to the value 8 × 1022 A m2 quoted in geomagnetic texts.

5.4.1 Magnetic declination and dip

Consider a point on the earth’s surface. At such a point, the direction of
the longitude circle determines the geographic north-south direction, the
line of longitude towards the north pole being the direction of
true north. The vertical plane containing the longitude circle
and the axis of rotation of the earth is called the geographic
meridian. In a similar way, one can define magnetic meridian
of a place as the vertical plane which passes through the
imaginary line joining the magnetic north and the south poles.
This plane would intersect the surface of the earth in a
longitude like circle. A magnetic needle, which is free to swing
horizontally, would then lie in the magnetic meridian and the
north pole of the needle would point towards the magnetic
north pole. Since the line joining the magnetic poles is titled
with respect to the geographic axis of the earth, the magnetic
meridian at a point makes angle with the geographic meridian.
FIGURE 5.9 A magnetic needle This, then, is the angle between the true geographic north and
free to move in horizontal plane, the north shown by a compass needle. This angle is called the
points toward the magnetic magnetic declination or simply declination (Fig. 5.9).
north-south The declination is greater at higher latitudes and smaller
186 direction.
near the equator. The declination in India is small, it being

2022-23
 Magnetism and
Matter
0°41′ E at Delhi and 0°58′ W at Mumbai. Thus, at both these places a
magnetic needle shows the true north quite accurately.
There is one more quantity of interest. If a magnetic needle is perfectly
balanced about a horizontal axis so that it can swing in a plane of the
magnetic meridian, the needle would make an angle with the horizontal
(Fig. 5.10). This is known as the angle of dip (also known as inclination).
Thus, dip is the angle that the total magnetic field BE of the earth makes
with the surface of the earth. Figure 5.11 shows the magnetic meridian
plane at a point P on the surface of the earth. The plane is a section through
the earth. The total magnetic field at P
can be resolved into a horizontal
component H E and a vertical
component ZE. The angle that BE makes
with HE is the angle of dip, I.

FIGURE 5.10 The circle is a FIGURE 5.11 The earth’s

section through the earth magnetic field, BE, its horizontal
containing the magnetic and vertical components, HE and
meridian. The angle between BE ZE. Also shown are the
and the horizontal component declination, D and the
HE is the angle of dip.
SO inclination or angle of dip, I.
→
In most of the northern hemisphere, the north pole of the dip needle
tilts downwards. Likewise in most of the southern hemisphere, the south
pole of the dip needle tilts downwards. → 8+0
To describe the magnetic field of the earth at a point on its surface, we
need to specify three quantities, viz., the declination D, the angle of dip or
the inclination I and the horizontal component of the earth’s field HE. These
are known as the element of the earth’s magnetic field.
Representing the verticle component by ZE, we have
ZE = BE sinI [5.10(a)]
HE = BE cosI [5.10(b)]
which gives,
ZE
tan I = [5.10(c)]
HE 187

2022-23
 Physics
WHAT HAPPENS TO MY COMPASS NEEDLES AT THE POLES?

A compass needle consists of a magnetic needle which floats on a pivotal point. When the
compass is held level, it points along the direction of the horizontal component of the earth’s
magnetic field at the location. Thus, the compass needle would stay along the magnetic
meridian of the place. In some places on the earth there are deposits of magnetic minerals
which cause the compass needle to deviate from the magnetic meridian. Knowing the magnetic
declination at a place allows us to correct the compass to determine the direction of true
north.

So what happens if we take our compass to the magnetic pole? At the poles, the magnetic
field lines are converging or diverging vertically so that the horizontal component is negligible.
If the needle is only capable of moving in a horizontal plane, it can point along any direction,
rendering it useless as a direction finder. What one needs in such a case is a dip needle
which is a compass pivoted to move in a vertical plane containing the magnetic field of the
earth. The needle of the compass then shows the angle which the magnetic field makes with
the vertical. At the magnetic poles such a needle will point straight down.

Example 5.9 In the magnetic meridian of a certain place, the

horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field is 0.26G and the
dip angle is 60°. What is the magnetic field of the earth at this location?
Solution
It is given that HE = 0.26 G. From Fig. 5.11, we have
HE
cos 600 =
BE
EXAMPLE 5.9

HE
BE =
cos 600

0.26
= = 0.52 G
188 (1/2)

2022-23
 Magnetism and
Matter

EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD

It must not be assumed that there is a giant bar magnet deep inside the earth which is
causing the earth’s magnetic field. Although there are large deposits of iron inside the earth,
it is highly unlikely that a large solid block of iron stretches from the magnetic north pole to
the magnetic south pole. The earth’s core is very hot and molten, and the ions of iron and
nickel are responsible for earth’s magnetism. This hypothesis seems very probable. Moon,
which has no molten core, has no magnetic field, Venus has a slower rate of rotation, and a
weaker magnetic field, while Jupiter, which has the fastest rotation rate among planets, has
a fairly strong magnetic field. However, the precise mode of these circulating currents and
the energy needed to sustain them are not very well understood. These are several open
questions which form an important area of continuing research.
The variation of the earth’s magnetic field with position is also an interesting area of
study. Charged particles emitted by the sun flow towards the earth and beyond, in a stream
called the solar wind. Their motion is affected by the earth’s magnetic field, and in turn, they
affect the pattern of the earth’s magnetic field. The pattern of magnetic field near the poles is
quite different from that in other regions of the earth.
The variation of earth’s magnetic field with time is no less fascinating. There are short
term variations taking place over centuries and long term variations taking place over a
period of a million years. In a span of 240 years from 1580 to 1820 AD, over which records
are available, the magnetic declination at London has been found to change by 3.5°,
suggesting that the magnetic poles inside the earth change position with time. On the scale
of a million years, the earth’s magnetic fields has been found to reverse its direction. Basalt
contains iron, and basalt is emitted during volcanic activity. The little iron magnets inside it
align themselves parallel to the magnetic field at that place as the basalt cools and solidifies.
Geological studies of basalt containing such pieces of magnetised region have provided
evidence for the change of direction of earth’s magnetic field, several times in the past.

5.5 MAGNETISATION AND MAGNETIC INTENSITY

The earth abounds with a bewildering variety of elements and compounds.
In addition, we have been synthesising new alloys, compounds and even
elements. One would like to classify the magnetic properties of these
substances. In the present section, we define and explain certain terms
which will help us to carry out this exercise.
We have seen that a circulating electron in an atom has a magnetic
moment. In a bulk material, these moments add up vectorially and they
can give a net magnetic moment which is non-zero. We define
magnetisation M of a sample to be equal to its net magnetic moment per
unit volume:
mnet
M= (5.11)
V
M is a vector with dimensions L–1 A and is measured in a units of A m–1.
Consider a long solenoid of n turns per unit length and carrying a
current I. The magnetic field in the interior of the solenoid was shown to
be given by 189

2022-23
 Physics
B0 = µ0 nI (5.12)
If the interior of the solenoid is filled with a material with non-zero
magnetisation, the field inside the solenoid will be greater than B0. The
net B field in the interior of the solenoid may be expressed as
B = B0 + Bm (5.13)
where Bm is the field contributed by the material core. It turns out that
this additional field Bm is proportional to the magnetisation M of the
material and is expressed as
Bm = µ0M (5.14)
where µ0 is the same constant (permittivity of vacuum) that appears in
Biot-Savart’s law.
It is convenient to introduce another vector field H, called the magnetic
intensity, which is defined by
B
H= –M (5.15)
µ0
where H has the same dimensions as M and is measured in units of A m–1.
Thus, the total magnetic field B is written as
B = µ0 (H + M) (5.16)
We repeat our defining procedure. We have partitioned the contribution
to the total magnetic field inside the sample into two parts: one, due to
external factors such as the current in the solenoid. This is represented
by H. The other is due to the specific nature of the magnetic material,
namely M. The latter quantity can be influenced by external factors. This
influence is mathematically expressed as
M = χH (5.17)
where χ , a dimensionless quantity, is appropriately called the magnetic
susceptibility. It is a measure of how a magnetic material responds to an
external field. Table 5.2 lists χ for some elements. It is small and positive
for materials, which are called paramagnetic. It is small and negative for
materials, which are termed diamagnetic. In the latter case M and H are
opposite in direction. From Eqs. (5.16) and (5.17) we obtain,
B = µ0 (1 + χ )H (5.18)

= µ0 µr H

= µH (5.19)
where µr= 1 + χ, is a dimensionless quantity called the relative magnetic
permeability of the substance. It is the analog of the dielectric constant in
electrostatics. The magnetic permeability of the substance is µ and it has
the same dimensions and units as µ0;
µ = µ0µr = µ0 (1+χ).
The three quantities χ, µr and µ are interrelated and only one of
190 them is independent. Given one, the other two may be easily determined.

2022-23
 Magnetism and
Matter

TABLE 5.2 MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY OF SOME ELEMENTS AT 300 K

Diamagnetic substance χ Paramagnetic substance χ

Bismuth –1.66 × 10 –5 Aluminium 2.3 × 10–5

Copper –9.8 × 10 –6 Calcium 1.9 × 10–5
Diamond –2.2 × 10 –5 Chromium 2.7 × 10–4
Gold –3.6 × 10 –5 Lithium 2.1 × 10–5
Lead –1.7 × 10 –5 Magnesium 1.2 × 10–5
Mercury –2.9 × 10 –5 Niobium 2.6 × 10–5
Nitrogen (STP) –5.0 × 10 –9 Oxygen (STP) 2.1 × 10–6
Silver –2.6 × 10 –5 Platinum 2.9 × 10–4
Silicon –4.2 × 10 –6 Tungsten 6.8 × 10–5

Example 5.10 A solenoid has a core of a material with relative

permeability 400. The windings of the solenoid are insulated from the
core and carry a current of 2A. If the number of turns is 1000 per
metre, calculate (a) H, (b) M, (c) B and (d) the magnetising current Im .
Solution
(a) The field H is dependent of the material of the core, and is
H = nI = 1000 × 2.0 = 2 ×103 A/m.
(b) The magnetic field B is given by
B = µr µ0 H
= 400 × 4π ×10–7 (N/A2) × 2 × 103 (A/m)
= 1.0 T
(c) Magnetisation is given by
M = (B– µ0 H )/ µ0
= (µr µ0 H–µ0 H )/µ0 = (µr – 1)H = 399 × H
EXAMPLE 5.10

≅ 8 × 105 A/m
(d) The magnetising current I M is the additional current that needs
to be passed through the windings of the solenoid in the absence
of the core which would give a B value as in the presence of the
core. Thus B = µr n (I + IM ). Using I = 2A, B = 1 T, we get I M = 794 A.

5.6 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

The discussion in the previous section helps us to classify materials as
diamagnetic, paramagnetic or ferromagnetic. In terms of the susceptibility
χ , a material is diamagnetic if χ is negative, para- if χ is positive and
small, and ferro- if χ is large and positive.
A glance at Table 5.3 gives one a better feeling for these
materials. Here ε is a small positive number introduced to quantify
paramagnetic materials. Next, we describe these materials in some
detail. 191

2022-23
 Physics
TABLE 5.3
Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic

–1 ≤ χ < 0 0 < χ< ε χ >> 1

0 ≤ µr < 1 1< µr < 1+ ε µr >> 1
µ < µ0 µ > µ0 µ >> µ0

5.6.1 Diamagnetism
Diamagnetic substances are those which have tendency to move from
stronger to the weaker part of the external magnetic field. In other words,
unlike the way a magnet attracts metals like iron, it would repel a
diamagnetic substance.
Figure 5.12(a) shows a bar of diamagnetic material placed in an external
magnetic field. The field lines are repelled or expelled and the field inside
the material is reduced. In most cases, as is evident from
Table 5.2, this reduction is slight, being one part in 105. When placed in a
non-uniform magnetic field, the bar will tend to move from high to low field.
The simplest explanation for diamagnetism is as follows. Electrons in
an atom orbiting around nucleus possess orbital angular momentum.
These orbiting electrons are equivalent to current-carrying loop and thus
possess orbital magnetic moment. Diamagnetic substances are the ones
in which resultant magnetic moment in an atom is zero. When magnetic
field is applied, those electrons having orbital magnetic moment in the
same direction slow down and those in the opposite direction speed up.
This happens due to induced current in accordance with Lenz’s law which
you will study in Chapter 6. Thus, the substance develops a net magnetic
FIGURE 5.12
moment in direction opposite to that of the applied field and hence
Behaviour of repulsion.
magnetic field lines Some diamagnetic materials are bismuth, copper, lead, silicon,
near a nitrogen (at STP), water and sodium chloride. Diamagnetism is present
(a) diamagnetic, in all the substances. However, the effect is so weak in most cases that it
(b) paramagnetic gets shifted by other effects like paramagnetism, ferromagnetism, etc.
substance. The most exotic diamagnetic materials are superconductors. These
are metals, cooled to very low temperatures which exhibits both perfect
conductivity and perfect diamagnetism. Here the field lines are completely
expelled! χ = –1 and µr = 0. A superconductor repels a magnet and (by
Newton’s third law) is repelled by the magnet. The phenomenon of perfect
diamagnetism in superconductors is called the Meissner effect, after the
name of its discoverer. Superconducting magnets can be gainfully
exploited in variety of situations, for example, for running magnetically
levitated superfast trains.

5.6.2 Paramagnetism
Paramagnetic substances are those which get weakly magnetised when
placed in an external magnetic field. They have tendency to move from a
region of weak magnetic field to strong magnetic field, i.e., they get weakly
192 attracted to a magnet.

2022-23
 Magnetism and
Matter
The individual atoms (or ions or molecules) of a paramagnetic material
possess a permanent magnetic dipole moment of their own. On account
of the ceaseless random thermal motion of the atoms, no net magnetisation
is seen. In the presence of an external field B 0, which is strong enough,
and at low temperatures, the individual atomic dipole moment can be
made to align and point in the same direction as B 0. Figure 5.12(b) shows
a bar of paramagnetic material placed in an external field. The field lines
gets concentrated inside the material, and the field inside is enhanced. In
most cases, as is evident from Table 5.2, this enhancement is slight, being
one part in 105. When placed in a non-uniform magnetic field, the bar
will tend to move from weak field to strong.
Some paramagnetic materials are aluminium, sodium, calcium,
oxygen (at STP) and copper chloride. Experimentally, one finds that the
magnetisation of a paramagnetic material is inversely proportional to the
absolute temperature T ,
B0
M =C [5.20(a)]
T
or equivalently, using Eqs. (5.12) and (5.17)
µ0
χ =C [5.20(b)]
T
This is known as Curie’s law, after its discoverer Pieree Curie (1859-
1906). The constant C is called Curie’s constant. Thus, for a paramagnetic
material both χ and µr depend not only on the material, but also
(in a simple fashion) on the sample temperature. As the field is
increased or the temperature is lowered, the magnetisation increases until
it reaches the saturation value M s, at which point all the dipoles are
perfectly aligned with the field. Beyond this, Curie’s law [Eq. (5.20)] is no
longer valid.

5.6.3 Ferromagnetism
Ferromagnetic substances are those which gets strongly magnetised when
placed in an external magnetic field. They have strong tendency to move
from a region of weak magnetic field to strong magnetic field, i.e., they get
strongly attracted to a magnet.
The individual atoms (or ions or molecules) in a ferromagnetic material
possess a dipole moment as in a paramagnetic material. However, they
interact with one another in such a way that they spontaneously align
themselves in a common direction over a macroscopic volume called
domain. The explanation of this cooperative effect requires quantum
mechanics and is beyond the scope of this textbook. Each domain has a
net magnetisation. Typical domain size is 1mm and the domain contains
about 1011 atoms. In the first instant, the magnetisation varies randomly
from domain to domain and there is no bulk magnetisation. This is shown FIGURE 5.13
in Fig. 5.13(a). When we apply an external magnetic field B 0, the domains (a) Randomly
orient themselves in the direction of B 0 and simultaneously the domain oriented domains,
oriented in the direction of B 0 grow in size. This existence of domains and (b) Aligned domains.
their motion in B 0 are not speculations. One may observe this under a
microscope after sprinkling a liquid suspension of powdered 193

2022-23
 Physics
ferromagnetic substance of samples. This motion of suspension can be
observed. Figure 5.12(b) shows the situation when the domains have
aligned and amalgamated to form a single ‘giant’ domain.
Thus, in a ferromagnetic material the field lines are highly
concentrated. In non-uniform magnetic field, the sample tends to move
towards the region of high field. We may wonder as to what happens
when the external field is removed. In some ferromagnetic materials the
magnetisation persists. Such materials are called hard magnetic materials
or hard ferromagnets. Alnico, an alloy of iron, aluminium, nickel, cobalt

Inn
and copper, is one such material. The naturally occurringur lodestone is
another. Such materials form permanent magnets to be used among other
things as a compass needle. On the other hand, there is a class of
ferromagnetic materials in which the magnetisation disappears on removal
of the external field. Soft iron is one such material. Appropriately enough,
such materials are called soft ferromagnetic materials. There are a number
of elements, which are ferromagnetic: iron, cobalt, nickel, gadolinium,
etc. The relative magnetic permeability is >1000!
The ferromagnetic property depends on temperature. At high enough
temperature, a ferromagnet becomes a paramagnet. The domain structure
disintegrates with temperature. This disappearance of magnetisation with
temperature is gradual. It is a phase transition reminding us of the melting
of a solid crystal. The temperature of transition from ferromagnetic to
paramagnetism is called the Curie temperature Tc. Table 5.4 lists
the Curie temperature of certain ferromagnets. The susceptibility
above the Curie temperature, i.e., in the paramagnetic phase is
described by,
C
χ= (T > Tc ) (5.21)
T − Tc

TABLE 5.4 CURIE TEMPERATURE TC OF SOME

FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS

Material Tc (K)

Cobalt 1394
Iron 1043
Fe2O3 893
Nickel 631
Gadolinium 317
EXAMPLE 5.11

Example 5.11 A domain in ferromagnetic iron is in the form of a cube

of side length 1µm. Estimate the number of iron atoms in the domain
and the maximum possible dipole moment and magnetisation of the
domain. The atomic mass of iron is 55 g/mole and its density is
7.9 g/cm 3 . Assume that each iron atom has a dipole moment
of 9.27×10–24 A m2.
194

2022-23
 Magnetism and
Matter

Solution The volume of the cubic domain is

V = (10–6 m)3 = 10–18 m3 = 10–12 cm3
Its mass is volume × density = 7.9 g cm–3 × 10–12 cm3= 7.9 × 10–12 g
It is given that Avagadro number (6.023 × 1023) of iron atoms have a
mass of 55 g. Hence, the number of atoms in the domain is
7.9 × 10 −12 × 6.023 × 1023
N =
55
= 8.65 × 1010 atoms
The maximum possible dipole moment m max is achieved for the
(unrealistic) case when all the atomic moments are perfectly aligned.
Thus,
mmax = (8.65 × 1010) × (9.27 × 10–24)
= 8.0 × 10–13 A m2

EXAMPLE 5.11
The consequent magnetisation is
Mmax = mmax/Domain volume
= 8.0 × 10–13 Am2/10–18 m3
= 8.0 × 105 Am–1

The relation between B and H in ferromagnetic materials is complex.

It is often not linear and it depends on the magnetic history of the sample.
Figure 5.14 depicts the behaviour of the material as we take it through
one cycle of magnetisation. Let the material be unmagnetised initially. We
place it in a solenoid and increase the current through the
solenoid. The magnetic field B in the material rises and
saturates as depicted in the curve Oa. This behaviour
represents the alignment and merger of domains until no
further enhancement is possible. It is pointless to increase
the current (and hence the magnetic intensity H ) beyond
this. Next, we decrease H and reduce it to zero. At H = 0, B
≠ 0. This is represented by the curve ab. The value of B at
H = 0 is called retentivity or remanence. In Fig. 5.14, BR ~
1.2 T, where the subscript R denotes retentivity. The
domains are not completely randomised even though the
external driving field has been removed. Next, the current
in the solenoid is reversed and slowly increased. Certain
domains are flipped until the net field inside stands
nullified. This is represented by the curve bc. The value of
H at c is called coercivity. In Fig. 5.14 Hc ~ –90 A m–1. As FIGURE 5.14 The magnetic
the reversed current is increased in magnitude, we once hysteresis loop is the B-H curve for
again obtain saturation. The curve cd depicts this. The ferromagnetic materials.
saturated magnetic field Bs ~ 1.5 T. Next, the current is
reduced (curve de) and reversed (curve ea). The cycle repeats
itself. Note that the curve Oa does not retrace itself as H is reduced. For a
given value of H, B is not unique but depends on previous history of the
sample. This phenomenon is called hysterisis. The word hysterisis means
lagging behind (and not ‘history’).

5.7 PERMANENT MAGNETS AND ELECTROMAGNETS

Substances which at room temperature retain their ferromagnetic property
for a long period of time are called permanent magnets. Permanent 195

2022-23
 Physics
magnets can be made in a variety of ways. One can hold an
iron rod in the north-south direction and hammer it repeatedly.
The method is illustrated in Fig. 5.15. The illustration is from
a 400 year old book to emphasise that the making of
permanent magnets is an old art. One can also hold a steel
rod and stroke it with one end of a bar magnet a large number
of times, always in the same sense to make a permanent
magnet.
An efficient way to make a permanent magnet is to place a
ferromagnetic rod in a solenoid and pass a current. The
magnetic field of the solenoid magnetises the rod.
FIGURE 5.15 A blacksmith
forging a permanent magnet by
The hysteresis curve (Fig. 5.14) allows us to select suitable
striking a red-hot rod of iron materials for permanent magnets. The material should have
kept in the north-south high retentivity so that the magnet is strong and high coercivity
direction with a hammer. The so that the magnetisation is not erased by stray magnetic fields,
sketch is recreated from an temperature fluctuations or minor mechanical damage.
illustration in De Magnete, a Further, the material should have a high permeability.~ Steel is
work published in 1600 and one-favoured choice. It has a slightly smaller retentivity than
authored by William Gilbert, soft iron but this is outweighed by the much smaller coercivity
the court physician to Queen of soft iron. Other suitable materials for permanent magnets
Elizabeth of England.
are alnico, cobalt steel and ticonal.
-
Core of electromagnets are made of ferromagnetic materials
which have high permeability and low retentivity. Soft iron is a suitable
.

material for electromagnets. On placing a soft iron rod in a solenoid and

passing a current, we increase the magnetism of the solenoid by a
thousand fold. When we switch off the solenoid current, the magnetism is
effectively switched off since the soft iron core has a low retentivity. The
arrangement is shown in Fig. 5.16.

FIGURE 5.16 A soft iron core in solenoid acts as an electromagnet.

In certain applications, the material goes through an ac cycle of
magnetisation for a long period. This is the case in transformer cores and
telephone diaphragms. The hysteresis curve of such materials must be
narrow. The energy dissipated and the heating will consequently be small.
The material must have a high resistivity to lower eddy current losses.
You will study about eddy currents in Chapter 6.
Electromagnets are used in electric bells, loudspeakers and telephone
diaphragms. Giant electromagnets are used in cranes to lift machinery,
196 and bulk quantities of iron and steel.

2022-23
 Magnetism and
Matter

MAPPING INDIA’S MAGNETIC FIELD

Because of its practical application in prospecting, communication, and navigation, the

magnetic field of the earth is mapped by most nations with an accuracy comparable to
geographical mapping. In India over a dozen observatories exist, extending from
Trivandrum (now Thrivuvananthapuram) in the south to Gulmarg in the north. These
observatories work under the aegis of the Indian Institute of Geomagnetism (IIG), in Colaba,
Mumbai. The IIG grew out of the Colaba and Alibag observatories and was formally
established in 1971. The IIG monitors (via its nation-wide observatories), the geomagnetic
fields and fluctuations on land, and under the ocean and in space. Its services are used
by the Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Ltd. (ONGC), the National Institute of
Oceanography (NIO) and the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). It is a part of
the world-wide network which ceaselessly updates the geomagnetic data. Now India has
a permanent station called Gangotri.

SUMMARY

1. The science of magnetism is old. It has been known since ancient times
that magnetic materials tend to point in the north-south direction; like
magnetic poles repel and unlike ones attract; and cutting a bar magnet
in two leads to two smaller magnets. Magnetic poles cannot be isolated.
2. When a bar magnet of dipole moment m is placed in a uniform magnetic
field B,
(a) the force on it is zero,
(b) the torque on it is m × B,
(c) its potential energy is –m.B, where we choose the zero of energy at
the orientation when m is perpendicular to B.
3. Consider a bar magnet of size l and magnetic moment m, at a distance
r from its mid-point, where r >>l, the magnetic field B due to this bar
is,
µ0 m
B= (along axis)
2πr3

µ0 m
=– (along equator)
4 πr3
4. Gauss’s law for magnetism states that the net magnetic flux through
any closed surface is zero

φB = ∑ Bi ∆S = 0
all area
elements ∆S

5. The earth’s magnetic field resembles that of a (hypothetical) magnetic

dipole located at the centre of the earth. The pole near the geographic
north pole of the earth is called the north magnetic pole. Similarly, the
pole near the geographic south pole is called the south magnetic pole.
This dipole is aligned making a small angle with the rotation axis of
the earth. The magnitude of the field on the earth’s surface ≈ 4 × 10–5 T. 197

2022-23
 Physics
6. Three quantities are needed to specify the magnetic field of the earth
on its surface – the horizontal component, the magnetic declination,
and the magnetic dip. These are known as the elements of the earth’s
magnetic field.
7. Consider a material placed in an external magnetic field B0. The
magnetic intensity is defined as,
B
H= 0
µ0
The magnetisation M of the material is its dipole moment per unit volume.
The magnetic field B in the material is,
B = µ0 (H + M)
8. For a linear material M = χ H. So that B = µ H and χ is called the
magnetic susceptibility of the material. The three quantities, χ, the
relative magnetic permeability µr, and the magnetic permeability µ are
related as follows:
µ = µ0 µr
µr = 1+ χ
9. Magnetic materials are broadly classified as: diamagnetic, paramagnetic,
and ferromagnetic. For diamagnetic materials χ is negative and small
and for paramagnetic materials it is positive and small. Ferromagnetic
materials have large χ and are characterised by non-linear relation
between B and H. They show the property of hysteresis.
10. Substances, which at room temperature, retain their ferromagnetic
property for a long period of time are called permanent magnets.

Physical quantity Symbol Nature Dimensions Units Remarks

Permeability of µ0 Scalar [MLT–2 A–2] T m A–1 µ0/4π = 10–7

free space
Magnetic field, B Vector [MT–2 A–1] T (tesla) 104 G (gauss) = 1 T
Magnetic induction,
Magnetic flux density
Magnetic moment m Vector [L–2 A] A m2
Magnetic flux φB Scalar [ML2T–2 A–1] W (weber) W = T m2

Magnetic moment
Magnetisation M Vector [L–1 A] A m–1
Volume
Magnetic intensity H Vector [L–1 A] A m–1 B = µ0 (H + M)
Magnetic field
strength
Magnetic χ Scalar - - M = χH
susceptibility
Relative magnetic µr Scalar - - B = µ0 µr H
permeability
Magnetic permeability µ Scalar [MLT–2 A–2] T m A–1 µ = µ0 µr
N A–2 B=µH

198

2022-23
 Magnetism and
Matter

POINTS TO PONDER

1. A satisfactory understanding of magnetic phenomenon in terms of moving

charges/currents was arrived at after 1800 AD. But technological
exploitation of the directional properties of magnets predates this scientific
understanding by two thousand years. Thus, scientific understanding is
not a necessary condition for engineering applications. Ideally, science
and engineering go hand-in-hand, one leading and assisting the other in
tandem.
2. Magnetic monopoles do not exist. If you slice a magnet in half, you get
two smaller magnets. On the other hand, isolated positive and negative
charges exist. There exists a smallest unit of charge, for example, the
electronic charge with value |e| = 1.6 ×10–19 C. All other charges are
integral multiples of this smallest unit charge. In other words, charge is
quantised. We do not know why magnetic monopoles do not exist or why
electric charge is quantised.
3. A consequence of the fact that magnetic monopoles do not exist is that
the magnetic field lines are continuous and form closed loops. In contrast,
the electrostatic lines of force begin on a positive charge and terminate
on the negative charge (or fade out at infinity).
4. The earth’s magnetic field is not due to a huge bar magnet inside it. The
earth’s core is hot and molten. Perhaps convective currents in this core
are responsible for the earth’s magnetic field. As to what ‘dynamo’ effect
sustains this current, and why the earth’s field reverses polarity every
million years or so, we do not know.
5. A miniscule difference in the value of χ, the magnetic susceptibility, yields
radically different behaviour: diamagnetic versus paramagnetic. For
diamagnetic materials χ = –10–5 whereas χ = +10–5 for paramagnetic
materials.
6. There exists a perfect diamagnet, namely, a superconductor. This is a
metal at very low temperatures. In this case χ = –1, µr = 0, µ = 0. The
external magnetic field is totally expelled. Interestingly, this material is
also a perfect conductor. However, there exists no classical theory which
ties these two properties together. A quantum-mechanical theory by
Bardeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer (BCS theory) explains these effects. The
BCS theory was proposed in1957 and was eventually recognised by a Nobel
Prize in physics in 1970.
7. The phenomenon of magnetic hysteresis is reminiscent of similar
behaviour concerning the elastic properties of materials. Strain
may not be proportional to stress; here H and B (or M) are not
linearly related. The stress-strain curve exhibits hysteresis and
area enclosed by it represents the energy dissipated per unit volume.
A similar interpretation can be given to the B-H magnetic hysteresis
curve.
8. Diamagnetism is universal. It is present in all materials. But it
is weak and hard to detect if the substance is para- or ferromagnetic.
9. We have classified materials as diamagnetic, paramagnetic, and
ferromagnetic. However, there exist additional types of magnetic material
such as ferrimagnetic, anti-ferromagnetic, spin glass, etc. with properties
which are exotic and mysterious.

199

2022-23
 Physics

Chapter Six

ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Electricity and magnetism were considered separate and unrelated
phenomena for a long time. In the early decades of the nineteenth century,
experiments on electric current by Oersted, Ampere and a few others
established the fact that electricity and magnetism are inter-related. They
found that moving electric charges produce magnetic fields. For example,
an electric current deflects a magnetic compass needle placed in its vicinity.
This naturally raises the questions like: Is the converse effect possible?
Can moving magnets produce electric currents? Does the nature permit
such a relation between electricity and magnetism? The answer is
resounding yes! The experiments of Michael Faraday in England and
Joseph Henry in USA, conducted around 1830, demonstrated
conclusively that electric currents were induced in closed coils when
subjected to changing magnetic fields. In this chapter, we will study the
phenomena associated with changing magnetic fields and understand
the underlying principles. The phenomenon in which electric current is
generated by varying magnetic fields is appropriately called
electromagnetic induction.
When Faraday first made public his discovery that relative motion
between a bar magnet and a wire loop produced a small current in the
latter, he was asked, “What is the use of it?” His reply was: “What is the
204 use of a new born baby?” The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction

2022-23
 Electromagnetic
Induction
is not merely of theoretical or academic interest but also
of practical utility. Imagine a world where there is no
electricity – no electric lights, no trains, no telephones and
no personal computers. The pioneering experiments of
Faraday and Henry have led directly to the development
of modern day generators and transformers. Today’s
civilisation owes its progress to a great extent to the
discovery of electromagnetic induction.

6.2 THE EXPERIMENTS OF FARADAY AND

HENRY

JOSEPH HENRY (1797 – 1878)

The discovery and understanding of electromagnetic
induction are based on a long series of experiments carried Josheph Henry [1797 –
out by Faraday and Henry. We shall now describe some 1878] American experimental
of these experiments. physicist, professor at
Princeton University and first
Experiment 6.1 director of the Smithsonian
Institution. He made important
Figure 6.1 shows a coil C1* connected to a galvanometer improvements in electro-
G. When the North-pole of a bar magnet is pushed magnets by winding coils of
insulated wire around iron
towards the coil, the pointer in the galvanometer deflects,
pole pieces and invented an
indicating the presence of electric current in the coil. The electromagnetic motor and a
deflection lasts as long as the bar magnet is in motion. new, efficient telegraph. He
The galvanometer does not show any deflection when the discoverd self-induction and
magnet is held stationary. When the magnet is pulled investigated how currents in
away from the coil, the galvanometer shows deflection in one circuit induce currents in
another.
the opposite direction, which indicates reversal of the
current’s direction. Moreover, when the South-pole of
the bar magnet is moved towards or away from the
coil, the deflections in the galvanometer are opposite
to that observed with the North-pole for similar
movements. Further, the deflection (and hence current)
is found to be larger when the magnet is pushed
towards or pulled away from the coil faster. Instead,
when the bar magnet is held fixed and the coil C1 is
moved towards or away from the magnet, the same
effects are observed. It shows that it is the relative
motion between the magnet and the coil that is
responsible for generation (induction) of electric
current in the coil.

Experiment 6.2
FIGURE 6.1 When the bar magnet is
In Fig. 6.2 the bar magnet is replaced by a second coil pushed towards the coil, the pointer in
C2 connected to a battery. The steady current in the the galvanometer G deflects.
coil C2 produces a steady magnetic field. As coil C2 is

* Wherever the term ‘coil’ or ‘loop’ is used, it is assumed that they are made up of
conducting material and are prepared using wires which are coated with insulating
material. 205

2022-23
 Physics
moved towards the coil C1, the galvanometer shows a
deflection. This indicates that electric current is induced in
coil C1. When C2 is moved away, the galvanometer shows a
deflection again, but this time in the opposite direction. The
deflection lasts as long as coil C2 is in motion. When the coil
C2 is held fixed and C1 is moved, the same effects are observed.
Again, it is the relative motion between the coils that induces
the electric current.

Experiment 6.3
The above two experiments involved relative motion between
a magnet and a coil and between two coils, respectively.
Through another experiment, Faraday showed that this
FIGURE 6.2 Current is
relative motion is not an absolute requirement. Figure 6.3
induced in coil C1 due to motion shows two coils C1 and C2 held stationary. Coil C1 is connected
of the current carrying coil C2. to galvanometer G while the second coil C2 is connected to a
battery through a tapping key K.

FIGURE 6.3 Experimental set-up for Experiment 6.3.

It is observed that the galvanometer shows a momentary deflection

when the tapping key K is pressed. The pointer in the galvanometer returns
to zero immediately. If the key is held pressed continuously, there is no
deflection in the galvanometer. When the key is released, a momentory
deflection is observed again, but in the opposite direction. It is also observed
that the deflection increases dramatically when an iron rod is inserted
into the coils along their axis.

6.3 MAGNETIC FLUX

Faraday’s great insight lay in discovering a simple mathematical relation
to explain the series of experiments he carried out on electromagnetic
induction. However, before we state and appreciate his laws, we must get
familiar with the notion of magnetic flux, Φ B. Magnetic flux is defined in
206 the same way as electric flux is defined in Chapter 1. Magnetic flux through

2022-23
 Electromagnetic
Induction
a plane of area A placed in a uniform magnetic field B (Fig. 6.4) can
be written as
Φ B = B . A = BA cos θ (6.1)
where θ is angle between B and A. The notion of the area as a vector
has been discussed earlier in Chapter 1. Equation (6.1) can be
extended to curved surfaces and nonuniform fields.
If the magnetic field has different magnitudes and directions at
various parts of a surface as shown in Fig. 6.5, then the magnetic
flux through the surface is given by
Φ = B . dA + B . dA + ... =
B 1 1 2 2 ∑ Bi . dA i
all
(6.2)
FIGURE 6.4 A plane of
where ‘all’ stands for summation over all the area elements dAi
surface area A placed in a
comprising the surface and Bi is the magnetic field at the area element uniform magnetic field B.
dAi. The SI unit of magnetic flux is weber (Wb) or tesla meter
squared (T m2). Magnetic flux is a scalar quantity.

6.4 FARADAY’S LAW OF INDUCTION

From the experimental observations, Faraday arrived at a
conclusion that an emf is induced in a coil when magnetic flux
through the coil changes with time. Experimental observations
discussed in Section 6.2 can be explained using this concept.
The motion of a magnet towards or away from coil C1 in
Experiment 6.1 and moving a current-carrying coil C2 towards
or away from coil C1 in Experiment 6.2, change the magnetic
flux associated with coil C1. The change in magnetic flux induces
emf in coil C1. It was this induced emf which caused electric
current to flow in coil C1 and through the galvanometer. A FIGURE 6.5 Magnetic field Bi
plausible explanation for the observations of Experiment 6.3 is at the i th area element. dAi
as follows: When the tapping key K is pressed, the current in represents area vector of the
i th area element.
coil C2 (and the resulting magnetic field) rises from zero to a
maximum value in a short time. Consequently, the magnetic
flux through the neighbouring coil C1 also increases. It is the change in
magnetic flux through coil C1 that produces an induced emf in coil C1.
When the key is held pressed, current in coil C2 is constant. Therefore,
there is no change in the magnetic flux through coil C1 and the current in
coil C1 drops to zero. When the key is released, the current in C2 and the
resulting magnetic field decreases from the maximum value to zero in a
short time. This results in a decrease in magnetic flux through coil C1
and hence again induces an electric current in coil C1*. The common
point in all these observations is that the time rate of change of magnetic
flux through a circuit induces emf in it. Faraday stated experimental
observations in the form of a law called Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction. The law is stated below.

* Note that sensitive electrical instruments in the vicinity of an electromagnet

can be damaged due to the induced emfs (and the resulting currents) when the
electromagnet is turned on or off. 207

2022-23
 Physics
The magnitude of the induced emf in a circuit is equal
to the time rate of change of magnetic flux through the
circuit.
Mathematically, the induced emf is given by
dΦB
ε=– (6.3)
dt
The negative sign indicates the direction of ε and hence
the direction of current in a closed loop. This will be
discussed in detail in the next section.
MICHAEL FARADAY (1791–1867)

In the case of a closely wound coil of N turns, change

of flux associated with each turn, is the same. Therefore,
Michael Faraday [1791–
the expression for the total induced emf is given by
1867] Faraday made
numerous contributions to dΦB
science, viz., the discovery ε = –N (6.4)
dt
of electromagnetic
induction, the laws of The induced emf can be increased by increasing the
electrolysis, benzene, and number of turns N of a closed coil.
the fact that the plane of
polarisation is rotated in an
From Eqs. (6.1) and (6.2), we see that the flux can be
electric field. He is also varied by changing any one or more of the terms B, A and
credited with the invention θ. In Experiments 6.1 and 6.2 in Section 6.2, the flux is
of the electric motor, the changed by varying B. The flux can also be altered by
electric generator and the changing the shape of a coil (that is, by shrinking it or
transformer. He is widely stretching it) in a magnetic field, or rotating a coil in a
regarded as the greatest magnetic field such that the angle θ between B and A
experimental scientist of
changes. In these cases too, an emf is induced in the
the nineteenth century.
respective coils.

Example 6.1 Consider Experiment 6.2. (a) What would you do to obtain
a large deflection of the galvanometer? (b) How would you demonstrate
the presence of an induced current in the absence of a galvanometer?
Solution
(a) To obtain a large deflection, one or more of the following steps can
be taken: (i) Use a rod made of soft iron inside the coil C2, (ii) Connect
the coil to a powerful battery, and (iii) Move the arrangement rapidly
towards the test coil C1.
(b) Replace the galvanometer by a small bulb, the kind one finds in a
small torch light. The relative motion between the two coils will cause
EXAMPLE 6.1

the bulb to glow and thus demonstrate the presence of an induced

current.
In experimental physics one must learn to innovate. Michael Faraday
who is ranked as one of the best experimentalists ever, was legendary
for his innovative skills.
EXAMPLE 6.2

Example 6.2 A square loop of side 10 cm and resistance 0.5 Ω is

placed vertically in the east-west plane. A uniform magnetic field of
0.10 T is set up across the plane in the north-east direction. The
magnetic field is decreased to zero in 0.70 s at a steady rate. Determine
the magnitudes of induced emf and current during this time-interval.
208

2022-23
 Electromagnetic
Induction

Solution The angle θ made by the area vector of the coil with the
magnetic field is 45°. From Eq. (6.1), the initial magnetic flux is
Φ = BA cos θ

0.1 × 10 –2
= Wb
2
Final flux, Φmin = 0
The change in flux is brought about in 0.70 s. From Eq. (6.3), the
magnitude of the induced emf is given by

∆ΦB (Φ – 0 ) 10 –3
ε= = = = 1.0 mV
∆t ∆t 2 × 0.7
And the magnitude of the current is

EXAMPLE 6.2
10 –3 V
I = = = 2 mA
R 0.5Ω
Note that the earth’s magnetic field also produces a flux through the
loop. But it is a steady field (which does not change within the time
span of the experiment) and hence does not induce any emf.

Example 6.3
A circular coil of radius 10 cm, 500 turns and resistance 2 Ω is placed
with its plane perpendicular to the horizontal component of the earth’s
magnetic field. It is rotated about its vertical diameter through 180°
in 0.25 s. Estimate the magnitudes of the emf and current induced in
the coil. Horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field at the
place is 3.0 × 10–5 T.
Solution
Initial flux through the coil,
ΦB (initial) = BA cos θ
= 3.0 × 10–5 × (π ×10–2) × cos 0°
= 3π × 10–7 Wb
Final flux after the rotation,
ΦB (final) = 3.0 × 10–5 × (π ×10–2) × cos 180°
= –3π × 10–7 Wb
Therefore, estimated value of the induced emf is,

∆Φ
ε=N
∆t
= 500 × (6π × 10–7)/0.25
= 3.8 × 10–3 V
EXAMPLE 6.3

I = ε/R = 1.9 × 10–3 A

Note that the magnitudes of ε and I are the estimated values. Their
instantaneous values are different and depend upon the speed of
rotation at the particular instant.
209

2022-23
 Physics
6.5 LENZ’S LAW AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
In 1834, German physicist Heinrich Friedrich Lenz (1804-1865) deduced
a rule, known as Lenz’s law which gives the polarity of the induced emf
in a clear and concise fashion. The statement of the law is:
The polarity of induced emf is such that it tends to produce a current
which opposes the change in magnetic flux that produced it.
The negative sign shown in Eq. (6.3) represents this effect. We can
understand Lenz’s law by examining Experiment 6.1 in Section 6.2.1. In
Fig. 6.1, we see that the North-pole of a bar magnet is being pushed
towards the closed coil. As the North-pole of the bar magnet moves towards
the coil, the magnetic flux through the coil increases. Hence current is
induced in the coil in such a direction that it opposes the increase in flux.
This is possible only if the current in the coil is in a counter-clockwise
direction with respect to an observer situated on the side of the magnet.
Note that magnetic moment associated with this current has North polarity
towards the North-pole of the approaching magnet. Similarly, if the North-
pole of the magnet is being withdrawn from the coil, the magnetic flux
through the coil will decrease. To counter this decrease in magnetic flux,
the induced current in the coil flows in clockwise direction and its South-
pole faces the receding North-pole of the bar magnet. This would result in
an attractive force which opposes the motion of the magnet and the
corresponding decrease in flux.
What will happen if an open circuit is used in place of the closed loop
in the above example? In this case too, an emf is induced across the open
ends of the circuit. The direction of the induced emf can be found
using Lenz’s law. Consider Figs. 6.6 (a) and (b). They provide an easier
way to understand the direction of induced currents. Note that the
direction shown by and indicate the directions of the induced
currents.
A little reflection on this matter should convince us on the
correctness of Lenz’s law. Suppose that the induced current was in
the direction opposite to the one depicted in Fig. 6.6(a). In that case,
the South-pole due to the induced current will face the approaching
North-pole of the magnet. The bar magnet will then be attracted
towards the coil at an ever increasing acceleration. A gentle push on
the magnet will initiate the process and its velocity and kinetic energy
will continuously increase without expending any energy. If this can
happen, one could construct a perpetual-motion machine by a
suitable arrangement. This violates the law of conservation of energy
and hence can not happen.
FIGURE 6.6 Now consider the correct case shown in Fig. 6.6(a). In this situation,
Illustration of the bar magnet experiences a repulsive force due to the induced
Lenz’s law. current. Therefore, a person has to do work in moving the magnet.
Where does the energy spent by the person go? This energy is
210 dissipated by Joule heating produced by the induced current.

2022-23
 Electromagnetic
Induction

Example 6.4
Figure 6.7 shows planar loops of different shapes moving out of or
into a region of a magnetic field which is directed normal to the plane
of the loop away from the reader. Determine the direction of induced
current in each loop using Lenz’s law.

FIGURE 6.7

Solution
(i) The magnetic flux through the rectangular loop abcd increases,
due to the motion of the loop into the region of magnetic field, The
induced current must flow along the path bcdab so that it opposes
the increasing flux.
(ii) Due to the outward motion, magnetic flux through the triangular
loop abc decreases due to which the induced current flows along
bacb, so as to oppose the change in flux.
EXAMPLE 6.4

(iii) As the magnetic flux decreases due to motion of the irregular

shaped loop abcd out of the region of magnetic field, the induced
current flows along cdabc, so as to oppose change in flux.
Note that there are no induced current as long as the loops are
completely inside or outside the region of the magnetic field.

Example 6.5
(a) A closed loop is held stationary in the magnetic field between the
north and south poles of two permanent magnets held fixed. Can
we hope to generate current in the loop by using very strong
magnets?
(b) A closed loop moves normal to the constant electric field between
the plates of a large capacitor. Is a current induced in the loop
(i) when it is wholly inside the region between the capacitor plates
(ii) when it is partially outside the plates of the capacitor? The
electric field is normal to the plane of the loop.
EXAMPLE 6.5

(c) A rectangular loop and a circular loop are moving out of a uniform
magnetic field region (Fig. 6.8) to a field-free region with a constant
velocity v. In which loop do you expect the induced emf to be
constant during the passage out of the field region? The field is
normal to the loops. 211

2022-23
 Physics

FIGURE 6.8

(d) Predict the polarity of the capacitor in the situation described by

Fig. 6.9.

FIGURE 6.9
Solution
(a) No. However strong the magnet may be, current can be induced
only by changing the magnetic flux through the loop.
(b) No current is induced in either case. Current can not be induced
by changing the electric flux.
EXAMPLE 6.5

(c) The induced emf is expected to be constant only in the case of the
rectangular loop. In the case of circular loop, the rate of change of
area of the loop during its passage out of the field region is not
constant, hence induced emf will vary accordingly.
(d) The polarity of plate ‘A’ will be positive with respect to plate ‘B’ in
the capacitor.

6.6 MOTIONAL ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE

Let us consider a straight conductor moving in a uniform and time-
independent magnetic field. Figure 6.10 shows a rectangular conductor
PQRS in which the conductor PQ is free to move. The rod PQ is moved
towards the left with a constant velocity v as
shown in the figure. Assume that there is no
loss of energy due to friction. PQRS forms a
closed circuit enclosing an area that changes
as PQ moves. It is placed in a uniform magnetic
field B which is perpendicular to the plane of
this system. If the length RQ = x and RS = l, the
magnetic flux ΦB enclosed by the loop PQRS
will be
ΦB = Blx
Since x is changing with time, the rate of change
of flux ΦB will induce an emf given by:
FIGURE 6.10 The arm PQ is moved to the left
– dΦB d
side, thus decreasing the area of the ε= = – (Blx )
rectangular loop. This movement dt dt
induces a current I as shown. dx
212 = – Bl = Blv (6.5)
dt
2022-23
 Electromagnetic
Induction
where we have used dx/dt = –v which is the speed of the conductor PQ.
The induced emf Blv is called motional emf. Thus, we are able to produce
induced emf by moving a conductor instead of varying the magnetic field,
that is, by changing the magnetic flux enclosed by the circuit.
It is also possible to explain the motional emf expression in Eq. (6.5)
by invoking the Lorentz force acting on the free charge carriers of conductor
PQ. Consider any arbitrary charge q in the conductor PQ. When the rod
moves with speed v, the charge will also be moving with speed v in the
magnetic field B. The Lorentz force on this charge is qvB in magnitude,
and its direction is towards Q. All charges experience the same force, in
magnitude and direction, irrespective of their position in the rod PQ.
The work done in moving the charge from P to Q is,
W = qvBl
Since emf is the work done per unit charge,
W
ε =
q
= Blv
This equation gives emf induced across the rod PQ and is identical
to Eq. (6.5). We stress that our presentation is not wholly rigorous. But
it does help us to understand the basis of Faraday’s law when
the conductor is moving in a uniform and time-independent
magnetic field.
On the other hand, it is not obvious how an emf is induced when a
conductor is stationary and the magnetic field is changing – a fact which
Faraday verified by numerous experiments. In the case of a stationary
conductor, the force on its charges is given by
F = q (E + v × B) = qE (6.6)
since v = 0. Thus, any force on the charge must arise from the electric
field term E alone. Therefore, to explain the existence of induced emf or
induced current, we must assume that a time-varying magnetic field
generates an electric field. However, we hasten to add that electric fields
produced by static electric charges have properties different from those
produced by time-varying magnetic fields. In Chapter 4, we learnt that
charges in motion (current) can exert force/torque on a stationary magnet.
Conversely, a bar magnet in motion (or more generally, a changing
magnetic field) can exert a force on the stationary charge. This is the
fundamental significance of the Faraday’s discovery. Electricity and
magnetism are related.

Example 6.6 A metallic rod of 1 m length is rotated with a frequency

of 50 rev/s, with one end hinged at the centre and the other end at the
EXAMPLE 6.6

circumference of a circular metallic ring of radius 1 m, about an axis

passing through the centre and perpendicular to the plane of the ring
(Fig. 6.11). A constant and uniform magnetic field of 1 T parallel to the
axis is present everywhere. What is the emf between the centre and
the metallic ring? 213

2022-23
 Physics

FIGURE 6.11
Solution
Method I
As the rod is rotated, free electrons in the rod move towards the outer
end due to Lorentz force and get distributed over the ring. Thus, the
resulting separation of charges produces an emf across the ends of
the rod. At a certain value of emf, there is no more flow of electrons
and a steady state is reached. Using Eq. (6.5), the magnitude of the
emf generated across a length dr of the rod as it moves at right angles
to the magnetic field is given by
dε = Bv dr . Hence,
R R
B ωR 2
ε = ∫ dε = ∫ Bv dr = ∫ B ωr dr =
0 0
2
Note that we have used v = ω r. This gives
1
ε = × 1.0 × 2π × 50 × (12 )
2
= 157 V
Method II
To calculate the emf, we can imagine a closed loop OPQ in which
point O and P are connected with a resistor R and OQ is the rotating
rod. The potential difference across the resistor is then equal to the
induced emf and equals B × (rate of change of area of loop). If θ is the
angle between the rod and the radius of the circle at P at time t, the
area of the sector OPQ is given by
θ 1
π R2 × = R 2θ
2π 2
where R is the radius of the circle. Hence, the induced emf is
d 1 2  1 dθ Bω R 2
ε =B ×  R θ  = BR 2 =
dt  2 
EXAMPLE 6.6

2 dt 2
dθ
[Note: = ω = 2 πν ]
dt
This expression is identical to the expression obtained by Method I
and we get the same value of ε.
214

2022-23
 Electromagnetic
Induction

Example 6.7
A wheel with 10 metallic spokes each 0.5 m long is rotated with a
speed of 120 rev/min in a plane normal to the horizontal component
of earth’s magnetic field HE at a place. If HE = 0.4 G at the place, what
is the induced emf between the axle and the rim of the wheel? Note
that 1 G = 10–4 T.
Solution
Induced emf = (1/2) ω B R2

EXAMPLE 6.7
= (1/2) × 4π × 0.4 × 10–4 × (0.5)2
= 6.28 × 10–5 V
The number of spokes is immaterial because the emf’s across the
spokes are in parallel.

6.7 ENERGY CONSIDERATION: A QUANTITATIVE STUDY

In Section 6.5, we discussed qualitatively that Lenz’s law is consistent with
the law of conservation of energy. Now we shall explore this aspect further
with a concrete example.
Let r be the resistance of movable arm PQ of the rectangular conductor
shown in Fig. 6.10. We assume that the remaining arms QR, RS and SP
have negligible resistances compared to r. Thus, the overall resistance of
the rectangular loop is r and this does not change as PQ is moved. The
current I in the loop is,
ε
I =
r
Bl v
= (6.7)
r
On account of the presence of the magnetic field, there will be a force
on the arm PQ. This force I (l × B), is directed outwards in the direction
opposite to the velocity of the rod. The magnitude of this force is,
B 2l 2v
F = I lB =
r
where we have used Eq. (6.7). Note that this force arises due to drift velocity
of charges (responsible for current) along the rod and the consequent
Lorentz force acting on them.
Alternatively, the arm PQ is being pushed with a constant speed v,
the power required to do this is,
P = Fv
B 2l 2v 2
= (6.8)
r
The agent that does this work is mechanical. Where does this
mechanical energy go? The answer is: it is dissipated as Joule heat, and
is given by
2
 Blv  B 2l 2v 2
PJ = I 2r =   r =

r  r
which is identical to Eq. (6.8). 215

2022-23
 Physics
Thus, mechanical energy which was needed to move the arm PQ is
converted into electrical energy (the induced emf) and then to thermal energy.
There is an interesting relationship between the charge flow through
the circuit and the change in the magnetic flux. From Faraday’s law, we
have learnt that the magnitude of the induced emf is,
∆ΦB
ε =
∆t
However,
∆Q
ε = Ir = r
∆t
Thus,
∆ΦB
∆Q =
r

Example 6.8 Refer to Fig. 6.12(a). The arm PQ of the rectangular

conductor is moved from x = 0, outwards. The uniform magnetic field is
perpendicular to the plane and extends from x = 0 to x = b and is zero
for x > b. Only the arm PQ possesses substantial resistance r. Consider
the situation when the arm PQ is pulled outwards from x = 0 to x = 2b,
and is then moved back to x = 0 with constant speed v. Obtain expressions
for the flux, the induced emf, the force necessary to pull the arm and the
power dissipated as Joule heat. Sketch the variation of these quantities
with distance.

(a)
FIGURE 6.12

Solution Let us first consider the forward motion from x = 0 to x = 2b

The flux ΦB linked with the circuit SPQR is
ΦB = B l x 0≤x <b
= Bl b b ≤ x < 2b
EXAMPLE 6.8

The induced emf is,

dΦ
ε=− B
dt
= − Bl v 0≤ x <b
216 =0 b ≤ x < 2b

2022-23
 Electromagnetic
Induction

When the induced emf is non-zero, the current I is (in magnitude)

Bl v
I =
r

(b)
FIGURE 6.12

The force required to keep the arm PQ in constant motion is I l B. Its

direction is to the left. In magnitude
B 2l 2v
F = 0≤ x <b
r
=0 b ≤ x < 2b
The Joule heating loss is
PJ = I 2r

B 2l 2v 2
= 0≤x <b
EXAMPLE 6.8

r
=0 b ≤ x < 2b
One obtains similar expressions for the inward motion from x = 2b to
x = 0. One can appreciate the whole process by examining the sketch
of various quantities displayed in Fig. 6.12(b). 217

2022-23
 Physics
6.8 EDDY CURRENTS
So far we have studied the electric currents induced in well defined paths
in conductors like circular loops. Even when bulk pieces of conductors
are subjected to changing magnetic flux, induced currents
are produced in them. However, their flow patterns resemble
swirling eddies in water. This effect was discovered by physicist
Foucault (1819-1868) and these currents are called eddy
currents.
Consider the apparatus shown in Fig. 6.13. A copper plate
is allowed to swing like a simple pendulum between the pole
pieces of a strong magnet. It is found that the motion is damped
and in a little while the plate comes to a halt in the magnetic
field. We can explain this phenomenon on the basis of
electromagnetic induction. Magnetic flux associated with the
plate keeps on changing as the plate moves in and out of the
region between magnetic poles. The flux change induces eddy
currents in the plate. Directions of eddy currents are opposite
when the plate swings into the region between the poles and
when it swings out of the region.
If rectangular slots are made in the copper plate as shown
FIGURE 6.13 Eddy currents are in Fig. 6.14, area available to the flow of eddy currents is less.
generated in the copper plate, Thus, the pendulum plate with holes or slots reduces
while entering electromagnetic damping and the plate swings more freely.
and leaving the region of Note that magnetic moments of the induced currents (which
magnetic field. oppose the motion) depend upon the area enclosed by the
currents (recall equation m = I A in Chapter 4).
This fact is helpful in reducing eddy currents in the metallic
cores of transformers, electric motors and other such devices in
which a coil is to be wound over metallic core. Eddy currents are
undesirable since they heat up the core and dissipate electrical
energy in the form of heat. Eddy currents are minimised by using
laminations of metal to make a metal core. The laminations are
separated by an insulating material like lacquer. The plane of the
laminations must be arranged parallel to the magnetic field, so
that they cut across the eddy current paths. This arrangement
reduces the strength of the eddy currents. Since the dissipation
of electrical energy into heat depends on the square of the strength
of electric current, heat loss is substantially reduced.
Eddy currents are used to advantage in certain applications like:
(i) Magnetic braking in trains: Strong electromagnets are situated
above the rails in some electrically powered trains. When the
electromagnets are activated, the eddy currents induced in the
FIGURE 6.14 Cutting slots rails oppose the motion of the train. As there are no mechanical
in the copper plate reduces linkages, the braking effect is smooth.
the effect of eddy currents. (ii) Electromagnetic damping: Certain galvanometers have a fixed
core made of nonmagnetic metallic material. When the coil
oscillates, the eddy currents generated in the core oppose the
218 motion and bring the coil to rest quickly.

2022-23
 Electromagnetic
Induction
(iii) Induction furnace: Induction furnace can be used to produce high
temperatures and can be utilised to prepare alloys, by melting the
constituent metals. A high frequency alternating current is passed
through a coil which surrounds the metals to be melted. The eddy
currents generated in the metals produce high temperatures sufficient
to melt it.
(iv) Electric power meters: The shiny metal disc in the electric power meter
(analogue type) rotates due to the eddy currents. Electric currents
are induced in the disc by magnetic fields produced by sinusoidally
varying currents in a coil.
You can observe the rotating shiny disc in the power meter of your
house.

ELECTROMAGNETIC DAMPING

Take two hollow thin cylindrical pipes of equal internal diameters made of aluminium and
PVC, respectively. Fix them vertically with clamps on retort stands. Take a small cylinderical
magnet having diameter slightly smaller than the inner diameter of the pipes and drop it
through each pipe in such a way that the magnet does not touch the sides of the pipes
during its fall. You will observe that the magnet dropped through the PVC pipe takes the
same time to come out of the pipe as it would take when dropped through the same height
without the pipe. Note the time it takes to come out of the pipe in each case. You will see that
the magnet takes much longer time in the case of aluminium pipe. Why is it so? It is due to
the eddy currents that are generated in the aluminium pipe which oppose the change in
magnetic flux, i.e., the motion of the magnet. The retarding force due to the eddy currents
inhibits the motion of the magnet. Such phenomena are referred to as electromagnetic damping.
Note that eddy currents are not generated in PVC pipe as its material is an insulator whereas
aluminium is a conductor.

6.9 INDUCTANCE
An electric current can be induced in a coil by flux change produced by
another coil in its vicinity or flux change produced by the same coil. These
two situations are described separately in the next two sub-sections.
However, in both the cases, the flux through a coil is proportional to the
current. That is, ΦB α I.
Further, if the geometry of the coil does not vary with time then,
dΦB dI
∝
dt dt
For a closely wound coil of N turns, the same magnetic flux is linked
with all the turns. When the flux ΦB through the coil changes, each turn
contributes to the induced emf. Therefore, a term called flux linkage is
used which is equal to NΦB for a closely wound coil and in such a case
NΦB ∝ I
The constant of proportionality, in this relation, is called inductance.
We shall see that inductance depends only on the geometry of the coil 219

2022-23
 Physics
and intrinsic material properties. This aspect is akin to capacitance which
for a parallel plate capacitor depends on the plate area and plate separation
(geometry) and the dielectric constant K of the intervening medium
(intrinsic material property).
Inductance is a scalar quantity. It has the dimensions of [M L2 T –2 A–2]
given by the dimensions of flux divided by the dimensions of current. The
SI unit of inductance is henry and is denoted by H. It is named in honour
of Joseph Henry who discovered electromagnetic induction in USA,
independently of Faraday in England.

6.9.1 Mutual inductance

Consider Fig. 6.15 which shows two long co-axial solenoids each of length
l. We denote the radius of the inner solenoid S1 by r1 and the number of
turns per unit length by n1. The corresponding quantities for the outer
solenoid S2 are r2 and n2, respectively. Let N1 and N2 be the total number
of turns of coils S1 and S2, respectively.
When a current I2 is set up through S2, it in turn sets up a magnetic
flux through S1. Let us denote it by Φ1. The corresponding flux linkage
with solenoid S1 is
N1 Φ1 = M 12 I 2 (6.9)
M12 is called the mutual inductance of solenoid S1 with respect to
solenoid S2. It is also referred to as the coefficient of mutual induction.
For these simple co-axial solenoids it is possible to calculate M12. The
magnetic field due to the current I2 in S2 is µ0n2I2. The resulting flux linkage
with coil S1 is,

( ) (µ n I )
N1Φ1 = (n1l ) πr12 0 2 2

= µ0n1n 2 πr12l I 2 (6.10)

where n1l is the total number of turns in solenoid S1. Thus, from Eq. (6.9)
and Eq. (6.10),
M12 = µ0n1n2πr 12l (6.11)
Note that we neglected the edge effects and considered
the magnetic field µ0n2I2 to be uniform throughout the
length and width of the solenoid S2. This is a good
approximation keeping in mind that the solenoid is long,
implying l >> r2.
We now consider the reverse case. A current I1 is
passed through the solenoid S1 and the flux linkage with
coil S2 is,
N2Φ2 = M21 I1 (6.12)
M21 is called the mutual inductance of solenoid S2 with
respect to solenoid S1.
The flux due to the current I1 in S1 can be assumed to
FIGURE 6.15 Two long co-axial
be confined solely inside S1 since the solenoids are very
solenoids of same long. Thus, flux linkage with solenoid S2 is
220 length l.
( ) (µ n I )
N 2Φ2 = (n 2l ) πr12 0 1 1

2022-23
 Electromagnetic
Induction
where n2l is the total number of turns of S2. From Eq. (6.12),
M21 = µ0n1n2πr 21 l (6.13)
Using Eq. (6.11) and Eq. (6.12), we get
M12 = M21= M (say) (6.14)
We have demonstrated this equality for long co-axial solenoids.
However, the relation is far more general. Note that if the inner solenoid
was much shorter than (and placed well inside) the outer solenoid, then
we could still have calculated the flux linkage N1Φ1 because the inner
solenoid is effectively immersed in a uniform magnetic field due to the
outer solenoid. In this case, the calculation of M12 would be easy. However,
it would be extremely difficult to calculate the flux linkage with the outer
solenoid as the magnetic field due to the inner solenoid would vary across
the length as well as cross section of the outer solenoid. Therefore, the
calculation of M21 would also be extremely difficult in this case. The
equality M12=M21 is very useful in such situations.
We explained the above example with air as the medium within the
solenoids. Instead, if a medium of relative permeability µr had been present,
the mutual inductance would be
M =µr µ0 n1n2π r12 l
It is also important to know that the mutual inductance of a pair of
coils, solenoids, etc., depends on their separation as well as their relative
orientation.

Example 6.9 Two concentric circular coils, one of small radius r1 and
the other of large radius r2, such that r1 << r2, are placed co-axially
with centres coinciding. Obtain the mutual inductance of the
arrangement.
Solution Let a current I2 flow through the outer circular coil. The
field at the centre of the coil is B 2 = µ 0I 2 / 2r2. Since the other
co-axially placed coil has a very small radius, B2 may be considered
constant over its cross-sectional area. Hence,
Φ1 = πr 12B2
µ0 πr12
= I2
2r2
= M12 I2
Thus,
µ0 πr12
M12 =
2r2
From Eq. (6.14)
µ0 π r12
M12 = M 21 =
EXAMPLE 6.9

2 r2
Note that we calculated M12 from an approximate value of Φ1, assuming
the magnetic field B2 to be uniform over the area π r12. However, we
can accept this value because r1 << r2.
221

2022-23
 Physics
Now, let us recollect Experiment 6.3 in Section 6.2. In that experiment,
emf is induced in coil C1 wherever there was any change in current through
coil C2. Let Φ1 be the flux through coil C1 (say of N1 turns) when current in
coil C2 is I2.
Then, from Eq. (6.9), we have
N1Φ1 = MI2
For currents varrying with time,
d ( N 1Φ1 ) d ( MI 2 )
=
dt dt
Since induced emf in coil C1 is given by
d ( N 1Φ1 )
ε1 = –
dt
We get,
dI 2
ε1 = – M
dt
It shows that varying current in a coil can induce emf in a neighbouring
coil. The magnitude of the induced emf depends upon the rate of change
of current and mutual inductance of the two coils.

6.9.2 Self-inductance
In the previous sub-section, we considered the flux in one solenoid due
to the current in the other. It is also possible that emf is induced in a
single isolated coil due to change of flux through the coil by means of
varying the current through the same coil. This phenomenon is called
self-induction. In this case, flux linkage through a coil of N turns is
proportional to the current through the coil and is expressed as
N ΦB ∝ I
N ΦB = L I (6.15)
where constant of proportionality L is called self-inductance of the coil. It
is also called the coefficient of self-induction of the coil. When the current
is varied, the flux linked with the coil also changes and an emf is induced
in the coil. Using Eq. (6.15), the induced emf is given by
d ( N ΦB )
ε=–
dt
dI
ε = –L (6.16)
dt
Thus, the self-induced emf always opposes any change (increase or
decrease) of current in the coil.
It is possible to calculate the self-inductance for circuits with simple
geometries. Let us calculate the self-inductance of a long solenoid of cross-
sectional area A and length l, having n turns per unit length. The magnetic
field due to a current I flowing in the solenoid is B = µ0 n I (neglecting edge
effects, as before). The total flux linked with the solenoid is
222 N ΦB = (nl ) ( µ0n I ) ( A )

2022-23
 Electromagnetic
Induction

= µ 0n 2 Al I
where nl is the total number of turns. Thus, the self-inductance is,
ΝΦΒ
L =
I
= µ0n 2 Al (6.17)
If we fill the inside of the solenoid with a material of relative permeability
µr (for example soft iron, which has a high value of relative permeability),
then,
L = µr µ0 n 2 Al (6.18)
The self-inductance of the coil depends on its geometry and on the
permeability of the medium.
The self-induced emf is also called the back emf as it opposes any
change in the current in a circuit. Physically, the self-inductance plays
the role of inertia. It is the electromagnetic analogue of mass in mechanics.
So, work needs to be done against the back emf (ε ) in establishing the
current. This work done is stored as magnetic potential energy. For the
current I at an instant in a circuit, the rate of work done is
dW
= εI
dt
If we ignore the resistive losses and consider only inductive effect,
then using Eq. (6.16),
dW dI
=L I
dt dt
Total amount of work done in establishing the current I is
I
W = ∫ dW = ∫ L I dI
0

Thus, the energy required to build up the current I is,

1 2
W = LI (6.19)
2
This expression reminds us of mv 2/2 for the (mechanical) kinetic energy
of a particle of mass m, and shows that L is analogous to m (i.e., L is
electrical inertia and opposes growth and decay of current in the circuit).
Consider the general case of currents flowing simultaneously in two
nearby coils. The flux linked with one coil will be the sum of two fluxes
which exist independently. Equation (6.9) would be modified into
N1 Φ1 = M11 I1 + M12 I 2
where M11 represents inductance due to the same coil.
Therefore, using Faraday’s law,
dI 1 dI
ε1 = − M 11 − M 12 2 223
dt dt
2022-23
 Physics
M11 is the self-inductance and is written as L1. Therefore,
d I1 dI
ε1 = − L1 − M 12 2
dt dt

Example 6.10 (a) Obtain the expression for the magnetic energy stored
in a solenoid in terms of magnetic field B, area A and length l of the
solenoid. (b) How does this magnetic energy compare with the
electrostatic energy stored in a capacitor?
Solution
(a) From Eq. (6.19), the magnetic energy is
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/java/generator/ac.html

1 2
UB = LI
2
2
1  B 
= L (since B = µ0 nI , for a solenoid)
2  µ0n 

2
1  B 
= ( µ0n 2 Al )  [from Eq. (6.17)]
2  µ0n 
Interactive animation on ac generator:

1
= B 2 Al
2 µ0
(b) The magnetic energy per unit volume is,
UB
uB = (where V is volume that contains flux)
V
UB
=
Al
B2
= (6.20)
2 µ0
We have already obtained the relation for the electrostatic energy
stored per unit volume in a parallel plate capacitor (refer to Chapter 2,
Eq. 2.77),
1
uΕ = ε0 E 2 (2.77)
EXAMPLE 6.10

2
In both the cases energy is proportional to the square of the field
strength. Equations (6.20) and (2.77) have been derived for special
cases: a solenoid and a parallel plate capacitor, respectively. But they
are general and valid for any region of space in which a magnetic field
or/and an electric field exist.

6.10 AC GENERATOR
The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction has been technologically
exploited in many ways. An exceptionally important application is the
generation of alternating currents (ac). The modern ac generator with a
typical output capacity of 100 MW is a highly evolved machine. In this
section, we shall describe the basic principles behind this machine. The
Yugoslav inventor Nicola Tesla is credited with the development of the
224 machine. As was pointed out in Section 6.3, one method to induce an emf
2022-23
 Electromagnetic
Induction
or current in a loop is through a change in the
loop’s orientation or a change in its effective area.
As the coil rotates in a magnetic field B, the
effective area of the loop (the face perpendicular
to the field) is A cos θ, where θ is the angle
between A and B. This method of producing a
flux change is the principle of operation of a
simple ac generator. An ac generator converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy.
The basic elements of an ac generator are
shown in Fig. 6.16. It consists of a coil mounted
on a rotor shaft. The axis of rotation of the coil
is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic
field. The coil (called armature) is mechanically
rotated in the uniform magnetic field by some
external means. The rotation of the coil causes
the magnetic flux through it to change, so an
emf is induced in the coil. The ends of the coil
are connected to an external circuit by means
FIGURE 6.16 AC Generator
of slip rings and brushes.
When the coil is rotated with a constant
angular speed ω, the angle θ between the magnetic field vector B and the
area vector A of the coil at any instant t is θ = ωt (assuming θ = 0° at t = 0).
As a result, the effective area of the coil exposed to the magnetic field lines
changes with time, and from Eq. (6.1), the flux at any time t is
ΦB = BA cos θ = BA cos ωt
From Faraday’s law, the induced emf for the rotating coil of N turns is
then,
dΦB d
ε=–N = – NBA (cos ω t )
dt dt
Thus, the instantaneous value of the emf is
ε = NBA ω sin ωt (6.21)
where NBAω is the maximum value of the emf, which occurs when
sin ωt = ±1. If we denote NBAω as ε0, then
ε = ε0 sin ωt (6.22)
Since the value of the sine fuction varies between +1 and –1, the sign, or
polarity of the emf changes with time. Note from Fig. 6.17 that the emf
has its extremum value when θ = 90° or θ = 270°, as the change of flux is
greatest at these points.
The direction of the current changes periodically and therefore the current
is called alternating current (ac). Since ω = 2πν, Eq (6.22) can be written as
ε = ε0sin 2π ν t (6.23)
where ν is the frequency of revolution of the generator’s coil.
Note that Eq. (6.22) and (6.23) give the instantaneous value of the emf
and ε varies between +ε0 and –ε0 periodically. We shall learn how to
determine the time-averaged value for the alternating voltage and current
in the next chapter. 225

2022-23
 Physics

FIGURE 6.17 An alternating emf is generated by a loop of wire rotating in a magnetic field.

In commercial generators, the mechanical energy required for rotation

of the armature is provided by water falling from a height, for example,
from dams. These are called hydro-electric generators. Alternatively, water
is heated to produce steam using coal or other sources. The steam at
high pressure produces the rotation of the armature. These are called
thermal generators. Instead of coal, if a nuclear fuel is used, we get nuclear
power generators. Modern day generators produce electric power as high
as 500 MW, i.e., one can light up 5 million 100 W bulbs! In most
generators, the coils are held stationary and it is the electromagnets which
are rotated. The frequency of rotation is 50 Hz in India. In certain countries
such as USA, it is 60 Hz.

Example 6.11 Kamla peddles a stationary bicycle. The pedals of the

bicycle are attached to a 100 turn coil of area 0.10 m2. The coil rotates
at half a revolution per second and it is placed in a uniform magnetic
field of 0.01 T perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the coil. What is
the maximum voltage generated in the coil?
Solution Here ν = 0.5 Hz; N =100, A = 0.1 m2 and B = 0.01 T. Employing
Eq. (6.21)
ε0 = NBA (2 π ν)
= 100 × 0.01 × 0.1 × 2 × 3.14 × 0.5
EXAMPLE 6.11

= 0.314 V
The maximum voltage is 0.314 V.
We urge you to explore such alternative possibilities for power
generation.
226

2022-23