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Temperature

The document discusses temperature and temperature scales. It defines temperature and describes common temperature scales like Fahrenheit and Celsius. It also discusses the thermodynamic temperature scale and how the International Practical Temperature Scale was developed as a standardized scale to approximate thermodynamic temperature.

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Surupa Bose
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
22 views11 pages

Temperature

The document discusses temperature and temperature scales. It defines temperature and describes common temperature scales like Fahrenheit and Celsius. It also discusses the thermodynamic temperature scale and how the International Practical Temperature Scale was developed as a standardized scale to approximate thermodynamic temperature.

Uploaded by

Surupa Bose
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Temperature & Temperature Scale : Snehashis Bose

Temperature is one of the basic variables in science and its measurement is crucial
in industry and science. The concept of temperature is familiar to us from our day-
to-day experience of hot and cold objects. Indeed, temperature can be defined
qualitatively as a measure or degree of hotness. Systems or objects can be ranked in
a sequence according to their hotness and each system assigned a number, its
temperature. Linked to the concept of hotness is heat transfer, the flow of thermal
energy. It is a common experience that heat transfer will occur between a hot and a
cold object. Temperature can be viewed accordingly as a potential, and temperature
difference as the force that impels heat transfer from one object or system to
another at a lower temperature.
Some descriptions/definition of temperature are as under
Temperature of a body is its thermal state, regarded as James Clerk Maxwell,
a measure of its ability to transfer heat to other bodies
Temperature is defined as the degree of hotness or Max Planck
coldness of a body.
The temperature of a system is a property that Zemansky and Dittman
determines whether a system is in thermal equilibrium
with other systems.
Temperature is the parameter of state that is inversely Quinn
proportional to the rate of change of the log of the
number of accessible states as a function of energy for a
system in thermal equilibrium.

Quantitatively, temperature can be defined from the second law of thermodynamics


as the rate of change of entropy with energy at constant volume,

where: T = absolute temperature (K)


S = entropy (J/K)
E = energy (J)
V = volume (m3) or some other fixed external parameter.
.
Temperature is fundamentally different in nature from other fundamental
quantities like mass length, time etc. That is,if two bodies like length are combined
the total length is twice the original; same is true for two masses or two-time
intervals. However the combination of two bodies of the same temperature results
in the same temperature. Therefore the concept of a standard unit of length, mass
and time that can be divided or multiplied indefinitely to generate any magnitude of
these quantities cannot be carried over to the concept of temperature. It is an
intensive quantity independent of the size of the system. Statistical mechanics
relates temperature to the mean kinetic energy of molecules, those kinetic energies-
depends upon only mass, length & time standard- are not measurable at present.
Thus, an independent temperature standard is required.
Temperature is a quantity which takes the same value in two systems that are
brought into thermal contact with one another and allowed to come to thermal
equilibrium. Heat will flow from the body at a higher temperature. Heat flow from
one body to the other body stops when both the bodies attain the same temperature.
At this point the two bodies are said to have reach thermal equilibrium. The
equality of temperature is the only requirement for thermal equilibrium.
Temperature measurement involves three systems: a primary standard system, a
practical measuring system and a system whose temperature is to be measured.
The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that when two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium with a third body , they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
Then by definition the bodies are all in same temperature.
Temperature scales aim at using a common basis for temperature measurement.
All temperature scales are based on some reproducible state freezing & boiling point
of water. Several properties of material change with temperature in a repeatable
and predictable manner and this forms the basis of temperature measurement. The
Fahrenheit scale, which persists today, is essentially the same as that described by
D. G. Fahrenheit to The Royal Society in 1724. Fahrenheit described the mercury-
in-glass thermometer, introducing three temperature fixed points :
" A mixture of ice, water and ammonium chloride was taken as the zero point.
" A mixture of ice and water was taken as 32° .
" A human body temperature was taken as 96° .
Further development of the mercury-in-glass thermometer, in 1742, was due to the
Swedish astronomer and physicist A. Celsius. He assigned100° to the temperature
of boiling water and 0° to the temperature of melting ice. The region between these
two points was divided into 100 equal steps.
In choosing the means of defining the standard temperature scale conceivably we
could employ any of the many physical properties of material that vary reproducibly
with the temperature. The arbitrarily defined temperature scale is in principle as
good as any other scale based on some other material property. Its graduation have
no particular significance with regard to physical laws other than the one used in
definition. Therefore, neither one nor two nor any finite number of fixed point, no
matter how judiciously chosen could define an acceptable temperature. In order to
provide meaningful comparisons of temperature measurements made by different
people it is useful to define a common scale. The definition of temperature scales is
an arbitrary undertaking. A standard interpolation instrument and a standard
interpolation procedure are essential.
The thermodynamic temperature scale proposed by Lord Kelvin in 1848 provides
the theoretical base for a temperature scale. There are two approaches that can be
used in realizing the thermodynamic temperature scale. One is based on ideal
reversible Carnot engine cycle. The other is based on the behavior of a perfect gas.
The thermodynamic temperature scale provides a means of defining temperature
in terms of equal increments of work outputs from ideal Carnot engines operating
between two temperatures. In order to define a temperature scale all that is
necessary is to decide the size of the increment. The two fixed temperatures used for
the thermodynamic temperature scale are zero and the triple point of water. The
triple point for a substance is the condition where solid, liquid and vapour phases
co-exist simultaneously and this occurs at a unique pressure. The numerical value
assigned to the triple point of water is
273.16. It is realized when ice ,water & water vapour are in equilibrium. It is the
sole defining fixed point of thermodynamic kelvin scale with assigned value 273.16
K (0.01° C).The SI unit of temperature is the kelvin, symbol K, and is defined as the
fraction 1/273.16 of the temperature of the triple point of water. The heat engine
approach is impractical and is considered only in the development of theory. The
material, which most closely approximates this ideal thermometric working
substance, is an ideal gas. Carnot cycle cannot be realised in practice, it can be
demonstrated using equation (pV == nkT where p is the pressure, V is the volume,
n is the number of moles of gas, k= 1 .3807 x 10 -23 J/K is Boltzman's constant and
T is the absolute temperature ) that the thermodynamic scale may be reproduced by
a gas thermometer with an ideal gas as the working substance . The perfect gas
method is practical and has been used extremely for fundamental measurement
ever since the concept of thermodynamic scale was developed by Lord Kelvin. Since
there is no perfect/ideal gas to be found in nature, real gas are used and correction
applied for their departure from ideal gas behavior. The constant volume gas
thermometer is not suitable for day to day temperature measurement because of the
procedure involved are extremely tedious and time consuming. These thermometers
are normally found in large universities, institutes or government standardizing
laboratory In principle, temperature is defined completely by thermodynamics, the
science of heat. However, thermometers based on thermodynamic laws are neither
convenient nor sufficiently accurate for practical measurements. There is natural
limitation in rigorously defining a complete thermodynamic scale. Only a few finite
number of reliable fixed point environment exists from which temperature ratio can
be formed. It is also not possible to determine absolute temperature ratio each time
a temperature measurement is required.
These limitation and need led to establishment and widespread acceptance of
Industrial Practical Temperature Scale (IPTS). The international measurement
community defines a practical temperature scale sufficiently reproducible to satisfy
our needs in respect of science, trade and health. This scale is revised periodically to
ensure that it covers a wide temperature range, is close to the thermodynamic scale,
and is as available as practical to all users . The International Practical
Temperature Scale is intended to be a practical internationally agreed best
approximation to the thermodynamic temperature scale. This scale is revised
periodically to ensure that it covers a wide temperature range, is close to the
thermodynamic scale, and is as available as practical to all users. The most recent
revision was in 1990, so the current scale is known as the International
Temperature Scale of 1990, or simply ITS-90. The ITS-90 [CIPM 1989, Preston-
Thomas 1990] has evolved from a series of earlier ITSs. These were formulated to
allow measurements of temperature to be made accurately and reproducibly, with
temperatures measured on these scales being as close an approximation as possible
to the corresponding thermodynamic temperatures. Practical realisations of
temperature scales have been disseminated by previously adopted resolutions of the
CGPM in 1889, 1927, 1948 (revised in 1960), 1968 (supplemented in 1976) and
1990. For comparative purposes all of these scales are summarised in Table 1 below

TABLE:1 Summary of Temperature Ranges & Interpolating methods


Nam Range &
e of Interpolati
the ng Sensor
Scal /instrument
e &
Interpolati
ng Relation
Range-1 Range-2 Range-3 Range-4 Range-5
NHS -25°C to
100° C
Gas
Thermomet
er
Hydrogen
ITS- -190°C to 0°C to 660° 660°C to Above 1063° C
27 0° C C Platinum 1063° C Radiation
Platinum Resistance Platinum- Thermometer/Opti
Resistance Thermomet 10% cal pyrometer
Thermomet er (PRT) Rhodium Wien’s Law
er (PRT) Callender /Platinum
Callender- parabola (90%Pt-
VanDusen 10%Rh/Pt)
quartic Thermocou
ple
parabola
ITS -182.970°C 0°C to 630.5°C to Above 1063° C
48 to 0° C 630.5° C 1063.0° C Radiation
Platinum Platinum Platinum- Thermometer/
Resistance Resistance 10% Optical pyrometer
Thermomet Thermomet Rhodium Planck’s Law
er (PRT) er (PRT) /Platinum
Callender- Callender (90%Pt-
VanDusen parabola 10%Rh/Pt)
quartic Thermocou
ple
parabola
IPTS -182.97°C 0°C to 630.5°C to Above 1063° C
48 to 0° C 630.5° C 1063° C Radiation
Platinum Platinum Platinum- Thermometer
Resistance Resistance 10% /Optical
Thermomet Thermomet Rhodium pyrometer
er (PRT) er (PRT) /Platinum Planck’s Law
Callender- Callender (90%Pt-
VanDusen parabola 10%Rh/Pt)
quartic Thermocou
ple
parabola
IPTS 13.81 K to 0°C to 630.74°C to Above 1064.43° C
-68 273.15 K 630.74° C 1064.43° C Radiation
EPT- Platinum Platinum Platinum- Thermometer/
76 Resistance Resistance 10% Optical pyrometer
Thermomet Thermomet Rhodium Planck’s Law
er (PRT) er (PRT) /Platinum
Reference Modified (90%Pt-
Function Callender 10%Rh/Pt)
Equation Equation Thermocou
ple
parabola
ITS- 0.65 K to 5 3 K to 13.8033 K 273.15 to 1234.93 1234.94 K
90 K -defined 24.5561 K- to 273.16 K K (961.78° C)– and above
in terms of defined in - defined by defined by Radiation
the vapour terms of platinum platinum Thermomet
pressures the Helium resistance resistance er/ Optical
of Helium 3 3 Helium 4 thermomete thermometer one pyrometer
and gas r reference function Planck’s
Helium 4 thermomet Two Law
er of different
constant reference
volume function
type
Three structure/reference
function & Eleven Sub range

The steps to reach ITS 90 is essential to understand the concept of practical


temperature scale. The steps leading to ITS -90 is discussed in in brief for better
understanding of the subject. The first agreement to adopt a practical scale which
reproduce the thermodynamic Kelvin scale was the Normal Thermometric scale in
1887 which was based on constant volume Hydrogen gas thermometer with a
fundamental interval of 100° between the fixed points of melting of ice 0°C and of
condensing water vapour 100°C.Both points are realized at one standard
atmospheric pressure. This scale is commonly known as the International Hydrogen
Scale. It covered the range from -25°C to 100°C . The Normal Hydrogen Scale was
adopted by the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) at its
sixth session, and was subsequently approved by the first General Conference on
Weights and Measures (CGPM) [CGPM 1889]. A gas thermometer is a complex
piece of apparatus which is only appropriate for use as a primary standard in
fundamental laboratory measurements. Since this severely limits its practical use,
the gas thermometer needs to be replaced by some other, more practically
convenient types. To this aim a scale adopted by the 7th General Conference on
Weights and Measure in1927 This scale was designed to provide practical
temperature scale which was easily reproducible and coincide as nearly as possible
with the thermodynamic scale. It was called the International Temperature Scale of
1927 (ITS-27).
The ITS-27 was based on six fixed and reproducible equilibrium states to which
were assigned numerical values corresponding to the best determination of the
respective thermodynamic temperature given in terms of degree centigrade. Three
standard instruments, each of the instruments being calibrated at one or more of
the fixed points was defined for the entire temperature range. The calibrations gave
the constants for the formulae that defined temperatures in the various
temperature ranges.
A platinum resistance thermometer (PRT) was used for the lowest temperature
range, a platinum10%rhodium-platinum (Pt10%Rh Pt) thermocouple for the middle
range, and an optical pyrometer for the highest range. The scale was divided into
four ranges based on the best available means available for interpolation.
Over the range -190 °C to + 660 °C, in the sub-ranges -190 °C to 0 °C and 0 °C to
660 °C, the interpolating instrument was specified as the PRT made from platinum
with defined properties, exhibiting resistances at three temperatures, expressed as
ratios with respect to the resistance at 0 °C.
Callendar parabolic equation was used to define the variation of resistance of a PRT
with respect to change in temperature for temperature more than 0° C

Where Rt: :Resistance of PRT at t°C


R0: :Resistance of PRT at 0°C
R100: :Resistance of PRT at 100°C
δ: A characteristic constant of the particular PRT defined at the tin or zinc
point.
The calendar equation could not be extrapolated far below the ice point as it fails to
conform the thermodynamic scale at subzero temperature. VanDusen proposed to
use of an additional term with Callendar’s equation . The modified equation is

Where β is another characteristic constant of the particular PRT defined at oxygen


point.
From 660 °C to 1063 °C( i.e antimony to gold point)the scale was to be interpolated
using a platinum-10% rhodium /platinum (90%Pt-10%Rh/Pt) thermocouple made
from materials with specified properties. The equation defining temperature in this
range is of the form :
E=a+bt+ct2
Where the constants a,b & c are determined at antimony, silver & gold point
respectively. E is the net electromotive force of the thermocouple with one junction
at t°C &the other at ice point
The Wien's law defined temperatures above 1063 °C.

ITS-27 was a major step forward in the universality of thermometry as it removed


previously observed ambiguities in the specification of temperature .
International Temperature Scale of 1948 (ITS-48), which possessed the same
number of fixed points as ITS-27, adopted to tackle the inadequacy of the ITS-27.
The ninth CGPM adopted the International Temperature Scale of 1948.
Changes from the ITS-27 were:
• The lower limit of the PRT range was changed from –190 °C to the defined
oxygen boiling point of –182.97 °C;
• The junction of this range and the thermocouple range became the
measured antimony freezing point (about 630 °C) instead of 660 °C;
• The silver freezing point was defined as being 960.8 °C instead of 960.5
°C;
• The gold freezing point replaced the gold melting point (1063 °C);
• The Wien law was replaced by the Planck radiation law for temperature
above gold point.

• The value assigned to the second radiation constant became 1.438 × 10–2
m K;
• The permitted ranges for the constants in the interpolating formulae for
the PRTs and thermocouples were modified.
• The limitation on λT for optical pyrometry (λT < 3 × 10–3 m K) was
changed to the requirement that "visible" radiation be used.
• The Ratio R100/R0 which indicates the purity of platinum used in PRT ,
was tightened from 1.390 to 1.3910
• Degree of temperature was designated degree Celsius in place of degree
centigrade.
• The zero of ITS-48 was defined as being 0.0100°C below the triple point of
water.

The eleventh CGPM adopted six additional changes in ITS-48 and renamed it as the
International Practical Temperature Scale of 1948 (IPTS -48) [Amended edition of
CGPM 1960]. The 48 retained in the title because values of temperature remained
same on these two scales the modifications to the ITS-48 were:
• The triple point of water, with an assigned value of 273.16 K which in 1954
had become the sole point defining the unit of thermodynamic temperature,
the kelvin, replaced the melting point of ice as the calibration point in this
region; The thermodynamic scale redefined to single fixed point – triple point
of water - rather than in terms of the difference between the ice point &
steam point.
• The triple point of became one of the six defining fixed points of IPTS-48.
• The freezing point of zinc, defined as 419.505 °C, became a preferred
alternative to the sulphur boiling point (444.6 °C) as a calibration point.
• The zero of IPTS-48 was redefined as being 0.01°C below the triple point of
water.
• The Ratio R100/R0 which indicates the purity of platinum used in PRT , was
again tightened from 1.3910 to 1.3920
• The permitted ranges of the constants of the interpolation formulae for the
platinum resistance thermometers and the thermocouples were further
modified;
As the numerical values of temperature on the ITS-48 were the same as on
the IPTS-48, the latter was not a revision of the scale of 1948 but merely an
amended form of it.

The IPTS-68 incorporated by the thirteenth CGPM of 1967/68 [CGPM


1967/68] adopted very extensive changes from the IPTS-48. These included
numerical changes, intended to bring it more nearly in accord with
thermodynamic temperatures, which were sufficiently large to be apparent to
many users. The changes were as follows
The lower limit of the scale was extended down to 13.81 K.
The kelvin and the symbol K are taken to designate the unit of
thermodynamic temperature
• At even lower temperatures (0.5 K to 5.2 K) the use of the 1958 4He vapour
pressure scale and the 1962 3He vapour pressure scale were recommended;
• Six new fixed points were introduced: the triple point of equilibrium hydrogen
(13.81 K), an intermediate equilibrium-hydrogen vapour-pressure point
(17.042 K), the boiling point of equilibrium hydrogen (20.28 K), the boiling
point of neon (27.102 K), the triple point of oxygen (54.361 K), and the
freezing point of tin (231.9681 °C), which became a permitted alternative to
the boiling point of
• Water. The lower limit of the scale was also changed from the boiling point of
oxygen to the triple point of hydrogen
• The boiling point of sulphur was deleted
• The values assigned to four fixed points were changed: the boiling point of
oxygen (90.188 K), the freezing point of zinc (419.58 °C), the freezing point of
silver (961.93 °C), and the freezing point of gold (1064.43 °C).
• •The Ratio R100/R0 for PRT further tightened from 1.3920 to 1.3925.
• The interpolating formulae for the resistance thermometer range became
very much more complex. In range one Callen-VanDusen equation was
replaced by a new reference function .

Where the coefficients Ai are given in Table 2 The reference resistance ratio
Wref is defined by Wref= WM – ΔW where WM is the measured resistance ratio
Rt/R0 and ΔW is a deviation defined by a specific polynomial interpolation
equation for each part of range 1 in Table 3
• In Range 2 the Callender equation is modified by a correction term so that
the interpolated values of temperature will conform more closely with
thermodynamic temperatures.
T68=t΄+Δt where t΄ is the temperature by Callendar equation (1) & Δt is a
correction term given by

The term Δt is to be recognized as the difference between a parabola(


Callendr equation & IPTS 68. The difference is less than ±0.05 K
• The permitted ranges of the constants for the interpolation formulae for the
platinum resistance thermometers and thermocouples were again modified.
• In range four the value assigned to c2 became 1.4388 × 10–2 m K.

Table:2 The Coefficient (Ai) for use with the New Reference
Function in Range 1
The International Practical Temperature Scale of 1968, amended edition of
1975 [CGPM 1975] was adopted by the fifteenth CGPM in 1975. As was the
case for the IPTS-48 vis-à-vis the ITS-48, the IPTS-68(75) introduced no
numerical changes in any measured temperature T68. Most of the extensive
textual changes in the scale were intended only to clarify and simplify its use.
More substantive changes were:
The condensation points of oxygen replaced, with no change in numerical
value, the boiling point of oxygen;
• The triple point of argon (83.798 K) was introduced as a permitted
alternative to the condensation point of oxygen;
• New values of the isotopic composition of naturally occurring neon were
adopted;
• The recommendation to use the helium vapour pressure scales was
withdrawn.

The 1976 Provisional 0.5 K to 30 K Temperature Scale, EPT-76 [BIPM 1979],


was adopted in order to provide an agreed basis for thermometry in that
temperature range.
It was intended in particular to:
• Provide a smooth interpolation in place of the erratic interpolation below 27
K,which had been found in the IPTS-68, and thus, substantially reduce the
errors (with respect to corresponding thermodynamic values);
• Correct the thermodynamic errors in the 1958 4He and 1962 3He vapour-
pressure scales;
• Bridge the gap between 5.2 K and 13.81 K, in which there had not
previously been an ITS.
Other objectives in devising the EPT-76 were "that it should be
thermodynamically smooth, that it should be continuous with the IPTS-68 at
27.1 K, and that it should agree with thermodynamic temperature T as
closely as these two conditions allow". In contrast with the IPTS-68, and to
ensure its rapid adoption, several methods of realizing the EPT-76 were
approved. These included:
• Using a thermodynamic interpolation instrument and one or more of eleven
listed reference points (that included five superconductive transitions);
• Taking differences from the IPTS-68 above 13.81 K;
• Taking differences from helium vapour-pressure scales below 5 K;

The International Temperature Scale of 1990 was adopted by the CIPM in 1989 [CIPM1989] in
accordance with the request embodied in Resolution 7 of the 18th CGPM [CGPM 1987] and
came into effect on 1 January 1990. The full text of the ITS-90 is available on the BIPM
website; the following excerpt (the introduction to Section 3 of the text of the ITS-90) constitutes
a brief description:
• Between 0.65 K and 5.0 K, T90 is defined in terms of the vapour-pressure
temperature relations of 3He and 4He.
• Between 3.0 K and the triple point of neon (24.5561 K), T90 is defined by means of a
helium gas thermometer calibrated at three experimentally realizable temperatures
having assigned numerical values (defining fixed points) and using specified interpolation
procedures.
• Between the triple point of equilibrium hydrogen (13.8033 K) and the freezing point
of silver (1234.93 K), T90 is defined by means of PRTs calibrated at specified sets of defining
fixed points and using specified interpolation procedures.
• Above the freezing point of silver (1234.93 K), T90 is defined in terms of a defining fixed
point and the Planck radiation law.
The ITS-90 differs from the IPTS-68 in several important respects:
• It extends to lower temperature, 0.65 K instead of 13.8 K, and hence also replaces the
EPT-76 from 0.65 K to 30 K. The range was limited to 0.65 K for the simple reason that it
did not seem possible to measure 3He vapour pressures below 100 Pa with the small relative
uncertainty of order 0.1 % to achieve an uncertainty of T90 of 0.1 mK.
• In most ranges, it is in closer agreement with thermodynamic temperatures.
• It has improved continuity and accuracy.
• It has a number of overlapping ranges and sub-ranges, and in certain ranges it has
alternative but substantially equivalent definitions.
• New versions of the helium vapour-pressure scales are not merely recommended but
are an integral part of the scale.
• It includes a gas thermometer, calibrated at three fixed points, as one of the
defining instruments.
• The upper limit of the PRT as the defining instrument has been raised from 630 °C
to the silver point (961.78 °C).
• The Pt10%Rh-Pt thermocouple is no longer a defining instrument of the scale, and thus
the slope discontinuity, which existed in IPTS-68 at 630 °C, the junction between the
PRT and thermocouple ranges, has been removed.
• The range based upon the Planck radiation law begins at the silver point instead at the
gold point, and any one of the silver, gold or copper freezing points may be
selected as the reference point for this part of the scale.

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