DC MOTORS

Constructions and Operation Principle of DC motors

Motors change electric energy into mechanical energy. Direct current motors and generators are
constructed very similarly. They function almost oppositely at first because a generator creates voltage
when conductors cut across the lines of force in a magnetic field, while motors result in torque a turning
effort of mechanical rotation. Simple motors have a flat coil that carries current that rotates in a
magnetic field. The motor acts as a generator since after starting, it produces an opposing current by
rotating in a magnetic field, which in turn results in physical motion.
This is accomplished as a conductor is passed through a magnetic field, then the opposing fields repel
each other to cause physical motion.

Operation of a DC motor
DC motor has a rotating armature in the form of an electromagnet. A rotary switch called a commutator
reverses the direction of the electric current twice every cycle, to flow through the armature so that the
poles of the electromagnet push and pull against the permanent magnets on the outside of the motor.
As the poles of the armature electromagnet pass the poles of the permanent magnets, the commutator
reverses the polarity of the armature electromagnet. During that instant of switching polarity, inertia
keeps the DC motor going in the proper direction.

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a) A simple DC electric motor. When the coil is powered, a magnetic field is generated around the
armature. The left side of the armature is pushed away from the left magnet and drawn toward the
right, causing rotation.

b) The armature continues to rotate.

c) When the armature becomes horizontally aligned, the commutator reverses the direction of current
through the coil, reversing the magnetic field. The process then repeats.

The dc motor torque

When the conductor is bent into a coil, the physical motion performs an up and down cycle. The more
bends in a coil, the less pulsating the movement will be. This physical movement is called torque, and
can be measured in the equation: T = kt Ф Ia
Where:
T = Torque in (Newton- meter)
kt = Constant depending on physical dimension of motor
Ф = Total number of lines of flux entering the armature from one N pole in (wb/m2)
Ia = Armature current in (A)

Back E. M. F.
While a dc motor is running, it acts somewhat like a dc generator. There is a magnetic field from the
field poles, and a loop of wire is turning and cutting this magnetic field. As the loop sides cut the
magnetic field, a voltage is induced in them, the same as it was in the loop sides of the dc generator.
This induced voltage causes current to flow in the loop. This current flows in opposite direction to that
of the battery current. Since this generator-action voltage is opposite that of the battery, it is called
"Back emf." The two currents are flowing in opposite directions. This proves that the battery voltage and
the back emf are opposite in polarity. In Actually sense, only one current flows. Because the back emf
can never become as large as the applied voltage, and because they are of opposite polarity as we have
seen, the back emf effectively cancels part of the armature voltage. The single current that flows is
armature current, but it is greatly reduced because of the counter emf. In a dc motor, there is always a
counter emf developed. This counter emf cannot be equal to or greater than the applied battery
voltage; if it were, the motor would not run. The back emf is always a little less. However, the back emf
opposes the applied voltage enough to keep the armature current from the battery to a fairly low value.
If there were no such thing as back emf, much more current would flow through the armature, and the
motor would run much faster. However, there is no way to avoid the back emf.

Types and characteristics of DC Motors

There are three basic types of dc motors:
(1) Series motors
(2) Shunt motors
(3) Compound motors
They differ largely in the method in which their field and armature coils are connected.

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Series DC Motor

In the series motor, the field windings, consisting of a relatively few turns of heavy wire, are connected
in series with the armature winding. The same current flowing through the field winding also flows
through the armature winding. Any increase in current, therefore, strengthens the magnetism of both
the field and the armature. Because of the low resistance in the windings, the series motor is able to
draw a large current in starting. This starting current, in passing through both the field and armature
windings, produces a high starting torque, which is the series motor's principal advantage. The speed of
a series motor is dependent upon the load. Any change in load is accompanied by a substantial change
in speed. A series motor will run at high speed when it has a light load and at low speed with a heavy
load. If the load is removed entirely, the motor may operate at such a high speed that the armature will
fly apart. If high starting torque is needed under heavy load conditions, series motors have many
applications. Series motors are often used in aircraft as engine starters and for raising and lowering
landing gears, cowl flaps, and wing flaps.

Shunt DC Motor

In the shunt motor the field winding is connected in parallel or in shunt with the armature winding.
The resistance in the field winding is high. Since the field winding is connected directly across the power
supply, the current through the field is constant. The field current does not vary with motor speed, as
in the series motor and, therefore, the torque of the shunt motor will vary only with the current through
the armature. The torque developed at starting is less than that developed by a series motor of equal
size. The speed of the shunt motor varies very little with changes in load. When all load is removed, it
assumes a speed slightly higher than the loaded speed. This motor is particularly suitable for use when
constant speed is desired and when high starting torque is not needed.

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Compound DC Motor

The compound motor is a combination of the series and shunt motors. There are two windings in the
field: a shunt winding and a series winding. The shunt winding is composed of many turns of fine wire
and is connected in parallel with the armature winding. The series winding consists of a few turns of
large wire and is connected in series with the armature winding. The starting torque is higher than in the
shunt motor but lower than in the series motor. Variation of speed with load is less than in a series
wound motor but greater than in a shunt motor. The compound motor is used whenever the combined
characteristics of the series and shunt motors are desired.

Motor Nameplate
Motor nameplates are provided by virtually all manufacturers to allow users to accurately identify the
operating and dimensional characteristics of their motors years after installation. It is usually a metal
plate, secured by a pair of screws or rivets, located on the side of the motor. The following cryptic
information will usually be stamped into the nameplate (stamping is used because it doesn't wear off as
ink tends to do;
Nameplate Terms
1) Motor Manufacturer
2) Mod. (Model), Tp. (Type), or Cat. (Catalog)
3) Ser. (Serial Number)
4) HP (Horsepower) or KW (kilowatts)
5) RPM (Revolutions per Minute)
6) V (Volts)
7) ARM. (Armature)
8) FLD. (Field)
9) A (Amps)
10) Fr (Frame)
11) Enc. (Enclosure)
12) CW (Clockwise Rotation) or CCW (Counter-Clockwise Rotation)

1) Motor Manufacturer
This is the trade name of the company which manufactured the motor. sometimes, the company's home
city, and perhaps even an address and/or telephone number will be on the nameplate.
2) Mod. (Model), Tp. (Type), or Cat. (Catalog)

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Some companies distinguish between a Model number and a Type number. In any event, this is the key
number that you need if you want to contact the manufacturer.
3) Ser. (Serial Number)
Serial numbers are important because they often contain "date codes". This is information which helps
the manufacturer determine when the motor was manufactured. Since many motors have multiple
revisions through their lifecycle as the manufacturing process (hopefully) improves, this helps determine
which set of drawings to use and lets the technical people at the manufacturer help you quicker and
more accurately.
4) HP (Horsepower) or KW (kilowatts)
for an American made motor or an older English or Canadian motor, it will probably be rated in
Horsepower. European and Asian motors are usually rated in kilowatts -- unless they have been
designed for export to the American market. Rule to remember: 1 HP = 3/4 KW (more precisely 746
watts). Second rule to remember: Volts x Amps = Watts.
5) RPM (Revolutions per Minute)
The RPM is the number of times in each minute that the shaft turns on its axis. Typical values are 1750,
1450, 3450, etc. If more than one speed is listed, this indicates a multi-speed motor. Note that AC
inverter drives can change the speed of a motor from its rated speed.
6) V (Volts)
This is the operating voltage of the motor. DC motors will have numbers such as 24, 48, 90, 180, or other
voltage, and will usually say "VDC".
7) ARM. (Armature)
This is the maximum voltage which can be applied to the armature of a DC motor. Typical values are 90
or 180 VDC. Amperage will often be listed.
8) FLD. (Field)
This is the voltage which should be applied to the field of a DC motor. Typical values are 100, 150, 200
VDC. Amperage will often be listed.
9) A (Amps)
This is the amount of current consumed by the motor.
10) Fr (Frame)
This is the physical dimensional standard to which the motor adheres. This is critical when it is necessary
to locate a mechanical replacement for an old motor.
11) Enc. (Enclosure)
This is the degree of protection offered by the enclosure. Common terms are TEFC, TEBC, TENV, ODP,
TEAO, etc.
TEFC
A TEFC enclosure on a motor means "Totally Enclosed, Fan Cooled". This motor is probably the most
commonly used motor in ordinary industrial environments. It costs only a few dollars more than the
open motor, yet offers good protection against common hazards. The motor is constructed with a small
fan on the rear shaft of the motor, usually covered by housing. This fan draws air over the motor fins,
removing excess heat and cooling the motor.
TEBC

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A TEBC enclosure on a motor means "Totally Enclosed, Blower Cooled". TEBC motors are most
commonly used for variable speed motors combined with variable speed drives of some sort. They are
considerably more expensive than similarly rated TEFC motors. The motor is constructed with a dust
tight, moderately sealed enclosure which rejects a degree of water. A constant speed blower pulls air
over the motor fins to keep the motor cool at all operating speeds. Notice that this motor is not suitable
for used in "washdown" or "Hazardous" environments.
TENV
A TENV enclosure on a motor means "Totally Enclosed, Not Ventilated". TENV motors are used in a wide
variety of smaller horsepower variable speed applications. It is particularly effective in environments
where a fan would regularly clog with dust or lint. The motor is constructed with a dust-tight,
moderately sealed enclosure which rejects a degree of water. The motor radiates its entire excess heat
through the body of the motor: Hence, the TENV motor has extra metal and extra fins to allow radiation
of this heat. The TENV motor is commonly built with special high temperature insulation, since the
motor is designed to run hot. As such, care should be taken to avoid human contact with the body of the
motor, as well as contact between inflammable objects and the motor.
TEAO
A TEAO enclosure on a motor means "Totally Enclosed, Air Over". TEAO motors are designed to be used
solely in the airstream of the fan or blower which they are driving. As such, they are very low cost, but of
limited application. TEAO motors are constructed with a dust-tight cover and an aerodynamic body.
They rely upon the strong air flow of the fan or blower which they are driving to cool them. TEAO
motors are not suitable for use in "Hazardous" environments.

Power Losses and Efficiency

Losses occur when electrical energy is converted to mechanical energy (in the motor), or mechanical
energy is converted to electrical energy (in the generator). For the machine to be efficient, these losses
must be kept to a minimum. Some losses are electrical, others are mechanical. Electrical losses are
classified as copper losses and iron losses; mechanical losses occur in overcoming the friction of various
parts of the machine.
Copper losses occur when electrons are forced through the copper windings of the armature and the
field. These losses are proportional to the square of the current. They are sometimes called IsqauarR
losses, since they are due to the power dissipated in the form of heat in the resistance of the field and
armature windings.
Iron losses are subdivided in hysteresis and eddy current losses. Hysteresis losses are caused by the
armature revolving in an alternating magnetic field. It, therefore, becomes magnetized first in one
direction and then in the other. The residual magnetism of the iron or steel of which the armature is
made causes these losses. Since the field magnets are always magnetized in one direction (dc field), they
have no hysteresis losses.
Eddy current losses occur because the iron core of the armature is a conductor revolving in a magnetic
field. This sets up an e.m.f. across portions of the core, causing currents to flow within the core. These
currents heat the core and, if they become excessive, may damage the windings. As far as the output is
concerned, the power consumed by eddy currents is a loss. To reduce eddy currents to a minimum, a
laminated core usually is used. A laminated core is made of thin sheets of iron electrically insulated from

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each other. The insulation between laminations reduces eddy currents, because it is "transverse" to the
direction in which these currents tend to flow. However, it has no effect on the magnetic circuit. The
thinner the laminations, the more effectively this method reduces eddy current losses.

Starting Methods of DC Motor

When a full voltage is applied to a stationary DC motor, the starting current in the armature will be very
high which results to the risk of
a. Burning out the armature;
b. Damaging the commutator and brushes, due to heavy sparking;
c. Overloading the feeder;
d. Snapping off the shaft due to mechanical shock;
e. Damaging the driven equipment because of the sudden mechanical hammer blow.
All dc motors must, therefore, be provided with a means to limit the starting current to reasonable
values, usually between 1.5 and twice full-load current. One solution is to connect a rheostat in series
with the armature. The resistance is gradually reduced as the motor accelerates and is eventually
eliminated entirely, when the machine has attained full speed.

Face-plate starter

The figure above shows the schematic diagram of a manual face-plate starter for a shunt motor. Bare
copper contacts are connected to current-limiting resistors R1, R2, R3, and R4. The Conducting arm 1
sweeps across the contacts when it is pulled to the right by means of insulated handle 2. In the position
shown, the arm touches dead copper contact M and the motor circuit is open. As we draw the handle to
the right, the conducting arm first touches fixed contact N.
The supply voltage Es immediately causes full field current Ix to flow, but the armature current is limited
by the four resistors in the starter box. The motor begins to turn and, as the emf (Eo) builds up, the
armature current gradually falls. When the motor speed ceases to rise any more, the arm is pulled to the
next contact, thereby removing resistor R1 from the armature circuit. The current immediately jumps to
a higher value and the motor quickly accelerates to the next higher speed. When the speed again levels
off, we move to the next contact, and so forth, until the arm finally touches the last contact. The arm is
magnetically held in this position by a small electromagnet 4, which is in series with the shunt field. If
the supply voltage is suddenly interrupted, or if the field excitation should accidentally be cut, the
electromagnet releases the arm, allowing it to return to its dead position, under the pull of springing 3.

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This safety feature prevents the motor from restarting unexpectedly when the supply voltage is
reestablished.
Another type of DC motor starter is the Relay starter

Inspection and Maintenance of DC Motors

Use the following procedures to make inspection and maintenance checks:
1) Check the operation of the unit driven by the motor in accordance with the instructions covering the
specific installation.
2) Check all wiring, connections, terminals, fuses, and switches for general condition and security.
3) Keep motors clean and mounting bolts tight.
4) Check brushes for condition, length, and spring tension. Minimum brush lengths, correct spring
tension, and procedures for replacing brushes are given in the applicable manufacturer's instructions.
5) Inspect commutator for cleanness, pitting, scoring, roughness, corrosion or burning. Check for high
mica (if the copper wears down below the mica, the mica will insulate the brushes from the
commutator). Clean dirty commutators with a cloth moistened with the recommended cleaning solvent.
Polish rough or corroded commutators with fine sandpaper (000 or finer) and blow out with compressed
air. Never use emery paper since it contains metallic particles which may cause shorts. Replace the
motor if the commutator is burned, badly pitted, grooved, or worn to the extent that the mica insulation
is flush with the commutator surface.
6) Inspect all exposed wiring for evidence of overheating. Replace the motor if the insulation on leads or
windings is burned, cracked, or brittle.
7) Lubricate only if called for by the manufacturer's instructions covering the motor. Most motors used
in today's airplanes require no lubrication between overhauls.
8) Adjust and lubricate the gearbox, or unit which the motor drives, in accordance with the applicable
manufacturer's instructions covering the unit.

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 Single phase induction motors
Single phase induction motors are used in residential and commercial applications. Where three-phase
power is unavailable or impractical, it's single phase motors to the rescue. Though they lack the higher
efficiencies of their three phase siblings, single-phase motors, correctly sized and rated can last a
lifetime with little maintenance. Single-phase AC motors are as ubiquitous as they are useful, serving as
the prime industry and in the home. Knowing how to apply the various types is the key to successful
design. Eighty percent of operating motors in the world are AC single phase induction motors. They are
used in applications with power requirements of 10 horsepower or less.

Construction of A.C single-phase induction motor

There are two main parts of a single-phase induction motor are :

a) Rotating part, called the rotor.
b) Stationary part, called the stator.

Rotor

The rotor is the rotating part of the electric motor. Motors contain either a squirrel cage or wound rotor.
Like the stator, rotors are constructed of a core wound with soft wire, but with the addition of a shaft
and bearings. The shaft and bearings are supported by end caps, which allow the rotor to turn .

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Stator

The stator is the immobile portion of an electric motor. A stator is made of pairs of thin sections of soft
iron, called slotted cores. The cores are wound with insulated copper wire. Each of these wound cores
has two magnetic poles. When an electrical source is connected to the wires, they function as
electromagnets. The stator can have several sets of windings. These include start windings, run
windings, and windings for variable voltage operation.
Other parts include;
Frame enclosure

The enclosure is also designed to dissipate heat from current flow in the windings, friction in the
bearings, and other sources. Without heat dissipation, the insulation around motor windings
deteriorates, causing short circuits and motor failure. Motor frames differ according to the size and type
of the motor. Motor enclosures fall primarily into either open or totally enclosed categories

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Fan

Some motors have their own cooling fans to blow air over the enclosure. Cooling fans can be located
inside or outside the enclosure . Without fans, motors cool themselves by conduction of heat to the
surrounding air.

Terminal (connection) box

The conduit box houses the electrical connection points from the motors internal windings to an
electrical power supply.

Centrifugal switch

A centrifugal switch is an electric switch that operates using the centrifugal force created from a rotating
shaft, most commonly that of an electric motor or gasoline engine. The switch is designed to activate or
de-activate as a function of the rotational speed of the shaft fig.( 4-7-a ). Centrifugal switches typically
serve as a means of turning ON or OFF circuit functions depending on motor speed. The most
widespread use of such switches is as a start winding cut-out for single-phase fractional horsepower
motors.

How electric motor works

Electric motors function on the principle of magnetism; where like poles repel, and unlike poles attract.
In a simple motor, a free-turning permanent magnet is mounted between the prongs of an
electromagnet. Since magnetic forces travel poorly through air, the electromagnet has metal shoes that
fit close to the poles of the permanent magnet. This creates a stronger more stable magnetic field. (The

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electromagnet functions as the stator, and the free-turning magnet is the rotor.) Fluctuating polarity in
the electromagnet causes the free-turning magnet to rotate. The poles are changed by switching the
direction of current flow in the electromagnet.

Operation principle

The most common method of starting a single phase motor is to combine a capacitor and auxiliary
winding or start circuit. A schematic view above shows an auxiliary starting winding, a capacitor, and a
centrifugal switch. The auxiliary winding is actually a second winding in the motor

Motor speed

Synchronous speed: There are two ways to define motor speed. First is synchronous speed. The
synchronous speed of an AC motor is the speed of the stator's magnetic field rotation. This is the
motor's theoretical speed since the rotor will always turn at a slightly slower rate. The other way motor
speed is measured is called actual speed which is the speed at which the shaft rotates. The nameplate of
most AC motors lists the actual motor speed rather than the synchronous speed.

A motor's synchronous speed can be computed using this formula:

Synchronous speed equals 120 times the operating frequency, divided by the number of poles.

Where:
Synchronous speed ( Ns ) in r.p.m
Supply frequency ( f ) in Hz
Number of poles ( P ) in poles

120 x f
Ns= r . p .m
p
Example : (1)
A 6-pole, single-phase induction motor is fed from a 50 Hz. Calculate the Synchronous speed .
Ans : (1000 rpm)

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Rotor Speed and Slip Speed
The difference between rotor speed ( nm ) and synchronous speed ( ns ) is called the ' slip speed '
nslip = nsyn – nm ( r.p.m )
where: nslip = slip speed ( r.p.m )
nsyn = synchronous speed ( r.p.m )
nm = motor ( rotor ) speed ( r.p.m )

Slip
The slip speed expressed as a function of n slip is called ' slip '.

Ns−Nm
nS=
Ns

Example: (2)
A 4-pole, single-phase induction motor is fed from a 50 Hz supply and has a rotor speed of 1425 rpm.
Calculate the slip and percentage slip.
a)0.05
b) 5 %

Types of single-phase induction motors

AC single phase induction motors are classified by their start and run characteristics. An auxiliary starter
winding is placed at right angles to the main stator winding in order to create a magnetic field. The
current moving through each winding is out of phase by 90 degrees. This is called phase differential.
After the motor has reached approximately 75% of operating speed, the auxiliary winding is
disconnected from the circuit by a centrifugal switch. The most commonly used types of induction
motors are:
a) Split phase motors
Simply constructed split phase motors are among the least expensive. They're widely used on easy
starting loads of 1/3 horsepower or less. Washing machines, tool grinders and small fans and blowers
are among the applications that use these motors. Split phase start motors are equipped with a special
set of stator windings or starting purposes. They are called start windings or start pulls. These start
windings are made of smaller wire than the run windings.

b) Capacitor motors
Some single phase motors utilize a capacitor installed in series with one of the stator windings A
capacitor is an electrical device which can rapidly build up an electrical energy supply that can be used
to create more current flow in the motor's windings. When input power is applied to the motor, the
capacitor becomes charged up almost instantaneously.
The capacitor's energy helps create current flow in the start winding before the run winding gets any
current flow. This difference in timing, called "phase differential", creates a rotating magnetic field in the

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stator. This stronger magnetic field induces more current into the rotor causing it to rotate quicker. The
end result is a motor with the ability to start
This technique is widely used for motor applications like air conditioners and compressors.
The advantages that capacitor motors have over split phase motors are that they produce more starting
torque, and they use less current while running at steady speeds

c) Shaded-pole induction motors

The simplest and least expensive type of single phase motor is the shaded pole motor. Due to low
starting torque, its use is limited to applications that require less than 3/4 horsepower, usually ranging
from 1/20 to 1/6 horsepower.
Shaded pole motors use no starting switch. The stator poles are equipped with an additional winding in
each corner called a shade winding. These windings have no electrical connection for starting but use
induced current to make a rotating magnetic field.
Shaded pole motors are best suited to low power household application because the motors have low
starting torque and efficiency ratings. Some compatible applications include hair dryers, humidifiers and
timing devices.

d) Repulsion motors
The repulsion-induction motor is a combination of a repulsion motor and a squirrel-cage induction
motor. This motor is always a 2-pole configuration. The stator winding is identical to the run winding of a
2pole split-phase or capacitor-start motor. The rotor is nearly identical to a universal series motor
armature, with the exception of having a greater number of windings (in most cases) and no connection
to a power source. The brushes are connected to each other directly in order that they may complete a
circuit through windings within the rotor.
e) Universal motors
The universal motor is a rotating electric machine similar to a DC motor but designed to operate either
from direct current or single-phase alternating current. The stator and rotor windings of the motor are
connected in series through the rotor commutator. Therefore the universal motor is also known as an
AC series motor or an AC commutator motor. The universal motor can be controlled either as a phase-
angle drive or as a chopper drive. This type of motor is identical in principle to the DC series motor but a
few modifications have been made to optimize the motor for AC use. This motor happens to be from a
vacuum cleaner, but the design is common to siren motors as well.

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