Directional Derivatives in the Plane

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 1 / 73

Overview

If we look at the map showing contours along

the Hudson River in New York, we will notice
that the tributary streams flow perpendicular to
the contours. The streams are following paths
of steepest descent so the waters reach the Hud-
son as quickly as possible. Therefore, the fastest
instantaneous rate of change in a stream’s ele-
vation above sea level has a particular direction.
In this lecture, we will see why this direction,
called the downhill direction, is perpendicular to
the contours.
The figure shows contours along the Hudson
River in New York show streams, which follow
paths of steepest descent, running perpendicular
to the contours.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 2 / 73

Directional Derivatives in the Plane

Let z = f (x, y ) be the surface shown and assume the hiker is at the point

(a, b, f (a, b)).

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 3 / 73

Directional Derivatives in the Plane

The hiker would like to travel on the surface in the direction of unit vector

u = u1 i + u2 j.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 4 / 73

Directional Derivatives in the Plane

Let s be the horizontal distance traveled.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 5 / 73

Directional Derivatives in the Plane

The change in elevation with respect to horizontal distance traveled is

d
f (a + su1 , b + su2 ).
ds
By chain rule, we get
 df   ∂f  dx  ∂f  dy
= +
ds u,(a,b) ∂x (a,b) ds ∂y (a,b) ds
 ∂f   ∂f 
= .u1 + .u2
∂x (a,b) ∂y (a,b)
h ∂f   ∂f  ih i
= i+ j . u1 i + u2 j
∂x (a,b) ∂y (a,b)

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 6 / 73

Directional Derivatives in the Plane

 df  h ∂f   ∂f  ih i
= i+ j . u1 i + u2 j
ds u,(a,b) ∂x (a,b) ∂y (a,b)

gives the rate of change of elevation as the hiker travels in the direction of
u at the moment the hiker is at location (a, b, f (a, b)).

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 7 / 73

Directional Derivatives in the Plane

Recall that if z = f (x, y ), then the partial derivatives fx and fy are defined
as
f (x0 + h, y0 ) − f (x0 , y0 )
fx (x0 , y0 ) = lim
h→0 h
f (x0 , y0 + h) − f (x0 , y0 )
fy (x0 , y0 ) = lim
h→0 h
and represent the rates of change of z in the x- and y -directions, that is,
in the directions of the unit vectors i and j.
Suppose that we now wish to find the rate of change of z at (x0 , y0 ) in the
direction of an arbitrary unit vector u = u1 i + u2 j. To do this we consider
the surface S with equation z = f (x, y ) (the graph of f ) and we let
z0 = f (x0 , y0 ).

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 8 / 73

Directional Derivatives in the Plane

Then the point P(x0 , y0 , z0 ) lies on S. The vertical plane that passes
through P in the direction of u intersects S in a curve C .
The slope of the tangent line T to C at the point P is the rate of change
of z in the direction of u.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 9 / 73

Directional Derivatives in the Plane

We know that if f (x, y ) is differentiable, then the rate at which f changes

with respect to t along a differentiable curve x = g (t), y = h(t) is

df ∂f dx ∂f dy
= + .
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
At any point
P0 (x0 , y0 ) = P0 (g (t0 ), h(t0 )),
this equation gives the rate of change of f with respect to increasing t and
therefore depends, among other things, on the direction of motion along
the curve.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 10 / 73

Directional Derivatives in the Plane

If the curve is a straight line and t is the arc length parameter along the
line measured from P0 in the direction of a given unit vector u, then

df /dt

is the rate of change of f with respect to distance in its domain in the

direction of u.
By varying u, we find the rates at which f changes with respect to
distance as we move through P0 in different directions.
Suppose that the function f (x, y ) is defined throughout a region R in the
xy -plane, that P0 (x0 , y0 ) is a point in R, and that

u = u1 i + u2 j

is a unit vector.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 11 / 73

Directional Derivatives in the Plane

Then the equations

x = x0 + su1 , y = y0 + su2

parameterize the line through P0 parallel to u. If the parameter s

measures arc length from P0 in the direction of u, we find the rate of
change of f at P0 in the direction of u by calculating df /ds at P0 .

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 12 / 73

Directional Derivatives in the Plane

Definition 1.
The derivative of f at P0 (x0 , y0 ) in the direction of the unit vector
u = u1 i + u2 j is the number
 df  f (x0 + su1 , y0 + su2 ) − f (x0 , y0 )
= lim (1)
ds u,P0 s→0 s
provided the limit exists.

The directional derivative is also denoted by (Du f )P0 .

The partial derivatives fx (x0 , y0 ) and fy (x0 , y0 ) are the directional
derivatives of f at P0 in the i and j directions. This observation can be
seen by comparing Equation (1) to the definitions of the two partial
derivatives.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 13 / 73

Directional Derivatives in the Plane

Example 2.
Using the definition, find the derivative of

f (x, y ) = x 2 + xy
√ √
at P0 (1, 2) in the direction of the unit vector u = (1/ 2)i + (1/ 2)j.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 14 / 73

Solution

Applying the definition in Equation (1), we obtain

 
df f (x0 + su1 , y0 + su2 ) − f (x0 , y0 )
= lim
ds u,P0 s→0 s
 2   
1 + √s2 + 1 + √s2 2 + √s2 − (12 + 1 · 2)
= lim
s→0
   s 
2s s 2 3s s2
1 + √2 + 2 + 2 + √ 2
+ 2 −3
= lim
s→0 s
5s 2
√
2
+s 
5

5
= lim = lim √ + s = √ .
s→0 s s→0 2 2

the√rate of change of f (x, y ) = x 2 + xy at P0 (1, 2) in the direction u is

5/ 2.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 15 / 73

Interpretation of the Directional Derivative

The equation z = f (x, y ) represents a surface S in space. If

z0 = f (x0 , y0 ),
then the point P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) lies on S.
The vertical plane that passes through P and P0 (x0 , y0 ) parallel to u
intersects S in a curve C . The rate of change of f in the direction of u is
the slope of the tangent to C at P in the right-handed system formed by
the vectors u and k.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 16 / 73

Interpretation of the Directional Derivative

When u = i , the directional derivative at P0 is ∂f /∂x evaluated at

(x0 , y0 ). When u = j , the directional derivative at P0 is ∂f /∂y evaluated
at (x0 , y0 ).
The directional derivative generalizes the two partial derivatives. We can
now ask for the rate of change of f in any direction u, not just the
directions i and j .
Here’s a physical interpretation of the directional derivative. Suppose that

T = f (x, y )

is the temperature at each point (x, y ) over a region in the plane.

Then f (x0 , y0 ) is the temperature at the point P0 (x0 , y0 ) and (Du f )P0 is
the instantaneous rate of change of the temperature at P0 stepping off in
the direction u.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 17 / 73

Calculation and Gradients

We now develop an efficient formula to calculate the directional derivative

for a differentiable function f . We begin with the line

x = x0 + su1 , y = y0 + su2

through P0 (x0 , y0 ), parameterized with the arc length parameter s

increasing in the direction of the unit vector u = u1 i + u2 j . Then
 df   ∂f  dx  ∂f  dy
= +
ds u,P0 ∂x P0 ds ∂y P0 ds
 ∂f   ∂f 
= .u1 + .u2
∂x P0 ∂y P0
h ∂f   ∂f  i h i
= i+ j . u1 i + u2 j
∂x P0 ∂y P0
The above equation says that the derivative of a differentiable function f
in the direction of u at P0 is the dot product of u with the special vector
called the gradient of f at P0 .
P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 18 / 73
Calculation and Gradients

Definition 3.
The gradient vector (gradient) of f (x, y ) at a point P0 (x0 , y0 ) is the vector

∂f ∂f
∇f = i+ j
∂x ∂y
obtained by evaluating the partial derivatives of f at P0 .

The notation ∇f is read “grad f ” as well as “gradient of f ” and “del f .”

The symbol ∇ itself is read “del.” Another notation for the gradient is
grad f , read the say it is written.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 19 / 73

The Directional Derivative Is a Dot Product

Theorem 4.
If f (x, y ) is differentiable in an open region containing P0 (x0 , y0 ), then the
derivative of f in the direction of u at P0 is the dot product of u with the
gradient of f at P0 :
 df 
= (∇f )P0 .u.
ds u,P0

Example 5.
Find the derivative of f (x, y ) = xe y + cos(xy ) at the point (2, 0) in the
direction of v = 3i − 4j.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 20 / 73

Solution

The direction of v is the unit vector obtained by dividing v by its length:

v v 3 4
u= = = i − j.
|v| 5 5 5

The partial derivatives of f are everywhere continuous and at (2, 0) are

given by

fx (2, 0) = (e y − y sin(xy ))(2,0) = e 0 − 0 = 1

fy (2, 0) = (xe y − x sin(xy ))(2,0) = 2e 0 − 2 · 0 = 2.

The gradient of f at (2, 0) is

∇f |(2,0) = fx (2, 0)i + fy (2, 0)j = i + 2j.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 21 / 73

Solution (contd...)

The derivative of f at (2, 0) in the direction of v is therefore

(Du f )|(2,0) = ∇f |(2,0) · u

 
3 4 3 8
= (i + 2j) · i − j = − = −1.
5 5 5 5

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 22 / 73

The Directional Derivative Is a Dot Product

Evaluating the dot product in the formula

Du f = (∇f ).u = |∇f | |u| cos θ = |∇f | cos θ,

where θ is the angle between the vectors u and ∇f , reveals the following
properties.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 23 / 73

Properties of the Directional Derivative
1. The function f increases most rapidly when cos θ = 1 or when u is
the direction of ∇f . That is, at each point P in its domain, f
increases most rapidly in the direction of the gradient ∇f at P. The
derivative in this direction is

Du f = |∇f | cos(0) = |∇f |.

2. Similarly, f decreases most rapidly in the direction of −∇f . The

derivative in this direction is

Du f = |∇f | cos(π) = −|∇f |.

3. Any direction u orthogonal to a gradient ∇f 6= 0 is a direction of zero

change in f because θ then equals π/2 and

Du f = |∇f | cos(π/2) = |∇f |.0 = 0.

The above properties hold in three dimensions as well as two.
P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 24 / 73
Directional Derivative - An Example

Example 6.
x2 y2
Find the directions in which f (x, y ) = + .
2 2
(a) increases most rapidly at the point (1, 1).
(b) decreases most rapidly at (1, 1).
(c) What are the directions of zero change in f at (1, 1)?

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 25 / 73

Directional Derivative - An Example

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 26 / 73

Solution

(a) The function increases most rapidly in the direction of ∇f at (1,1).

The gradient there is
(∇f )(1,1) = (xi + y j)(1,1) = i + j.
Its direction is
i+j i+j 1 1
u= =p = √ i + √ j.
|i + j| 2
(1) + (1) 2 2 2
(b) The function decreases most rapidly in the direction of −∇f at (1,1),
which is
1 1
−u = − √ i − √ j.
2 2
(c) The directions of zero change at (1,1) are the directions orthogonal to
∇f :
1 1 1 1
n = − √ i + √ j and − n = √ i − √ j.
2 2 2 2
P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 27 / 73
Directional Derivative - An Example

Example 7.
The directional derivative of
x2 + y2
f (x, y ) =
4
at (3, 2) in the direction of

1 1
u= √ i+ √ j
2 2
is about 2.47 (Verify !)

Moving in the direction of u = √12 i + √1 j

2
the rate of change is about 2.5
units UP for every unit along u.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 28 / 73

Directional Derivative - An Example

Example 8.
The directional derivative of
x2 + y2
f (x, y ) =
4
at (3, 2) in the direction of
√
1 3
u= i− j
2 2
is about −0.98 (Verify !)
√
3
Moving in the direction of u = 12 i − 2 j the rate of change is about 1 unit
DOWN for every unit along u.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 29 / 73

Example

Example 9.
The directional derivative of f (x, y ) = x 3 − 3xy + 4y 2 in the direction of
the unit vector u given by angle θ = π/6 is
√
13 − 3 3
.
2

Moving in the direction of√ u, the rate

13−3 3
of change is about 2 units UP
for every unit along u.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 30 / 73

Gradients and Tangents to Level Curves

If a differentiable function f (x, y ) has a constant value c along a smooth

curve r = g (t)i + h(t)j (making the curve a level curve of f ), then
f (g (t), h(t)) = c. Differentiating both sides of this equation with respect
to t leads to the equation
d d
f (g (t), h(t)) = (c)
dt dt
∂f dg ∂f dh
+ = 0
∂x dt ∂y dt
 ∂f ∂f   dg dh 
i+ j . i+ j = 0
∂x ∂y dt dt
dr
∇f . = 0. (2)
dt
dr
Equation (2) says that ∇f is normal to the tangent vector dt , so it is
normal to the curve.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 31 / 73

Gradients and Tangents to Level Curves

At every point (x0 , y0 ) in the domain of a differentiable function f (x, y ),

the gradient of f is normal to the level curve through (x0 , y0 ).

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 32 / 73

Gradients and Tangents to Level Curves

Equation (2) validates our observation that streams flow perpendicular to

the contours in topographical maps.

Since the downflowing stream will reach its destination in the fastest way,
it must flow in the direction of the negative gradient vectors from Property
2 for the directional derivative. Equation (2) tells us these directions are
perpendicular to the level curves.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 33 / 73

Tangent Lines to Level Curves

The observation also enables us to find equations for tangent lines to level
curves. Tangent lines to level curves are the lines normal to the gradients.
The line through a point P0 (x0 , y0 ) normal to a vector

N = Ai + Bj

has the equation

A(x − x0 ) + B(y − y0 ) = 0.
If N is the gradient

(∇f )(x0 ,y0 ) = fx (x0 , y0 )i + fy (x0 , y0 )j ,

the equation is the tangent line given by

fx (x0 , y0 )(x − x0 ) + fy (x0 , y0 )(y − y0 ) = 0.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 34 / 73

Tangent Lines to Level Curves

We can find the tangent to the ellipse (x 2 /4) + y 2 = 2 by treating the

ellipse as a level curve of the function f (x, y ) = (x 2 /4) + y 2 .

Example 10.
x2
Find an equation for the tangent to the ellipse 4 + y 2 = 2 at the point
(−2, 1).

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 35 / 73

Solution

The ellipse is a level curve of the function

x2
f (x, y ) = + y 2.
4
The gradient of f at (-2,1) is
x 
∇f |(−2,1) = i + 2y j = −i + 2j.
2 (−2,1)

The tangent is the line

(−1)(x + 2) + (2)(y − 1) = 0
x − 2y = −4.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 36 / 73

Tangent Planes to Level Surfaces

If ∇F (x0 , y0 , z0 ) 6= 0, it is therefore natural to define the tangent plane

to the level surface F (x, y , z) = k at P(x0 , y0 , z0 ) as the plane that
passes through P and has normal vector ∇F (x0 , y0 , z0 ).
Using the standard equation of a plane, we can write the equation of this
tangent plane as
fx (x0 , y0 , z0 )(x − x0 ) + fy (x0 , y0 , z0 )(y − y0 ) + fz (x0 , y0 , z0 )(z − z0 ) = 0.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 37 / 73

Algebra Rules for Gradients

If we know the gradients of two functions f and g , we automatically know

the gradients of their constant multiples, sum, difference, product and
quotient.
Notice that these rules have the same form as the corresponding rules for
derivatives of single-variable functions.

1. Constant Multiple Rule : ∇(kf ) = k∇f (any number k)

2. Sum Rule : ∇(f + g ) = ∇f + ∇g
3. Difference Rule : ∇(f − g ) = ∇f − ∇g
4. Product Rule : ∇(fg ) = f ∇g + g ∇f
 
5. Quotient Rule : ∇ gf = g ∇f g−f2 ∇g .

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 38 / 73

Algebra Rules for Gradients

Example 11.
We illustrate two of the rules with

f (x, y ) = x − y g (x, y ) = 3y
∇f = i − j ∇g = 3j.

We have

1. ∇(f − g ) = ∇(x − 4y ) = i − 4j = ∇f − ∇g Rule 2

2
2. ∇(fg ) = ∇(3xy − 3y ) = 3y i + (3x − 6y )j
= 3y (i − j) + 3y j + (3x − 6y )j
= 3y (i − j) + (3x − 3y )j
= 3y (i − j) + (x − y )3j = g ∇f + f ∇g .

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 39 / 73

Functions of Three Variables

For a differentiable function f (x, y , z) and a unit vector

u = u1 i + u2 j + u3 k in space, we have
∂f ∂f ∂f
∇f = i+ j+ k
∂x ∂y ∂z
and
∂f ∂f ∂f
Du f = (∇f ).u = u1 + u2 + u3 .
∂x ∂y ∂z
The directional derivative can once again be written in the form

Du f = ∇f .u = |∇f | cos θ,

so the properties listed earlier for functions of two variables continue to

hold. At any given point, f increases most rapidly in the direction of ∇f
and decreases most rapidly in the direction of −∇f . In any direction
orthogonal to ∇f , the derivative is zero.
P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 40 / 73
Example

Example 12.
(a) Find the derivative of f (x, y , z) = x 3 − xy 2 − z at P0 (1, 1, 0) in the
direction of v = 2i − 3j + 6k.
(b) In what directions does f change most rapidly at P0 , and what are
the rates of change in these directions?

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 41 / 73

Solution
(a) The direction of v is obtained by dividing v by its length:
q √
|v| = (2)2 + (−3)2 + (6)2 = 49 = 7
v 2 3 6
u= = i − j + k.
|v| 7 7 7

The partial derivatives of f at P0 are

fx = (3x 2 − y 2 )(1,1,0) = 2, fy = −2xy |(1,1,0) = −2, fz = −1|(1,1,0) = −1.
The gradient of f at P0 is ∇f |(1,1,0) = 2i − 2j − k. The derivative of f at P0 in the
direction of v is therefore
 
2 3 6
(Du f )(1,1,0) = ∇f |(1,1,0) · u = (2i − 2j − k) · i− j+ k
7 7 7
4 6 6 4
= + − = .
7 7 7 7

(b) The function increases most rapidly in the direction of ∇f = 2i − 2j − k and decreases
most rapidly in the direction of −∇f . The rates of change in the directions are,
respectively,
q √
|∇f | = (2)2 + (−2)2 + (−1)2 = 9=3 and − |∇f | = −3.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 42 / 73

Exercises

Exercise 13.
Find the gradient of the function at the given point. Then sketch the
gradient together with the level curve that passes through the point.
1. g (x, y ) = xy 2 , (2, −1)
√
2. f (x, y ) = 2x + 3y , (−1, 2)
√
x
3. f (x, y ) = tan−1 y , (4, −2)

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 43 / 73

Solution for the Exercise 13
δg
1. δx = y 2 ⇒ δg δg δg
δx (2, −1) = 1; δy = 2x y ⇒ δx (2, −1) = −4; ⇒ Og =
i − 4j; g (2, −1) = 2 ⇒ x = y22 is the level curve.
δf √ 1 δf
2. δx = 2x+3y
⇒ δx (−1, 2) = 12 ; δy
δf 3
= 2√2x+3y δf
= δx (−1, 2) = 43 ; ⇒
Of = 12 i + 43 j; f (−1, 2) = 2 ⇒ 4 = 2x + 3y is the level curve.
√
x
δf √y δf 1 δf δf
3. δx = 2y 2 x+2x 3/2 ⇒ δx (4, −2) = − 16 ; δy = 2y 2 +x ⇒ δy (4, −2) =
√
− 14 ⇒ Of = − 16 1
i − 14 j; f (4, −2) = − π4 ⇒ y = − x is the level
curve.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 44 / 73

Exercises

Exercise 14.
Find ∇f at the given point.
1. f (x, y , z) = 2z 3 − 3(x 2 + y 2 )z + tan−1 xz, (1, 1, 1)
2. f (x, y , z) = (x 2 + y2 + z 2 )−1/2 + ln(xyz), (−1, 2, −2)
3. f (x, y , z) = e x+y cos z + (y + 1) sin−1 x, (0, 0, π/6)

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 45 / 73

Solution for the Exercise 14
δf
1. δx = −6xz + x 2 zz2 +1 ⇒ δx
δf
(1, 1, 1) = − 11 δf δf
2 ; δy = −6yz ⇒ δy (1, 1, 1) =
δf
−6; δz δf
= 6z 2 − 3(x 2 + y 2 ) + x 2 zx2 +1 ⇒ δz (1, 1, 1) = 12 ; thus Of =
11 1
− 2 i − 6j + 2 k
δf
2. δx = − (x 2 +y 2x+z 2 )3/2 + 1 δf 26 δf
x ⇒ δx (−1, 2, −2) = − 27 ; δy =
− (x 2 +y 2y+z 2 )3/2 + y1 ⇒ δy
δf
(−1, 2, −2) = 54 23 δf
; δz = − (x 2 +y 2z+z 2 )3/2 + z1 ⇒
δf 23 26 23 23
δz (−1, 2, −2) = 54 ; thus Of = − 27 i + 54 j − 54 k
√
3. δf x+y cos z + √y +1 ⇒ δf (0, 0, π ) = 3 + 1; δf =
δx = e 1−x 2 δx 6 2 δy
√
−1
e x+y cos z + sin x ⇒ δy δf
(0, 0, π6 ) = 23 ; δz
δf
= −e x+y sin z ⇒
√ √
δf π 1 3+2 3 1
δz (0, 0, 6 ) = − 2 ; thus Of = ( 2 )i + 2 j − 2k

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 46 / 73

Exercise 15.
1. What is the derivative of a function f (x, y ) at a point P0 in the
direction of a unit vector u ? What rate does it describe? What
geometric interpretation does it have? Give examples.
2. What is the gradient vector of a differentiable function f (x, y )? How
is it related to the function’s directional derivatives? State the
analogous results for functions of three independent variables.
3. How do you find the tangent line at a point on a level curve of a
differentiable function f (x, y )? Give an example.
4. Find the derivative of the function at P0 in the direction of u.
(a) f (x, y ) = 2xy − 3y 2 , P0 (5,
√ 5), u = 4i + 3j
(b) h(x, y ) = tan−1 (y /x) + 3 sin−1 (xy /2), P0 (1, 1), u = 3i − 2j
(c) f (x, y , z) = xy + yz + zx, P0 (1, −1, 2), u = 3i + 6j − 2k
(d) g (x, y , z) = 3e x cos yz, P0 (0, 0, 0), u = 2i + j − 2k

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 47 / 73

Solution for (4.) in Exercise 15
(a) u = A
|A|
= √4i+3j
2 2
= 45 i + 35 j; fx (x, y ) = 2y ⇒ fx (5, 5) = 10; fy (x, y ) = 2x − 6y ⇒
4 +3
fy (5, 5) = −20 ⇒ Of = 10i − 20j ⇒ (Du f )pu = Of .u = 10( 54 ) − 20( 53 ) = −4
√
(x 2 ) (y ) 3
(b) u = A
= √ 3i−2j = √3 i − √2 j; hx (x, y ) = + r x ⇒ hx (1, 1) =
|A| 32 +(−2)2 13 13 ( yx )2 +1 2 2
1−( x 4y )
√
1 ( x1 ) (x ) 3 3
2
; hy (x, y ) = ( yx )2 +1
+ r 2 = hy (1, 1) = 2
⇒ Oh = 12 i + 32 j ⇒ (Du h)PD = Oh.u =
2 2
1−( x 4y )
3 √6 √3
√ − =−
2 13 2 13 2 13

(c) u = A
|A|
= √ 3i+6j−2k = 37 i + 67 j − 72 k; fx (x, y , z) = y + z ⇒ fx (1, −1, 2) =
32 +62 +(−2)2
1; fy (x, y , z) = x + z ⇒ fy (1, −1, 2) = 3; fz (x, y , z) = y + x ⇒ fz (1, −1, 2) = 0 ⇒ Of =
i + 3j ⇒ (Du f )P0 = Of .u = 37 + 18 7
=3
A 2i+j−2k
(d) u = |A|
= √ = 23 i + 13 j − 32 k; gx (x, y , z) = 3e x cos yz ⇒ gx (0, 0, 0) =
22 +12 +(−2)2
3; gy (x, y , z) = −3ze x sinyz ⇒
gy (0, 0, 0) = 0; gz (x, y , z) = −3ye x sin yz ⇒ gz (0, 0, 0) =
0 ⇒ Og = 3i ⇒ (Du g )P0 = Og .u = 2

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 48 / 73

Exercise 16.
Find the directions in which the functions increase and decrease most
rapidly at P0 . Then find the derivatives of the functions in these
directions.
(a) f (x, y ) = x 2 + xy + y 2 , P0 (−1, 1)
(b) f (x, y , z) = ln xy + ln yz + ln xz, P0 (1, 1, 1)

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 49 / 73

Solution for the Exercise 16
Of
(a) Of = (2x + y )i + (x + 2y )j ⇒ Of (−1, 1) = −i + j ⇒ u = |Of | =
√ −i+j 1 1
2
= − √2 i + √2 j; f increases most rapidly in the direction
(−1)2+1
u = − √12 i + √1 j
2
and decreases most rapidly in the direction −u =
√ √
√1 i − √12 j; (Du f )P0 = Of .u = |Of | = 2 and (D−u f )p0 = − 2.
2
(b) Of = ( x1 + x1 )i + ( y1 + y1 )j + ( z1 + z1 )k ⇒ Of (1, 1, 1) =
2i + 2j + 2k ⇒ u = |Of Of √1 √1 √1
| = 3 i + 3 j + 3 k; f increases most rapidly
in the direction u = √13 i + √13 j + √13 k and decreases most rapidly in
the direction −u = − √13 i − √13 j − √13 k; (Du f )p0 = Of .u = |Of | =
√ √
2 3 and (D−u f )p0 = −2 3.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 50 / 73

Exercises

Exercise 17.
Sketch the curve f (x, y ) = c together with ∇f and the tangent line at the
given point. Then write an equation for the tangent line.
1. xy = −4, (2, −2)
2. x2 − xy + y2 = 7, (−1, 2)

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 51 / 73

Solution for the Exercise 17

1. Of = yi + xj ⇒ Of (2, −2) = −2i + 2j ⇒ Tangent line :

−2(x − 2) + 2(y + 2) = 0 ⇒ y = x − 4.

2. Of = (2x − y )i + (2y − x)j ⇒ Of (−1, 2) = −4i + 5j ⇒

Tangent line : −4(x + 1) + 5(y − 2) = 0 ⇒ −4x + 5y − 14 = 0.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 52 / 73

Exercises

Exercise 18.
1. Let f (x, y ) = x 2 − xy + y 2 − y . Find the directions u and the values
of Du f (1, −1) for which
(a) Du f (1, −1) is largest
(b) Du f (1, −1) is smallest
(c) Du f (1, −1) = 0
(d) Du f (1, −1) = 4
(e) Du f (1, −1) = −3.
(x−y )
2. Let f (x, y ) = (x+y ) . Find the directions u and the values of
Du f (− 12 , 23 ) for which
(a) Du f (− 12 , 3
2) is largest
(b) Du f (− 12 , 3
2) is smallest
(c) Du f (− 12 , 3
2) =0
(d) Du f (− 21 , 3
2) = −2
(e) Du f (− 12 , 3
2) = 1.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 53 / 73

Solution for (1.) in Exercise 18
Of = (2x − y )i + (−x + 2y − 1)j

(a) Of (1, −1) = 3i − 4j ⇒ |Of (1, −1)| = 5 ⇒ Du f (1, −1) = 5in the direction of u = 35 i − 45 j
(b) −Of (1, −1) = −3i + 4j ⇒ |Of (1, −1)| = 5 ⇒ Du f (1, −1) = −5 in the direction of u =
− 53 i + 45 j
(c) Du f (1, −1) = 0 in the direction of u = 45 i + 53 j or u = − 45 i − 35 j
q
(d) Let u = u1 i + u2 j ⇒ |u| = u12 + u22 = 1 ⇒ u12 + u22 = 1; Du f (1, −1) = Of (1, −1) · u =
(3i − 4j) · (u1 i + u2 j) = 3u1 − 4u2 = 4 ⇒ u2 = 34 u1 − 1 ⇒ u12 + ( 34 u1 − 1)2 = 1 ⇒
25 2
u − 23 u1 = 0 ⇒ u1 = 0 or u1 = 24
16 1 25
; u1 = 0 ⇒ u2 = −1 ⇒ u = −j, or u1 = 25 24
⇒ u2 =
7 24 7
− 25 ⇒ u = 25 i − 25 j
q
(e) Let u = u1 i + u2 j ⇒ |u| = u12 + u22 = 1 ⇒ u12 + u22 = 1; Du f (1, −1) = Of (1, −1) · u =
(3i − 4j) · (u1 i + u2 j) = 3u1 − 4u2 = −3 ⇒ u1 = 43 u2 − 1 ⇒ ( 34 u2 − 1)2 + u22 = 1 ⇒
25 2
u − 83 u2 = 0 ⇒ u2 = 0 or u2 = 24
9 2 25
; u2 = 0 ⇒ u1 = −1 ⇒ u = −i, or u2 = 25 24
⇒ u2 =
7 7 24
25
⇒ u = 25
i + 25
j

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 54 / 73

Solution for (2.) in Exercise 18
2y 2x
Of = (x+y )2
i − (x+y )2
j
√ √
(a) Of (− 12 , 32 ) = 3i + j ⇒ |Of (− 21 , 23 )| = 10 ⇒ Du f (− 21 , 23 ) = 10 in the direction of
u = √3 i + √1 j
10 10
√ √
(b) −Of (− 12 , 23 ) = −3i − j ⇒ |Of (− 12 , 23 )| = 10 ⇒ Du f (1, −1) = − 10 in the direction of
u = − √3 i − √1 j
10 10
(b) Du f (− 12 , 23 ) = 0 in the direction of u = √1 i − √3 j or u = − √1 i + √3 j
10 10 10 10
q
(c) Let u = u1 i + u2 j ⇒ |u| = u1 + u2 = 1 ⇒ u1 + u2 = 1; Du f (− 2 , 2 ) = Of (− 12 , 32 ) · u =
2 2 2 2 1 3

(3i + j) · (u1 i + u2 j) = 3u1 + u2 = −2 ⇒ u2 = −3u1 − 2 ⇒ u12 + (−3u1 − 2)2 = 1 ⇒

√ √ √
−6± 6
10u12 + 12u1 + 3 = 0 ⇒ u1 = u = −6+
10 √ 1 10
6
⇒ u2 = −2−3
10
6
⇒u=
√ √ √ √ √
−6+ 6 −2−3 −6− 6 −2+3 6 −6− 6
10
i + j, or u1 =
10
6
10
⇒ u2 = 10
⇒ u = 10
i + −2+3
10
6
j
q
(d) Let u = u1 i + u2 j ⇒ |u| = u12 + u22 = 1 ⇒ u12 + u22 = 1; Du f (− 12 , 32 ) = Of (− 12 , 32 ) · u =
(3i + j) · (u1 i + u2 j) = 3u1 + u2 = 1 ⇒ u2 = 1 − 3u1 ⇒ u12 + (1 − 3u1 )2 = 1 ⇒ 10u12 − 6u1 =
0 ⇒ u1 = 0 or u1 = 35 ; u1 = 0 ⇒ u2 = 1 ⇒ u = j, or u1 = 35 ⇒ u2 = − 45 ⇒ u = 35 i − 45 j

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 55 / 73

Exercises

Exercise 19.
1. Zero directional derivative : In what direction is the derivative of
f (x, y ) = xy + y 2 at P(3, 2) equal to zero?
2. Zero directional derivative : Is there a direction u in which the rate
of change of f (x, y ) = x 2 − 3xy + 4y 2 at P(1, 2) equals 14? Give
reasons for your answer.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 56 / 73

Solution for the Exercise 19

1. Of = yi + (x + 2y )j ⇒ Of (3, 2) = 2i + 7j; a vector orthogonal to

Of is v = 7i − 2j ⇒ u = |vv | = √ 7i−2j
2 2
= √753 i − √253 j and − u =
7 +(−2)
− √753 i + √2 j
53
are the directions where the derivative is zero.
2. Of = (2x − 3y ⇒ Of (1, 2) = −4i + 13j ⇒
p)i + (−3x + 8y )j √
= (−4)2 + (13)2 = 185; no, the maximum rate of
|Of (1, 2)| √
change is 185 < 14.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 57 / 73

Exercises

Exercise 20.
1. Changing temperature along a circle : Is there a direction u in which
the rate of change of the temperature function T (x, y , z) = 2xy − yz
(temperature in degrees Celsius, distance in feet) at P(1, −1, 1) is −3
deg.Cel/ft ? Give reasons for your answer.
2. The derivative of f (x, y , z) at a point P is greatest in the direction
√ of
v = i + j − k. In this direction, the value of the derivative is 2 3.
(a) What is 5f at P ? Give reasons for your answer.
(b) What is the derivative of f at P in the direction of i + j ?

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 58 / 73

Solution for the Exercise 20

1. OT = 2yi + (2x −pz)j − yk ⇒ OT (1, −1, √ 1) = −2i + j + k ⇒

|OT (1, −1, 1)| = (−2) 2 + 1 2 + 12 = 6; no, the minimum rate of
√
change is − 6 > −3
√ √
2. (a) (Du f )p = 2 3 ⇒ |Of | = 2 3; u |vv | = √ 2 i+j−k
2 2
=
1 +1 +(−1)
√1 i +√1 j − √1 k; thus u = Of ⇒ Of = |Of |u ⇒ Of =
|Of |
√3 3 3
2 3( √13 i + √13 j − √13 k) = 2i + 2j − 2k
(b) v = i + j ⇒ u = |vv | = √1i+j2 +12
= √12 i + √12 j ⇒ (Du f )P0 = Of .u =
1 1
√
2( √2 ) + 2( √2 ) = 2(0) = 2 2

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 59 / 73

Exercises

Exercise 21.
1. Directional derivatives and scalar components : How is the derivative
of a differentiable function f (x, y , z) at a point P0 in the direction of
a unit vector u related to the scalar component of (∇f )P0 in the
direction of u? Give reasons for your answer.
2. Directional derivatives and partial derivatives : Assuming that the
necessary derivatives of f (x, y , z) are defined, how are Di f , Dj f , and
Dk f related to fx , fy , and fz ? Give reasons for your answer.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 60 / 73

Solution for the Exercise 21

1. The directional derivative is the scalar component. With Of in the

direction of u is Of .u = (Du f )p0 .
2. Di f = Of .i = (fx i + fy j + fz k) · i = fx ; similarly, Dj f = Of · j = fy
and Dk f = Of · k = fz

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 61 / 73

Exercises

Exercise 22.
1. Lines in the xy -plane : Show that A(x − x0 ) + B(y − y0 ) = 0 is an
equation for the line in the xy -plane through the point (x0 , y0 ) normal
to the vector N = Ai + Bj.
2. The algebra rules for gradients : Given a constant k and the
gradients
∂f ∂f ∂f ∂g ∂g ∂g
∇f = i+ j+ k, ∇g = i+ j+ k,
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
establish the algebra rules for gradients.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 62 / 73

Proof for (1.) in Exercise 22

1. If (x, y ) is a point on the line, then T (x, y ) = (x − x0 )i + (y − y0 )j is

a vector parallel to the line
⇒ T · N = 0 ⇒ A(x − x0 ) + B(y − y0 ) = 0, as claimed.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 63 / 73

Proof for (2.) in Exercise 22
δ(kf ) δ(kf ) δ(kf ) δf δf δf δf δf δf
(a) O(kf ) = δx
i + δy
j + δz
k = k( δx )i + k( δy )j + k( δz )k = k( δx i + δy j + δz k) = kOf
δ(f +g ) δ(f +g ) δ(f +g ) δg
(b) O(f + g ) = δx
i + δy j + δz k = δf
( δx + δx
δf
)i + ( δy + δgδy
δf
)j + ( δz + δg
δz
)k =
δf δg δf δg δf δg δf δf δf δg δg δg
δx
i + δx
i+ δy
j + δy j + δz k + δz k = ( δx i + δy
j+ δz
k) + ( δx
i + δy
j + δz
k) = Of + Og
(c) O(f − g ) = Of − Og (Substite −g for in part (b) above)
     
δ(fg ) δ(fg ) δ(fg )
(d) O(fg ) = δx i + δy j + δz k = δx δf
g + δgδx
f i + δy δf
g + δg δy
f j + δz δf
g + δg
δz
f k=
           
δf
δx
g i + δg δx
f i + δy δf
g j + δg δy
f j + δz δf
g k + δg δz
f k=
   
f δg δx
i + δg
δy
j + δgδz
k + g δx δf
i + δyδf δf
j + δz k = f Og + g Of
δ( f ) δ( f ) δ( f ) g δy −f δg
 δf   δf   δf 
g δx −f δg g δz −f δg
(e) O( gf ) = δxg i + dyg j + δzg k = g2
δx
i+ g2
δy
j+ g2
δz
k=
f δg i+f δg j+f δg
 δf δf j+g δf k
  
g δx i+g δy δz δx δy δz
k
g2
− g2
=
 δf δf j+g δf k
  δg δg δg 
i+g i+f j+f k g Of −f Og
g δx δy
g2
δz
− f δx δy
g2
δz
= ggOf f Og
2 − g2 = g2
.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 64 / 73

Exercises

Exercise 23.
1. Find the directions in which the functions increase and decrease most
rapidly at P0 . Then find the derivatives of the functions in these
directions. Also find the dertivative of f at P0 in the direction of the
vector v.
(a) f (x, y ) = x 2 e −2y , P0 (1, 0), v = i + j
(b) f (x, y , z) = ln(2x + 3y + 6z), P0 (−1, −1, 1), v = 2i + 3j + 6k
2. What is the largest value that the directional derivative of
f (x, y , z) = xyz can have at the point (1, 1, 1)?

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 65 / 73

Exercises

Exercise 24.
1. The temperature of a point in space is given by
T (x, y , z) = x 2 + y 2 − z. A mosquito located at (1, 1, 2) desires to
fly in such a direction that it will get warm as soon as possible. In
what direction should it move?
2. Prove the following :
(a) 5r n = nr n−2 r
(b) 5 1r = −r
r3
(c) 5ln |r| = rr2 where r = xi + y j + zk, |r| = r and n is an integer.
3. Find the directional derivative of f (x, y , z) = x 2 − y 2 + 2z 2 at the
point P(1, 2, 3) in the direction of the line PQ where Q is the point
(5, 0, 4). Also, calculate the magnitude of the maximum directional
derivative.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 66 / 73

Weather Map

The weather map in the Figure shows a contour

map of the temperature function T (x, y ) for the
states of California and Nevada at 3 : 00 PM on a
day in October. The level curves, or isothermals,
join locations with the same temperature.
The partial derivative Tx at a location such as
Reno is the rate of change of temperature with
respect to distance if we travel east from Reno;
Ty is the rate of change of temperature if we
travel north. But what if we want to know the
rate of change of temperature when we travel
southeast (toward Las Vegas), or in some other
direction?
Directional derivative enables us to find the rate
of change of a function of two or more variables
in any direction.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 67 / 73

Weather Map

Exercise 25.
Use the weather map in the above figure to estimate the value of the
directional derivative of the temperature function at Reno in the
southeasterly direction.

Solution :
The unit vector directed √toward the
southeast is u = (i − j)/ 2, but we
won’t need to use this expression.

We start by drawing a line through

Reno toward the south-east.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 68 / 73

Solution (contd...)

We approximate the directional derivative Du T by the average rate of

change of the temperature between the points where this line intersects
the isothermals T = 50 and T = 60.
The temperature at the point southeast of Reno is T = 60◦ F and the
temperature at the point northwest of Reno is T = 50◦ F .
The distance between these points looks to be about 75 miles. So the rate
of change of the temperature in the southeasterly direction is
60 − 50 10
Du T ≈ = ≈ 0.13◦ F /mi.
75 75

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 69 / 73

Old Questions

Exercise 26.
The directional derivative of the function f (x, y , z) = 3xy + z 2 at the
point P0 (1, −2, 2) in the direction from the point P0 towards the origin is
4
(a)
3
3
(b)
4
3
(c) −
4
4
(d) −
3
4
Correct Answer :
3

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 70 / 73

Old Questions

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 71 / 73

Old Questions

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 72 / 73

References

1. M.D. Weir, J. Hass and F.R. Giordano, Thomas’ Calculus, 11th

Edition, Pearson Publishers.
2. R. Courant and F.John, Introduction to calculus and analysis, Volume
II, Springer-Verlag.
3. N. Piskunov, Differential and Integral Calculus, Vol I & II (Translated
by George Yankovsky).
4. E. Kreyszig, Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Wiley Publishers.

P. Sam Johnson Directional Derivatives in the Plane 73 / 73