Government College University, Lahore

Name:-

Muhammad Ahmad Akhtar

Roll no.:-

0409-BH-ENV-2018

Instructor:-

Dr. A.S Nizami

“ MONITORING PRACTICALS”
Practical No.1:-

Determination of pH using pH Paper

Introduction:-

In chemistry, pH denoting 'potential of hydrogen' or 'power of hydrogen'[1]) is a scale

used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. Lower pH values
correspond to solutions which are more acidic in nature, while higher values correspond
to solutions which are more basic or alkaline. At room temperature (25 °C or 77 °F), pure
water is neutral (neither acidic nor basic) and has a pH of 7.

The pH scale is logarithmic and inversely indicates the concentration of hydrogen ions in
the solution (a lower pH indicates a higher concentration of hydrogen ions). This is
because the formula used to calculate pH approximates the negative of the base 10
logarithm of the molar concentration[a] of hydrogen ions in the solution. More precisely,
pH is the negative of the base 10 logarithm of the activity of the hydrogen ion.

Procedure:-

1.Take a pH paper strip and place it on a white tile.

2.Pour a drop of the sample on the pH paper using a clean dropper.

3.Observe the colour of the pH paper.

4.Now compare the colour obtained on the pH paper with the different colour shades of
the standard colour pH chart and note down the pH value.

5.Similarly, find the pH of the remaining samples using a fresh strip of pH paper and a
separate dropper for each sample.

Determination of pH using Universal Indicator Solution:-

1. Take a small quantity of the given sample in a test tube using a dropper.

2. Using a dropper pour a few drops of the universal indicator solution into the test tube
containing the sample.

3. Shake the test tube well and note the colour developed in the test tube.

4. Now compare the colour produced in the test tube with the different colour shades of
the standard colour pH chart and note down the pH value.
5. Similarly, find the pH of the remaining samples.

Importance:-

pH is really a measure of the relative amount of free hydrogen and hydroxyl ions in the
water. Water that has more free hydrogen ions is acidic, whereas water that has more free
hydroxyl ions is basic. Since pH can be affected by chemicals in the water, pH is an
important indicator of water that is changing chemically. The pH of water determines the
solubility (amount that can be dissolved in the water) and biological availability (amount
that can be utilized by aquatic life) of chemical constituents such as nutrients (phosphorus,
nitrogen, and carbon) and heavy metals (lead, copper, cadmium, etc.). For example, in
addition to affecting how much and what form of phosphorus is most abundant in the
water, pH also determines whether aquatic life can use it. In the case of heavy metals, the
degree to which they are soluble determines their toxicity. Metals tend to be more toxic at
lower pH because they are more soluble. (Source: A Citizen's Guide to Understanding
and Monitoring Lakes and Streams)

Practical No.2 -

Determination of Electric conductivity:-

Introduction:-

Salinity and conductivity measure the water’s ability to conduct electricity, which
provides a measure of what is dissolved in water. In the SWMP data, a higher
conductivity value indicates that there are more chemicals dissolved in the water.

Conductivity measures the water’s ability to conduct electricity. It is the opposite of

resistance. Pure, distilled water is a poor conductor of electricity. When salts and other
inorganic chemicals dissolve in water, they break into tiny, electrically charged particles
called ions. Ions increase the water’s ability to conduct electricity. Common ions in water
that conduct electrical current include sodium, chloride, calcium, and magnesium.
Because dissolved salts and other inorganic chemicals conduct electrical current,
conductivity increases as salinity increases. Organic compounds, such as sugars, oils, and
alcohols, do not form ions that conduct electricity.

For water:-

1.If the conductivity of the water sample is very high, it is necessary to dilute it until the
measurement comes down to within the scale of the equipment.
2.The conductivity cell is introduced into the water sample, waiting a few seconds until
the reading can be established. If a digital conductivity meter is used, the sample’s
conductivity

measurement appears directly on the screen.

3.Equipment with temperature compensation is recommended; otherwise the temperature

Section 2

1.Place 20 cc (~25 g) of soil in a plastic 3 oz cup.

2.Add 40 mL of pure water, stir, and allow to stand for 4hours.

3.Standardize the conductivity meter (see the followingsection on the Conductivity Meter)
just before reading EC in samples.

4.Insert probe into water above the soil to obtain EC measurement.

5.Move the probe up and down in the solution several times to dislodge any bubbles on
the electrode surfaces. Measure the electrical conductivity of the extract contained in the
funnel tube.

6.Rinse the interior and exterior of the probe with pure water between samples. Remove
any excess water from the exterior of the probe by blotting with a tissue.

7.Record all meter readings as displayed. Note that some meters use a floating-point
display while others use a reading that depends upon a switch setting.

8.If an older probe is used for this measurement, take the time to filter the solution as not
to damage the probe.

9.If required, filter the solution through a Whatman No. 41 (11 cm) paper and collect the
extract in a funnel tube or other suitable container. The intent is to remove the soil and
other debris from the solution so as not to damage the probe

Importance:-

Conductivity is useful as a general measure of water quality. Each water body tends to
have a relatively constant range of conductivity that, once established, can be used as a
baseline for comparison with regular conductivity measurements. Significant changes in
conductivity could then be an indicator that a discharge or some other source of pollution
has entered the aquatic resource. A sudden increase or decrease in conductivity in a body
of water can indicate pollution. Agricultural runoff or a sewage leak will increase
conductivity due to the additional chloride, phosphate and nitrate ions .Aquatic animals
and plants are adapted for a certain range of salinity. Outside of this range, they will be
negatively affected and may die. Some animals can handle high salinity, but not low
salinity, while others can handle low salinity, but not high salinity.

In addition to its direct effects on aquatic life, salinity also has many other important
effects on water chemistry and water density.

Practical No. 3:-

Determination of Dissolved Oxygen

Introduction:-

Dissolved oxygen (DO) is the amount of oxygen that is present in water. Water bodies
receive oxygen from the atmosphere and from aquatic plants. Running water, such as that
of a swift moving stream, dissolves more oxygen than the still water of a pond or lake.

Procedure:
1. Carefully fill a 300-mL glass Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) stoppered
bottle brim-full with sample water.
2. Immediately add 2mL of manganese sulfate to the collection bottle by inserting
the calibrated pipette just below the surface of the liquid. (If the reagent is added
above the sample surface, you will introduce oxygen into the sample.) Squeeze the
pipette slowly so no bubbles are introduced via the pipette.
3. Add 2 mL of alkali-iodide-azide reagent in the same manner.
4. Stopper the bottle with care to be sure no air is introduced. Mix the sample by
inverting several times. Check for air bubbles; discard the sample and start over if
any are seen. If oxygen is present, a brownish-orange cloud of precipitate or floc will
appear. When this floc has settle to the bottom, mix the sample by turning it upside
down several times and let it settle again.
5. Add 2 mL of concentrated sulfuric acid via a pipette held just above the surface
of the sample. Carefully stopper and invert several times to dissolve the floc. At this
point, the sample is "fixed" and can be stored for up to 8 hours if kept in a cool, dark
place. As an added precaution, squirt distilled water along the stopper, and cap the
bottle with aluminum foil and a rubber band during the storage period.
6. In a glass flask, titrate 201 mL of the sample with sodium thiosulfate to a pale
straw color. Titrate by slowly dropping titrant solution from a calibrated pipette into
the flask and continually stirring or swirling the sample water.
7. Add 2 mL of starch solution so a blue color forms.
8. Continue slowly titrating until the sample turns clear. As this experiment reaches
the endpoint, it will take only one drop of the titrant to eliminate the blue color. Be
especially careful that each drop is fully mixed into the sample before adding the
 next. It is sometimes helpful to hold the flask up to a white sheet of paper to check
for absence of the blue color.
9. The concentration of dissolved oxygen in the sample is equivalent to the number
of milliliters of titrant used. Each mL of sodium thiosulfate added in steps 6 and 8
equals 1 mg/L dissolved oxygen
Importance:-
Dissolved oxygen is used by the plants and animals that live in water for respiration. It is also
used for the decomposition of dead plants and animals in water. Any change that would
reduce the amount of this dissolved oxygen would adversely affect these aquatic organisms.
The dissolved oxygen gets depleted in the following ways:
(i)Change in the pH : More acidic is water less it has dissolved oxygen.
(ii) Change in the temperature: More is the temperature of the water, less dissolved oxygen it
has. Because solubility of gases decreases with the rise in temperature.
(iii) Fertilisers and pesticides : More amount of fertilisers in any water body will lead to the
growth of more algae which on decomposition will use more of dissolved oxygen, thus
decreasing its amount in water. More amount of pesticides will cause death of algae which
will reduce the dissolved oxygen content.

Practical NO.4;-

Determination of Salinity

Introduction:-
" Water that is saline contains significant amounts (referred to as "concentrations") of
dissolved salts, the most common being the salt we all know so well—sodium chloride
(NaCl). In this case, the concentration is the amount (by weight) of salt in water, as
expressed in "parts per million" (ppm). If water has a concentration of 10,000 ppm of
dissolved salts, then one percent (10,000 divided by 1,000,000) of the weight of the water
comes from dissolved salts.
Here are our parameters for saline water:

 Fresh water - Less than 1,000 ppm

 Slightly saline water - From 1,000 ppm to 3,000 ppm
 Moderately saline water - From 3,000 ppm to 10,000 ppm
 Highly saline water - From 10,000 ppm to 35,000 ppm
 By the way, ocean water contains about 35,000 ppm of salt.

Procedure:-
Water and soil salinity are measured by passing an electric current between the two
electrodes of a salinity meter in a sample of soil or water. The electrical conductivity or EC
of a soil or water sample is influenced by the concentration and composition of dissolved
 salts. Salts increase the ability of a solution to conduct an electrical current, so a high EC
value indicates a high salinity level.
Electrical conductivity (EC) is also a term used to describe a measurement unit of salinity.
The table below shows the different units used to measure salinity and their relationship to
each other.
microSiemens
deciSiemens milliSiemens electrical
per
per metre per centimetre conductivity
centimetre
(dS/m) (mS/cm) (EC)
(µS/cm)

1 = 1 = 1000 = 1000

4 = 4 = 4000 = 4000

*ppm is only an estimate dependent on temperature and types of salt. It ranges between 0.5
to 0.7.
Salinity can be measured in a number of ways. Simple field tests using a hand-held salinity
meter are quick and easy and are useful for conducting preliminary investigations, point
sampling of selected areas and ongoing monitoring activities. Electromagnetic mapping
(EM) using instruments such as an EM38 and EM31 can be used to characterise and map
spatial variability of soil and apparent salinity over larger areas. This is a valuable tool for
land use planning and provides a rapid assessment of differences across a paddock. It allows
areas of low and high electrical conductivity and related attributes to be identified. More
precise soil and water laboratory tests can be performed and should be used to confirm
preliminary field testing where a possible salinity problem is suspected.
Salinity measurements are often reported with subscript abbreviations to indicate the origin
of the sample tested and the method used to determine the salinity measurement. The
method used will influence the accuracy of the results and confidence in interpretation.
Common abbreviations and their descriptions are explained below.

Importance:-
 farms – salinity can decrease plant growth and water quality resulting in lower
crop yields and degraded stock water supplies. Excess salt affects overall soil health,
reducing productivity. It kills plants, leaving bare soil that is prone to erosion
 wetlands – as salinity increases over time, wetlands become degraded,
endangering wetland species and decreasing biodiversity. Where sulfate salts are present,
there is an increased risk of acid sulfate soil formation.
 rivers – increased volume (load) and/or concentration (electrical conductivity or
EC) of salinity in creeks and streams degrades town water supplies, affects irrigated
agriculture and horticulture, and adversely impacts on riverine ecosystems
 drinking water – when a source of drinking water becomes more saline,
extensive and expensive treatment may be needed to keep salinity at levels suitable for
human use
 buildings, roads and pipes – salinity damages infrastructure, shortening its life
and increasing maintenance costs
 sports grounds – salty ground may lose all grass cover, making playing fields
unusable.

Practical No. 5

Determination of Turbidity

Introduction:-

Turbidity is the measure of relative clarity of a liquid. It is an optical characteristic of

water and is a measurement of the amount of light that is scattered by material in the
water when a light is shined through the water sample. The higher the intensity of
scattered light, the higher the turbidity. Material that causes water to be turbid include
clay, silt, very tiny inorganic and organic matter, algae, dissolved colored organic
compounds, and plankton and other microscopic organisms.
Turbidity makes water cloudy or opaque.During periods of low flow (base flow), many
rivers are a clear green color, and turbidities are low, usually less than 10 NTU. During a
rainstorm, particles from the surrounding land are washed into the river making the water
a muddy brown color, indicating water that has higher turbidity values
PROCEDURE:-

Turbidities less than 40 units: If possible, allow samples to come to room temperature
before analysis. Mix the sample to thoroughly disperse the solids. Wait until air bubbles
disappear then pour the sample into the turbidimeter tube. Read the turbidity directly
from the instrument scale or from the appropriate calibration curve.

Turbidities exceeding 40 units: Dilute the sample with one or more volumes of
turbidity-free water until the turbidity falls below 40 units. The turbidity of the original
sample is then computed from the turbidity of the diluted sample and the dilution factor.
For example, if 5 volumes of turbidity-free water were added to 1 volume of sample, and
the diluted sample showed a turbidity of 30 units, then the turbidity of the original sample
was 180 units.

Some turbidimeters are equipped with several separate scales. The higher scales are to
be used only as indicators of required dilution volumes to reduce readings to less than 40
NTU.

Importance:-

Turbidity in open water may be caused by growth of phytoplankton. Human activities

that disturb land, such as construction, mining and agriculture, can lead to
high sediment levels entering water bodies during rain storms due to storm water runoff.
Areas prone to high bank erosion rates as well as urbanized areas also contribute large
amounts of turbidity to nearby waters, through stormwater pollution from paved surfaces
such as roads, bridges, parking lots and airports. Some industries such
as quarrying, mining and coal recovery can generate very high levels of turbidity from
colloidal rock particles.
In drinking water, the higher the turbidity level, the higher the risk that people may
develop gastrointestinal diseases. This is especially problematic for immunocompromised
people, because contaminants like viruses or bacteria can become attached to the
suspended solids. The suspended solids interfere with water disinfection
with chlorine because the particles act as shields for the virus and bacteria. Similarly,
suspended solids can protect bacteria from ultraviolet (UV) sterilization of water.
In water bodies such as lakes, rivers and reservoirs, high turbidity levels can reduce the
amount of light reaching lower depths, which can inhibit growth of submerged aquatic
plants and consequently affect species which are dependent on them, such
as fish and shellfish. High turbidity levels can also affect the ability of fish gills to absorb
dissolved oxygen. This phenomenon has been regularly observed throughout
the Chesapeake Bay in the eastern United States.
For many mangrove areas, high turbidity is needed in order to support certain species,
such as to protect juvenile fish from predators. For most mangroves along the eastern
coast of Australia, in particular Moreton Bay, turbidity levels as high as
600 Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU) are needed for proper ecosystem health.

Practical No. 6

Determination of Total dissolved Solids

Introduction:-
Total dissolved solids (TDS) is a measure of the dissolved combined content of
all inorganic and organic substances present in a liquid in molecular, ionized, or
micro-granular (colloidal sol) suspended form. TDS concentrations are often reported in
parts per million (ppm).[1] Water TDS concentrations can be determined using a digital
meter.[2]
Generally, the operational definition is that the solids must be small enough to survive
filtration through a filter with 2-micrometer (nominal size, or smaller) pores. Total
dissolved solids are normally discussed only for freshwater systems, as salinity includes
some of the ions constituting the definition of TDS. The principal application of TDS is
in the study of water quality for streams, rivers, and lakes. Although TDS is not generally
considered a primary pollutant (e.g. it is not deemed to be associated with health effects),
it is used as an indication of aesthetic characteristics of drinking water and as an
aggregate indicator of the presence of a broad array of chemical contaminants.
Water can be classified by the level of total dissolved solids (TDS) in the water:

 Fresh water: TDS is less than 1,000 mg/L

 Brackish water: TDS = 1,000 to 10,000 mg/L
 Saline water: TDS = 10,000 to 35,000 mg/L
 Hypersaline:TDS greater than 35,000 mg/L
Drinking water generally has a TDS below 500 mg/L
Procedure:-

Prepare a sample evaporating dish by ensuring that it is cleaned and does not contain
residue from a previous use. If necessary, perform an acid rinse of the inside surface of
the evaporating dish with approximately 3-5 mL of concentrated hydrochloric acid.
Carefully and slowly tilt and rotate the dish so that the acid contacts any part of the inside
surface having a hard-to-remove residue.

When done, transfer the acid into the next dish being cleaned or into the acid rinse
disposal container. Rinse all surfaces of the evaporating dish using first tap water and
then using deionized or distilled water for the final cleansing rinse.

Dry the clean evaporating dish either in a convention oven at a temperature of 180 ±
2°C for no less than 60 minutes if measuring only total solids or alternately, ignite the
evaporating dish in a muffle furnace at a temperature of 550 ± 50°C for no less than 15
minutes if volatile dissolved solids will be determined (see SOP 105E).

Cool the cleaned and dry dish to room temperature, weigh and record its weight - this is
the tared weight of the dish. Store the pre-weighed dish in a desiccator until used.

c. Prepare a glass-fiber filter by placing and centering a filter disk onto the filter support
screen of the filtration apparatus and attach the funnel. Apply a low to moderate vacuum
and rinse the filter with three successive volumes of ≥30 mL deionized or distilled water.
Leave the vacuum on until all traces of water have been removed from the filter. If this
filter will be used for determining total suspended solids and total dissolved solids from
the same sample volume, prepare the filter as described for total suspended solids in SOP
AMBL 105D.

d. Equilibrate the sample’s temperature to that of the room’s temperature and use a pipet
or graduated cylinder to transfer a volume of well-mixed sample onto the filter with the
vacuum applied. Use a volumetric pipet for samples having little or no suspended matter
to clog the narrow opening of the pipet or optionally use the wide bore pipet to avoid
clogging the tip. Use a graduated cylinder for samples having solids that clog the wide
bore pipet tip. Select a sample volume that will result in a dried residue ranging from 2.5
to 200 mg. Avoid filtration times exceeding 10 minutes. Rinse the entire surface area of
the exposed filter with three successive volumes of ≥10 mL deionized or distilled water.
Allow the water to completely drain between each rinsing and leave the vacuum on until
all traces of water have been removed from the filter. Transfer the entire volume of
sample filtrate and rinse water to a pre-weighed dish. If necessary, filter and add
additional sample portions to the same dish after the previous portion has been
evaporated. Record the total volume of sample added. SOP AMBL-105-B Page 5 of 6

e. Evaporate the sample on a hot plate or in a convection oven at a temperature of 80°C

to remove the free-standing water.

f. Dry the sample in a convection oven at a temperature of 180°C for no less than 60
minutes. Drying samples overnight is acceptable and an appropriate procedural step for
the AMBL. In most circumstances, this ensures that constant weight has been achieved.

g. Remove the dish containing the sample from the oven, cooling it to room temperature
and then weigh it. Record this as the first 180°C weight.

h. Repeat the drying cycle for no less than 60 minutes, and again cool, weigh and record
the second 180°C weight.

i. Calculate the weight change between the first and second weights, and if the change is
>0.5 mg, repeat the drying cycle until the change in weight between the final weight and
the p

Importance:-

No recent data on health effects associated with the ingestion of TDS in drinking-water
appear to exist; however, associations between various health effects and hardness, rather
than TDS content, have been investigated in many studies (see Hardness). In early studies,
inverse relationships were reported between TDS concentrations in drinkingwater and the
incidence of cancer (11), coronary heart disease (12), arteriosclerotic heart 2 disease (13),
and cardiovascular disease (14,15). Total mortality rates were reported to be inversely
correlated with TDS levels in drinking-water

Certain components of TDS, such as chlorides, sulfates, magnesium, calcium, and

carbonates, affect corrosion or encrustation in water-distribution systems (4). High TDS
levels (>500 mg/litre) result in excessive scaling in water pipes, water heaters, boilers,
and household appliances such as kettles and steam irons (19). Such scaling can shorten
the service life of these appliances (20).

Practical No.7:-

Determination of Noise Level

Introduction:-
Noise waves or acoustic waves are emitted from specific items or machineryGenerally
sound energy radiation pattern is isotropic i.e. it spreads in all direction.

In most of the cases sound transmits through air in straight line

Noise level are measured using noise level meter that provides various options for signal
averaging and analysis points

Main concern of noise level on human is it directly affects sleep, relaxation and
conversion

Prerequisites for Noise Level Measurement Procedure

Measurement of Noise from One Source

The measurement of noise from a stationary source is carried out near the source where
sound pressure is higher from the source compared to all other noise. The sound
measured nearby the source tells the noise generated by the source.

Measurement of Noise for varying noise levels

If the amplitude of the noise level from source is varying with time, then suitable
averaging technique or statistics which yield an appropriate measurement of noise is
required. There are several alternatives can be selected to decide appropriate techniques.

If the sound level of the source is varying then the overall sound levels will be controlled
by loud sound levels. Whenever there is a variation in noises then Leq method is used for
measurement. Leq method is used to give higher weightage to louder noises by applying
logarithmic averages.

To measure loud noises impulse noise level measurement Procedure is used. Noise level
meters with sound pressure averaged for 35 ms are used for impulse noise level
measurement. Non-impulsive measurement required noise level meters with the fast or
slow averaging method. For fast averaging method time constant of 125 ms is set and for
a slow averaging method, 1000 ms time is set in noise level meters.

Sound Pressure level or Sound Power level

Sound level measured from specific distance from sound source can be used to calculate
sound power output. Similarly, Sound power of the source can be used to calculate
pressure level for the sound at other locations away from the source. Sound pressure level
or power levels are used in cases where measurement of sound level is difficult due to the
presence of other loud noises.

Noise Weakening with distance from noise source

The relation between sound power at source and sound power at particular distance from
the source is influenced by multiple physical factors. The major factors in influencing the
sound over the distance are source-receptor distance, topography of that area and ground
level characteristics and meteorological conditions.

Noise Level measurement Procedure

Identification of location and its type and instrument

The first step before starting measurement of noise level is to always identify the type of
location.

Location to be monitored could belong to any of the five areas, viz. Commercial,
Industrial, Residential, silent and mixed.

This must be identified. Once we are able to identify the type, we can then select a
position to place the instrument.

The instrument must always be positioned away from direct source, vibration and from
any obstruction. This is because we are performing ambient noise monitoring.

Selection of instrument, sampling duration and scale

To measure noise level, the most extensively used instrument is a Sound Level Meter
(SLM) which commonly is known as a noise meter.

After selection of instrument, selection of sampling duration and scale is must. With these
it is also necessary to consider the parameters which we need to measure like;

Lmax, Lmin, Leq, etc

Comparison with Noise standards

Once we get the monitoring records then we can compare them with standards to
understand if noise levels are exceeding the standards and if they are then by how much.

In India, we use standards prescribed by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB).

Noise level Measurement Standards

The below table shows the Noise level Monitoring standards prescribed by Central
Pollution Control Board (CPCB).

Area code Category of area/Zone Limits in db (A)

Day Time Night Time
(A) Industrial area 75
(B) Commercial area 65
(C) Residential area 55
(D) Silence zone 50

Now, we would easily get an idea about noise level in the area we would monitor.

Once, we completely analyse these the next question comes is how to control and bring
down the noise levels which are exceeding the permissible levels.

Practical No.8:-

Determination of Smoke Opacity.

Introduction:-

Dark smoke is partially burned particles of fuel, the result of incomplete combustion. It
can be dangerous because small particles are absorbed into the lungs. White smoke is
mainly tiny water droplets, generated when vapour released during combustion
condenses in cool air. Generally, dark smoke is clearly visible against a light sky but
difficult to see at night or against a dark background, white smoke is visible in darkness
when illuminated but will be more difficult to see against a light sky background. Smoke
is commonly measured in terms of its apparent density in relation to a scale of known
greyness. The most widely-used scale is that developed by Professor Maximilian
Ringelmann of La Station d'Essais de Machines in Paris in 1888. It has a 5 levels of
density inferred from a grid of black lines on a white surface which, if viewed from a
distance, merge into known shades of grey. There is no definitive chart, rather, Prof.
Ringelmann provides a specification; where smoke level '0' is represented by white,
levels '1' to '4' by 10mm square grids drawn with 1mm, 2.3mm, 3.7mm and 5.5 mm wide
lines and level '5' by all black. A popular version is that published by the U.S. Bureau of
Mines in circular 8333 of 1967. The British Standard version (BS2742:1969) alters
Ringelmann's specification to give a chart similar, on modern paper with modern ink, to
the probable appearance of charts produced on earlier, possibly darker, paper, with paler
ink. It should be remembered that the data obtained has definite limitations. The apparent
darkness of a smoke depends upon the concentration of the particulate matter in the
effluent, the size of the particulate, the depth of the smoke column being viewed, and
natural lighting conditions such as the direction of the sun relative to the observer while
the accuracy of the chart itself depends on the whiteness of the paper and blackness of the
ink used

Procedure:-

The large chart on page 4 should be printed with black ink onto very white card and
mounted vertically on a board. It is preferably fixed to a pole or held by an assistant at a
sufficient distance (typically c20m) for the lines to appear to merge into uniform grey
rectangles and to be seen in line with the top of the chimney. The addition of a white (No.
0) square can provide a useful indication that both the chart and chimney are equally
illuminated. If a larger chart is needed, the shaded rectangles can be made up into larger
ones as mosaics. The observer glances from the smoke, as it issues from the stack, to the
chart and notes the number most nearly corresponding with the shade of the smoke. A
clear stack is recorded as No. 0, and 100 percent black smoke as No. 5. There is very
little value in making a single observation. A series of observations should be made,
preferably by two or more observers, over an extended period, at regular intervals.

Practical No. 9:-

Determination of Odor Threshold Number

Odour is an environmental component that can contribute to its changes. Odour pollution
is an indicator of environmental change that impact health and human well-being.The
Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) must deal with odour complaints which
are impacting on the amenity of the community. The Environmental Protection Act 1986
protects against “unreasonable emissions” – emissions of noise, odour or electromagnetic
radiation which unreasonably interfere with the health, welfare, convenience, comfort or
amenity of any person. Criteria for what is considered “unreasonable” must be
determined on a case by case basis. Odour is likely to become an issue in situations
where conflicting land uses result in sensitive receptors locating close to odour sources.
Odour measurement may be used for assessment of a range of situations including:
Proposals for a new and expansion of an existing odorous facility; Proposals for sensitive
land use near an existing odorous facility; Investigation of complaints to the DEP of
odour from existing facilities; Setting of licence conditions; Buffer definition studies
where surrounding land is not yet zoned for urban use; Assessing odour during
contaminated site remediation;

Procedure:-

The sound level meter was turned on by pressing on/off button. Normal rage (30 – 130)
was selected. Equivalent weighted sound pressure level A was selected. To measure the
average sound level SLOW and for catching the peak noise FAST mode was selected.
MAX mode was selected to measure the maximum noise level of the sampling point.
Before taking reading, Sound Level meter was placed at 1.2-meter height from ground
level and at maximum distance from body to avoid sound reflection. Three samples were
taken after one minute each. The sampling time of one minute was decided depending
upon the duration of the noise generated in the sampling area. The average mean of these
equivalent noise readings was calculated.
Practical No. 10 :-

Determination of Total Volatile Solids

Introduction:-

Volatile solids are a substance that can easily transform from its solid phase to its vapor
phase without going through a liquid phase. Volatile solids normally represent the amount
of organic solids in water, and have great importance in water and wastewater treatment.

The amount of volatile solids in wastewater is frequently used to describe the strength of
the waste. The more volatile solids present in wastewater, the stronger that wastewater is.
If the volatile solids in wastewater are mostly organic, the impact on a treatment plant is
greater than if the solids are mostly inorganic

Procedure:-

1. Put an aluminum dish in a drying oven at 550 °C (1022 °F) for 1 hour.
2. Remove the dish from the oven. Let the dish temperature decrease to room temperature
in a desiccator.
3. Use an analytical balance to weigh the dish to the nearest 0.1 mg (0.0001 g). Record
this mg
value as C.
4.5. Mix the sample. Add 50 mL of the sample to the aluminum dish.
6. Use a blender (or a beaker with stir bar and stir plate) to mix the samples.
7. Place the sample in a preheated oven and evaporate at 103–105 °C (217–221 °F) for
approximately 6 hours. Highly mineralized water can prolong the drying time. Note: A
steam bath and evaporating dish can be used in place of the drying oven for larger
samples. After evaporation on the steam bath, dry the dish to constant weight in a
103–105 °C (217–221 °F)
drying oven.
8. Remove the dish from the oven. Let the dish temperature decrease to room
temperature in a desiccator.
9.Use an analytical balance to weigh the dish to the nearest 0.1 mg (0.0001 g). Record
this mg
value as A.
10. Put the aluminum dish into a pre-heated muffle furnace at 550 °C (1022 °F) for 30
minutes.
11. After 30 minutes, remove the dish from the furnace with tongs. Let the dish
temperature decrease to room temperature in a desiccator.
12. Use an analytical balance to weigh the dish to the nearest 0.1 mg (0.0001 g). Do steps
10–11 again, until the difference between two successive sample weighings is not more
than 4% or 0.5 mg, whichever is less. Record
this mg value as B.

Importance:-
Domestic wastewater volatile solids are about 50% organic, which in turn contaminates
the ground and fresh water. These volatile solids are generally from plants, dead animal
matter and synthetic organic compounds. They can be ignited or burned. Because the
organic fraction can be driven off at high temperatures, they are called volatile solids.
They are solids in water (or other liquids) that are lost on ignition of dry solids at 1,020°F
(550°C). It is a water quality measurement obtained from the loss on ignition of total
suspended solids.
A test for volatile solids is normally applied to sludge. It is indispensable in the design
and operation of sludge digest, vacuum filter and incineration plants. The determination
of volatile and fixed components in residue is useful in the control of wastewater plant
operation because it offers an approximation of the amount of organic matter present in
the solid fraction of the wastewater.
Water that contains high levels of volatile solids is unsuitable for drinking

Practical No. 11:-

Determination of Total Suspended Solids

Introduction:-

Total suspended solids (TSS) is the dry-weight of suspended particles, that are not
dissolved, in a sample of water that can be trapped by a filter that is analyzed using a
filtration apparatus. It is a water quality parameter used to assess the quality of a
specimen of any type of water or water body, ocean water for example,
or wastewater after treatment in a wastewater treatment plant. It is listed as
a conventional pollutant in the U.S. Clean Water Act.[1] Total dissolved solids is another
parameter acquired through a separate analysis which is also used to determine water
quality based on the total substances that are fully dissolved within the water, rather than
undissolved suspended particles.

TSS was previously called non-filterable residue (NFR), but was changed to TSS because
of ambiguity in other scientific disciplines.

Procedure:-

1.Collect your sample in a HDPE 1 L container.

2.Connect your vacuum pump to the side arm of your vacuum flask.
3.Seat your filter holder in the top of your vacuum flask or use a manifold for increased
numbers of simultaneous samples and higher efficiency.

4.Place a ProWeigh® filter in the filter holder, wet it with a small amount of reagent
water to seat it, and secure the funnel to the base.

5.Filter as much sample as is possible within a 10-minute span, up to 1 L. While the

sample is filtering, record the pan ID and initial weight from the label on the pan. Record
the total sample volume filtered.

6.Wash the filter and collected solids with three successive 10 mL portions of reagent
water. This will remove any dissolved solids trapped in and on the filter. Continue suction
for about three minutes after filtration is complete.

7.Place the filter back in its pan and place in a drying oven set at 104±1°C for at least one
hour.

8.Remove filters/pans from the oven and place in a desiccator until they reach room
temperature.

9.Weigh each filter on a balance to the nearest 0.0001 g and record the weight. Note: Do
not include the pan in this step.

10.Repeat steps 7 to 9 at least one more time and as many as are necessary to obtain a
reading ±0.0005 g from the previous weight.

11.Calculate your result with the following equation:

The final weight is the weight of the filter plus the dried residue and the initial weight is
the weight of the unused filter.

If you need a control standard, try the Universal Solids Standard or the Universal
Wastewater Standards.

Practical No. 12

Determination of Oil And Greases

Introduction:-

Oil and grease includes fats, oils, waxes, and other related constituents found in water,
generally wastewater. If these compounds are not removed before discharge of treated
wastewater, oil and grease can interfere with biological life in surface waters and create
unsightly films.

Fats and oils are contributed to domestic wastewater in butter, lard, margarine, and
vegetable fats and oils. Fats are also commonly found in meats, in the germinal area of
cereals, in seeds, in nuts, and in certain fruits. The low solubility of fats and oils reduces
their rate of microbial degradation.

Kerosene, lubricating, and road oils are derived from petroleum and coal tar and contain
essentially carbon and hydrogen. These oils can reach sewers in considerable volume
from shops, garages, and streets. The mineral oils coat surfaces to a greater extent than
fats, oils, and soaps, and the particles interfere with biological action and cause
maintenance problems.

Apparatus
1 Separatory funnel, 2L with Teflon stopcock.
2 Distilling flask, 125mL.
3 Funnel, glass.
4 Filter paper, 11 cm diameter (Whatman No. 40)
5 Centrifuge with 100mL glass tubes.
6 Water bath capable of maintaining temperature at 85oC.
7 Vacuum pump.
8 Distilling adapter with drip tip.
9 Ice bath.
6.0 Reagents
1 Hydrochloric Acid 1:1 or Sulfuric Acid 1:1.
2 n-Hexane, 85% minimum purity, 99% minimum saturated C6 isomers, residue
less than 1 mg/L (extracting solvent).
3 Sodium sulfate anhydrous crystals, dried at 200 – 250 oC for 24 hours

Procedure:-

1.Mark sample bottle at the water meniscus.

2.Tare a distilling flask containing boiling chips and record its weight on Grease and Oil
analysis sheet.

3.If sample has not been acidified during sampling, acidify with either 1:1 HCl or 1:1
H2SO4 to pH 2 or lower (generally, 5 mL is sufficient for 1 L sample).
4.Using funnel, transfer sample to a separatory funnel. Carefully rinse sample bottle with
30 mL extracting solvent (n-hexane) and add solvent washings to separatory funnel.

5.Shake vigorously for 2 min. Let layers separate.

6.If the solvent layer is clear and any emulsion not more than 5mL exists, then drain
aqueous layer, any emulsion and small amount of organic layer into original sample
container.

7.Drain solvent layer through a funnel containing a filter paper and 10 g Na2SO4, both of
which have been solvent-rinsed, into the clean, tared distilling flask.

8.In case solvent layer is not clear and an emulsion of more than about 5 mL exists, drain
aqueous layer into sample bottle and the emulsion and solvent layers into a glass
centrifuge tube.

9.Centrifuge for 5 min at approximately 2400 rpm.

10. Transfer centrifuged material to separatory funnel and drain aqueous layer in the
sample bottle. Drain solvent layer through a funnel with the pre-rinsed filter paper and 10
g Na2SO4 into the tared distilling flask.

11. Recombine aqueous layers and any remaining emulsion or solids in separatory funnel.

12. Extract twice more with 30 mL solvent each time first rinsing sample container with
each solvent portion.

13. Repeat centrifugation step if emulsion persists in subsequent extraction steps.

14. Combine extracts in tared distilling flask.

15. Rinse the filter and Na2SO4 with an additional 10 to 20 mL solvent into distilling
flask.

16. Distill solvent from flask in a water bath at 85°C.

17. To maximize solvent recovery, fit distillation flask with a distillation adapter
equipped with a drip tip and collect solvent in an ice-bath-cooled receiver.

18. When visible solvent condensation stops, remove flask from water bath.

19. Cover water bath and dry flasks on top of cover, with water bath still at 85°C, for 15
min.

20. Draw air through flask with an applied vacuum for the final 1 min.
21. Cool in desiccator for at least 30 min and weigh. Record final weight on Grease and
Oil analysis sheet.

22. Fill sample bottle to mark with water and then pour water into a 1-L graduated
cylinder to measure sample volume. Record sample volume on Grease and Oil analysis
sheet.

Calculation:-