Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Keywords. Navigation, Guidance, Control

A flight vehicle, regardless of whether it is a missile, an aircraft, or a

launch vehicle, needs the help of human intelligence in achieving its mission.
This human intelligence manifests itself in various forms like gathering in-
formation about flight conditions, generating appropriate commands to the
flight vehicle, and designing equipments to interpret these commands and
translate them into action onboard. Each flight vehicle has a mode of oper-
ation which might differ from another. For example, in a missile or a launch
vehicle, information is gathered by various sensors and conveyed to a com-
puter which then takes appropriate decisions. In an aircraft it is usually the
human pilot who takes decisions based upon similar information.

Irrespective of the kind of flight vehicle, the theory behind the design and
analysis of all these tasks eventually emanates from a branch of applied math-
ematics called control theory. The application of control theory to aerospace
may be divided into four areas.

Flight Planning : The determination of a nominal flight path and as-

sociated control histories for a given flight vehicle to accomplish specified

1
objectives with specified constraints.

Navigation: The determination of a strategy for estimating the position

of a vehicle along the flight path, given outputs from specified sensors.

Guidance: The determination of a strategy for following the nominal path

in the presence of off-nominal conditions, wind disturbances, and navigational
uncertainties.

Control: The determination of a strategy for maintaining the angular

orientation of the vehicle during the flight that is consistent with the guidance
strategy, and the vehicle, crew, and passenger constraints.

However, it should be kept in mind that these four categories often overlap
and the boundaries between them are not very sharp. For example, consider
the aircraft velocity and its angular orientation. These are coupled and so
the guidance and control of aircraft must be considered together.

In these lecture notes we shall discuss some aspects of guidance and nav-
igation for certain specific flight vehicles. The first part of the lecture notes
(Chapters 2, 3 and 4) is devoted to radars. Radar is perhaps the most vital
equipment used for gathering information required for guidance and naviga-
tion of flight vehicles. For example, a surface-to-air missile requires informa-
tion about the target aircraft’s position and velocity. This is done by a radar,
either ground-based or air-borne ( i.e., carried by the missile itself), which
gathers the data required to obtain this information. This data is processed
in a computer and the result is then fed into the guidance computer.

An aircraft flying over an unknown terrain determines its own position

by collecting information from ground-based radars or from radars carried
by the aircraft itself. In these lectures notes we shall discuss different kinds
of radars and their operation.

In chapters 5 and 6 we shall discuss some important aspects of guided

2
missiles, various guidance laws, and their performance in different scenarios.

Chapter 7 is devoted to aircraft navigation systems. We shall discuss

their basic principles of operation and also a few specific navigation systems
which are widely used now-a-days.

Chapter 8 introduces control systems in the classical perspective.

Chapter 9 is devoted to understanding Laplace Transforms and their cru-

cial role in the analysis of linear dynamical systems.

Chapter 10 deals with the time response of first order, second order and
higher order linear time-invariant systems.

Chapter 11 introduces the notion of stability of linear systems and the

criterion used to establish this important property.

Chapter 12 introduces the role of feedback control is achieving desired

performance from a system.

Chapter 13 and 14 introduces root locus as a design tool and how it is

used to design controllers.

Chapter 15 discusses the frequency response of linear systems.

Chapter 16 is the final chapter that briefly touches upon the basic notions
of the modern approach to control systems using state variables.

3
Chapter 2

PRINCIPLES OF RADARS

Keywords. Radar, Radar equation, Antenna gain, Radar cross-section

2.1 Introduction

The word RADAR is an acronym for Radio Detection (A)nd Ranging. A

Radar is an electromagnetic system for the detection and location of objects.
It operates by transmitting a particular type of waveform and detects the
nature of the echo signal. Radars can operate in situations like darkness, fog,
rain, or when the object is located far away. In such situations the human
eye is almost useless. However, perhaps the most important attribute of a
radar is that it can also measure the distance or range to an object.

A radar consists of three main parts:

• A transmitting antenna.

• A receiving antenna

• An energy detecting device, or a receiver.

4
 The transmitting antenna emits electromagnetic radiation, a portion of
which is reflected back by the target. The receiving antenna receives this
reflected energy and delivers it to the receiver. The receiver processes this
energy to detect the presence of the target and to extract its location, relative
velocity, and other information. The energy emitted by the radar is usually
in the form of a train of narrow, rectangular-shaped pulses. This is called
a radar waveform(see Fig.2.1) of course, there could be other kinds of radar
waveforms too.

Figure 2.1: A typical radar waveform

5
 This figure should be understood to mean that a pulse of electromagnetic
energy is being transmitted every t0 seconds. It also means that the frequency
of transmission (that is, the number of pulses per second) is given by

1
fp = (2.1)
t0

For example, if a pulse is sent every 0.1 seconds then it also means 10
pulses are being sent every one second, and so fp =1/0.1=10. Consider a
pulse of energy being sent at a given instant in time. It travels to the target
at a speed of c meters/sec, hits the target, and is reflected back at the same
speed. The reflected energy is received at the radar T R seconds after sending
the pulse(see Fig.2.2).

Then , the distance or range R to the target is given by

cTR
R= (2.2)
2

where, R is in meters and c is usually taken to be the speed of light

and is assumed to be c = 3 × 108 m/sec In deriving the above equation we
assumed that only one pulse was transmitted and was later received after
reflection from the object. But usually a number of pulses are sent at regular
intervals, as was shown in Fig. 2.1. In Fig. 2.3(a), the first pulse, after being
reflected from the target, is received by the radar before the second pulse
is transmitted. There will be no ambiguity here as the reflected pulse can
be easily identified as a reflection of the first pulse. But in Fig.2.3 (b), we
notice that the reflection of the first pulse is received after the second pulse
has been transmitted. This causes some confusion since the radar, without
any additional information, cannot determine whether the received signal is a
reflection of the first pulse or of the second pulse. This leads to an ambiguity
in determining the range. Note that this ambiguity does not arise if TR < t0 ,

6
 Figure 2.2: Transmitted and received pulses

in which case the reflection of the first pulse is always received before the
second pulse is transmitted. Thus, the maximum range or distance of the
target which does not cause any ambiguity is denoted by Runamb and is given
by,

ct0 c
Runamb = = (2.3)
2 2fp

This is known as the maximum unambiguous range of the radar. If the

7
 Figure 2.3: (a) No ambiguity (b) ambiguity in range measurement

target is beyond this distance then the reflection of a pulse is received after the
next pulse has been transmitted. This is known as the second-time-around echoes
effect.

EXAMPLE 2.1 : Consider a radar with pulse repetition frequency 1000

Hz. (a) Find the time duration between two pulses. (b) Suppose an echo
from a distant object is received 20 μ sec after a pulse is transmitted, what is
the distance of the object from the radar? (c) Is there a second -time-around
echo from this object?

ANSWERS The pulse repetition frequency fp = 1000 Hz. (a) The time
duration between pulses is given by

8
 1 1
t0 = = = 0.001sec = 1msec (2.4)
fp 1000

(b) The echo is received after TR = 20μsec = 20 × 10−6 sec. Remember

that T R is the time taken by the pulse to cover the distance from the radar
to the object and back. Hence, the time taken by the pulse to travel one
way (i.e., from the radar to the object) is half of TR . Since the speed of
propagation is c = 3 × 108 m/sec, the distance of the object from the radar
is given by,

cTR 3 × 108 × 20 × 10−6

R= = = 3000m = 3km (2.5)
2 2

(c) A second-time-around echo occurs only when the distance of the object
is more than the maximum unambiguous range of the radar. Also remember
that the Runamb is that distance of an object for which the echo comes back
exactly t0 seconds after being transmitted. Hence,

ct0 0.001 × 3 × 108

Runamb = = = 150 × 103 m = 150 km (2.6)
2 2

Since the distance of the object is much less than Runamb , there is no
second-time-around echo.

COMMENTS: The example given above is simple and yields a solution

quickly. However, a few comments are in order.

(1) However simple a formula might be, do not just write it down from
memory, substitute the appropriate values, and get the answer. This way no
doubt you will get the correct answer, but it will not help to improve your
understanding of the physics behind the formula. A better way is to derive
the formula yourself through logical reasoning, before applying it. This way

9
you need not memorize formulas at all. You can derive them yourself in a
few moments.

(2) Be careful about the units you use. Regardless of the units used in the
problem statement, first convert the given values to some standard system
of units (e.g., msec to sec, km to m, etc.) and then substitute them in the
formula. Always mention the units for any numerical value you write.

(3) Remember and apply the above two comments while solving the ex-
ercises given in these lecture notes!

2.2 The Radar Equation

The radar equation relates the range of a radar to the characteristics of

the transmitter, receiver, antenna, target, and the environment in which the
radar operates. The radar equation is useful

• in determining the distance of the target from the radar.

• as a tool for understanding radar operation.

• in serving as a basis for radar design.

Consider a radar using a transmitting antenna which radiates power uni-

formly in all directions. Such antennas are called isotropic antennas. Let
Pt be the power radiated by such an antenna. Then the power density at a
distance R is given by,

Pt
Pd = (2.7)
4πR2

This is apparent from Fig.2.4 given below.

10
 Figure 2.4: Power density at distance R from the radar

Note that at a distance R, the power Pt is uniformly distributed over an

area given by the surface area of a sphere of radius R. Hence, we get the
equation or Pd as above.

However, it is somewhat wasteful to radiate energy in all directions. Thus,

radars may employ directive antennas to channelize, or direct, the radiated
power in a particular direction (i.e., the direction of the target). The gain in
power density so achieved is denoted by G and is a measure of the increased
power radiated in the direction of the target as compared to the power that
would have been radiated from an isotropic antenna. It may also be defined
as the ratio of the maximum radiation intensity from the given antenna to
the Radiation intensity from a lossless isotropic antenna with the same power
input. Here, radiation intensity is defined as the power radiated per unit solid
angle in a given direction. The factor G is also known as the antenna gain.
Thus, the power density from a directive antenna at a distance R is given by

Pt G
Pd = Pd G = (2.8)
4πR2

The target, situated at a distance R, intercepts a portion of the power

and reflects it in various directions. The measure of the amount of power

11
intercepted by the target is defined as the radar cross-section of the target.
It is denoted by σ and has the unit of area. Note that the radar cross-section
is the characteristic of a particular target and is a measure of its size as seen
by the radar. Thus, the amount of power intercepted by the target at a
distance R from the radar is,

Pt Gσ
P = Pd σ = (2.9)
4πR2

A simple way to understand this equation is to assume that the target

has a surface area σon which radiations of density Pd impinge. However, like
all ”simple” explanations, this statement is not precise in the sense that σ
is not just the surface area that the target presents to the radar radiations,
but σ is a complex function of the target surface area as well as many other
factors which depend on the characteristics of the target.

Now we assume that this power p gets radiated in all directions, and
therefore, using the same argument, the power density of the reflected signal
at the receiving antenna is given by

P P t Gσ
Pdr = 2
= (2.10)
4πR (4πR2 )2

The radar antenna now captures a portion of this reflected power. How
much of this power is actually captured depends on what is known as the
effective area of the receiving antenna. This is denoted by Ae and has the
unit of area. It is also known as the antenna effective aperture. The power
Pr received by the radar is,

Pt GσAe Pt GσAe
Pr = Pdr Ae = 2 = (2.11)
(4πR2 ) 2 (4π)2 R4

12
 The radar receiver must be capable of detecting the power received. Sup-
pose the radar receiver can detect only those signals which are greater than
a value Smin (known as the minimum detectable signal ), then the maximum
range of the radar can be obtained from

Pt GAe σ
Smin = (2.12)
(4π)2 Rmax
4

From which,

  14
Pt GAe σ
Rmax = (2.13)
(4π)2 Smin

This is the fundamental form of the radar equation. Note that the two
important antenna parameters used here are the antenna gain G and the
effective antenna aperture Ae .

Many radars use the same antenna for both transmission and reception.
In such cases, from antenna theory, the relationship between the antenna
gain and the receiving effective area of an antenna is given as,

4πAe
G= (2.14)
λ2
where, λ is the wavelength of the transmitted energy. Substituting this
relation in (2.13), we obtain another form of the radar equation.

  14
Pt A2e σ
Rmax = (2.15)
4πλ2 Smin

If we substitute for Ae instead of G then from (2.14), we get

Gλ2
Ae = (2.16)
4π
13
 and obtain the radar equation as,

  14
Pt G2 λ2 σ
Rmax = (2.17)
(4π)3 Smin

The above radar equation must be interpreted somewhat carefully. Note

√
that in (2.15) Rmax appears to be inversely proportional to λ whereas
√
in (2.17) it appears to be directly proportional to λ, and in (2.13) it is
independent of λ. The reason behind this apparent anomaly is the following:
when we speak of the variation of a particular parameter with respect to
another, we assume that all other parameters are constants. This is possible
only when these parameters are independent. In this case it is not so, since
the dependence between G, Ae , and λ is governed by (2.14) and any variation
in one of these parameters has to affect at least only of the other two. Hence,
we cannot speak of the variation of Rmax with respect to λ only (or with
respect to G or Ae only.)

EXAMPLE 2.2

(a) Find the power density at a target situated at a distance of 50km

from a radar radiating a power of 100 MW from a lossless isotropic antenna.

(b) If this radar now employs a lossless isotropic antenna with a gain of
5000 and the target has a radar cross-section of 1.2 m2, then what is the
power density of the echo signal at the receiver?

(c) If the minimum detectable signal of the radar is 10−8 MW and the
wavelength of the transmitted energy is 0.02 m, then what is the maximum
range at which the radar can detect targets of the kind mentioned in (b)?

(d) What is the effective area of the receiving antenna?

(e) Suppose, due to some modifications made in the radar system com-
ponents, the antenna gain is doubled while keeping the antenna effective

14
aperture constant. Find the new radar range.

(f) What is the new radar range if the antenna gain doubles while λ
remains constant?

AN SW ER

(a) Power radiated by the radar Pt = 100 MW = 100 × 106 W.

Distance of the target = R = 50Km = 50 × 103 m.

Power density at the target

Pt 100 × 106
= Pd = = (2.18)
4πR2 4π × (50 × 103)2

= 0.3183 × 10−2 W/m2 (2.19)

(b)Antenna gain G =5000.

Radar cross-section of the target = σ = 1.2m2

Power density at the target when a directive antenna is used

= Pd = Pd G = 0.3183 × 10−2 × 5000 = 15.915W/m2 . (2.20)

The amount of power intercepted by the target

= P = Pd σ = 15.915 × 1.2 = 19.098W. (2.21)

This power is now reflected back to the receiving antenna. Hence, the
power density of the echo signal at a the receiver

15
 P 19.098
= Pdr = = = 6.079 × 10−10 W/m2 . (2.22)
4πR 2 4π × (50 × 103)2

(c) The wavelength of the transmitted energy, λ = 0.02m.

The minimum detectable signal Smin = 10−8 mW = 10−11 w.

Then the maximum range Rmax is given by (2.17) as

 1/4  1/4
P t G2 λ 2 σ 100 × 106 × (5000)2 × (0.02)2 × 1.2
Rmax = = (2.23)
(4π)3 Smin (4π)3 × 10−11

= 88183.6m = 88.1836Km. (2.24)

(d)From (2.13), the effective area of the receiving antenna

Gλ2 5000 × (0.02)2

= Ae = = = 0.0159m2 . (2.25)
4π 4π

(e) Let the new antenna gain be G’ = 2G, and the corresponding wave-
length be λ .The new radar range Rmax

can be found by using either (2.10),).
If we use (2.13) then we get,


  1/4
Rmax G
= = 21/4 = 1.1892. (2.26)
Rmax G

So,

R max = 1.1892 × Rmax = 1.1892 × 88.1836 = 104.8Km. (2.27)

16
 If we use (2.15) then we get,

 2 1/4
Rmax λ
Rmax
= λ2

Since Ae is constant, from (2.14) we get

G λ2
G
= λ2
=2

Which, on substitution, leads to the same result. Similarly, from (2.17)

we get


Rmax G2 λ2 1
= [ 2 2 ]1/4 = [22 . ]1 /4 (2.28)
Rmax Gλ 2

which, again, leads to the same result.

(f) Here, we will use (2.17) to obtain,


Rmax G2
= [ 2 ]1/4 = (22)1/4 = 1.414 (2.29)
Rmax G

Hence,


Rmax = 1.414 × Rmax = 1.414 × 88.1836 = 124.7Km (2.30)

Note that exactly the same result can be obtained by using either (2.13)
or (2.15).

It should be understood that the actual radar range is much smaller than
the Rmax obtained from the radar equation. The reason is that the above
simplified equations do not take into account a number of important factors
which reduce the range of operation. These will be dealt with later.

17
Keywords. Noise, Signal-to-noise ratio, PPI, Pulse radar

2.3 Radar Block Diagram and Operation

The block diagram given below (Fig. 2.5) shows the main components of
pulse radar and their operation. The transmitter may be an oscillator, such
as a magnetron, which is pulsed (turned on and off) by the modulator to gen-
erate a repetitive train of pulses of the kind shown in Fig.2.1. The waveform
generated by the transmitter travels along a transmission line to the antenna,
which is generally used for both transmitting and receiving. The duplexer
consists of two devices, one known as TR (Transmit-Receive) and the other
as ATR (Anti-Transmit-Receive). The TR protects the delicate circuits of
the receiver from the high power of the transmitter during transmission and
the ATR channels the returned echo signal to the receiver, and not to the
transmitter, during reception. The first stage of the receiver is a low-noise
RF (radio frequency) amplifier. The mixer and the local oscillator convert
the RF signal to an IF (intermediate frequency) signal. This signal is passed
through an IF amplifier which is designed to maximize the signal-to-noise
ratio at its output. The pulse modulation of the echo signal is extracted
by the detector and amplified by the video amplifier to a level at which the
signal can be properly displayed on a CRT (Cathode Ray Tube). Timing
signals are also supplied for range reference. Angle information is obtained
from the pointing direction of the antenna.

The most common form of the CRT display is the PPI (Plan Position
Indicator), which maps (in polar coordinates) the location of the target in
azimuth and range. This is an intensity-modulated display in which the
amplitude of the receiver output modulates the electron-beam intensity as
the electron beam is made to sweep outward from the center of the tube.
The beam rotates in angle in response to the antenna position.

18
 Figure 2.5: Block diagram of a pulse radar

A B-scope display is similar to the PPI except that it utilizes rectangular,

rather than polar, coordinates and displays range vs. angle. Both the B-scope
and the PPI, being intensity modulated, have limited dynamic range. (see
figures in Skolnik’s book)

Another form of display is the A-scope display, which plots target am-
plitude vs. range, for some fixed direction. This is a deflection-modulated
display. It is more suited for tracking radar application than for surveillance
radars.

The block diagram in Fig.2.5 is a simplified version which omits many im-

19
portant details like devices which automatically compensate the receiver for
changes in frequency (AFC - Automatic Frequency Controller), gain (AGC -
Automatic Gain Controller), receiver circuits for reducing interference from
other radars and from unwanted signals, rotary joints in the transmission
lines to allow movement of the antenna, circuitry for discriminating between
moving targets and unwanted stationary objects, and pulse compression for
achieving the resolution benefits of a short pulse but with the energy of a
large pulse. Similarly, there are many other devices, used according to re-
quirement, which have not been discussed here.

2.4 Radar Frequencies

Conventionally, radars are usually operated at frequencies between 220 MHz

and 35 GHz, a spread of more than 7 octaves. However, they can also be
operated at other frequencies outside this range. For example, skywave HF
over-the-horizon (OTH) radars might operate at frequencies as low as 4 to
5 MHz and ground wave F radars as low as 2 MHz. Millimeter wave radars
may operate at 94 GHz. Laser radars have been known to operate at even
higher frequencies (Refer to Skolnik, pages 7-8, for details).

2.5 Applications of Radars

On ground : Detection, location, and tracking of aircraft and space targets.

In the air : Detection of other aircraft,ships, or land vehicles; mapping of

land; storm avoidance, terrain avoidance, and navigation.

On the sea : Navigation aid and safety device to locate buoys, shore lines,
other ships, and for observation of aircraft.

20
 In space : Guidance of spacecraft; remote sensing of land and sea.

Some specific applications are as follows:

Air traffic control : Controlling of air traffic in the vicinity of airports;

and also for automated landing.

Aircraft navigation : Weather avoidance to indicate regions of severe

precipitation; terrain following/terrain avoidance (TF/TA); radio altimeter
and doppler navigator are also radars.

Ship safety : Collision avoidance; detection of navigation buoys.

Space : Rendezvous and docking; landing on the moon and other planets;
detection and tracking of satellites.

Remote sensing: Sensing of geophysical object, or the ”environment” like

weather, cloud cover, earth resources, water resources, agriculture, forests,
geological formation, etc. This is usually done from aircraft or satellites.

Law enforcement : To monitor speed of vehicles in traffic.

Military : Surveillance and navigation; control and guidance of weapons.

The largest use of radars occurs here.

2.6 Range Performance of Radars

In Section 2.2 we had derived the maximum range Rmax (in meters) of a
radar as,

 1/4
Pt GAe σ
Rmax = (2.31)
(4π)2 Smin

where, Pt = Transmitted power, in watts,

21
 G = Antenna gain,

Ae = Antenna effective aperture, in m2 .

σ = Radar cross-section of the target, in m2 .

Smin = Minimum detectable signal, in watts.

All the above parameters, except σ, are to some extent under the control
of the radar designer.

In practice, the simple radar equation does not predict the range perfor-
mance of actual radar equipments to a satisfactory degree of accuracy. In
many cases the actual range might be half of that predicted by the above
equation. Some of the major reasons for this are the following:

• Failure of the equation to explicitly include various losses that can occur
throughout the system.

• Loss of performance usually experienced when electronic equipment

are operated in the field, as against when they are operated under
laboratory conditions.

• Statistical and unpredictable nature of the various parameters in the

radar equation.

Both Smin and σ are statistical in nature and must be expressed as such
in statistical terms. other statistical factors which affect radar performance
are meteorological conditions along the propagation path and performance
of the radar operator, if one is employed.

In view of the above, specification of radar range is usually given as the

probability that the radar will detect a certain type of target at a particular
range.

22
2.7 Minimum Detectable Signal

The ability of a radar receiver to detect a weak echo signal is limited by the
noise energy occupying the portion of the frequency spectrum which is also
occupied by the signal energy. The weakest signal the receiver can detect
is Smin (minimum detectable signal). But the specification of the minimum
detectable signal is usually difficult because of the presence of noise and be-
cause the criterion for deciding whether a target is present or not may not
be too well-defined.

Detection is usually done by specifying a threshold at the output of the

receiver. If the signal exceeds this threshold then a target is assumed to
be present. This is known as threshold detection. Consider Fig. 2.6 below
which shows the output of a typical radar receiver on an A-scope display.

Here the signal at A (see Fig.2.6) crosses the threshold level and indicates
the presence of a target. Obviously, too high a threshold level might cause a
signal to be missed and too low a threshold level might produce spurious sig-
nals due to noise. It ought to be noted that noise sometimes has a beneficial
effect since it enhances some weak signals so that they cross the threshold
(as in the case of the signal at B in Fig.2.6).

The harmful effect of noise arises from the fact that the threshold level
has to be raised to avoid spurious signals, thus causing nondetection of signal
which might have been otherwise detected. The signal at C (Fig.2.6) illus-
trates this point. If the threshold level had been lower the receiver would
have detected the signal.

Thus, the choice of threshold level is a compromise between the impor-

tance given to

• Probability of missing a signal

23
 • Probability of a false alarm.

The Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) necessary to provide adequate detec-

tion is one of the important parameters that must be determined in order to
compute the minimum detectable signal. Although the detection decision is
made based on the output of the video, it is easier to maximize the SNR at
the output of the IF (Intermediate Frequency) amplifier. It has been proved
that maximizing SNR at the output of IF amplifier is equivalent to maximiz-
ing the video output.

2.8 Noise

Noise is unwanted electromagnetic energy which interferes with the ability of

the receiver to detect the desired signal. It may originate within the receiver
itself, or it may enter via the receiving antenna along with the desired signal.
If the radar were to operate in a perfectly noise-free environment so that no
external sources of noise accompanied the desired signal, and if the receiver
itself were so perfect that it did not generate any excess noise, there would still
exist an unavoidable component of noise generated by the thermal motion
of the conduction eletrons in the ohmic portions of the receiver input stages.
this is called thermal noise, or Johnson noise, and is directly proportional to
the temperature of the ohmic portions of the circuit, and also to the receiver
bandwidth.

In fig.2.7 we show some of the parameters used to determine the effect

of noise on threshold detection. Probability of false alarm is the probability
that noise will cross the threshold. The average time interval between cross-
ings of the threshold by noise alone is defined as the false alarm time Tf a ,

24
and is given by
1 
N
Tf a = lim ( ) Tk (2.32)
N →∞ N
k=1

where, Tk is the time between crossings of the threshold VT by the noise

envelope. Usually the time between peaks is taken, or one may take the time
between two crossings when the slope is positive. The false alarm probability,
denoted by Pf a , may be defined as the ratio of the duration of time the
envelope is actually above the threshold to the total time it could have been
above the threshold.

N
tk < tk >av 1
Pf a = Nk=1 = = (2.33)
k=1 Tk < Tk >av Tf a B
EXAMPLE 2.3 : The noise profile in a threshold detector, when displayed
on an A-scope, reveals the following information recorded over a period of
time from 0 to 90 secs.
A → 2 6 12 14 17 29 35 40 48 50 62 68 73 79 86
B→ 10 9 8 12 5 6 10 3 4 8 2 11 9 13 7
where, A=time in sec at which the noise amplitude crosses the threshold with
positive slope, and B=time duration in msec for which the noise remains
above the threshold. Find the approximate value of the probability of false
alarm based on the above data.

ANSWER

From Eqn. (2.17) we can rewrite the probability of false alarm as

signal is above the threshold

Pf a = (2.34)
T otal time duration of the experiment
117 × 10−3
= = 1.3 × 10−3 (2.35)
90

25
 Since the average duration of the noise pulse is approximately the recip-
rocal of the bandwidth B, which in the case of the envelope detector is BIF ,
and since

 
−VT2
Pf a = exp (2.36)
2ψ0

Which is derived from the Rayleigh probability density function, we have

 
1 VT 2
Tf a = exp (2.37)
BIF 2ψ0
where, ψ0 is the variance or the mean square value of the noise voltage.

PROBLEMS AND EXERCISES

1. If all targets are known to be within a distance of 75 km from a certain

radar then what is the maximum pulse repetition frequency which will not
cause ambiguities in range measurement? What is the maximum expected
time difference between transmitting a signal and receiving its echo?

2. Consider a radar with antenna gain of 4000 and radiated power 90

Mw. The wavelength of the transmitted energy is 0.05m and the minimum
detectable signal is 1014 watts. If an object is located 150 kms from the radar,
what should be the minimum radar cross-section of this object for detection
to be possible? for this kind of object what is the factor of reduction of the
received power with respect to the transmitted power?

3. Consider a radar with a maximum range of 200 kms. Suppose due to

some modifications made in the system components.

(i) the wavelength of the transmitted energy doubles while the antenna
gain become half.

(ii) the antenna effective aperture becomes half while the antenna gain
triples.

26
 (iii) the antenna effective aperture doubles while the wavelength of the
transmitted energy remains constant. Find the new radar range in all the
three cases.

4. In Example 2.3 plot the probability of false alarm against the number
of samples. Can you comment on whether the number of samples considered
is adequate or not?

27
Figure 2.6: Output of a typical radar receiver on an A-scope display

28
Figure 2.7: Receiver output illustrating false alarm due to noise

29
Chapter 3

CONTINUOUS WAVE AND

FREQUENCY MODULATED
RADAR

Keywords. CW radar, Doppler frequency shift

3.1 THE DOPPLER EFFECT

A radar detects the presence of objects and locates their position in space
by transmitting electromagnetic energy and observing the returned echo.
A pulse radar transmits a relatively short burst of electromagnetic energy,
after which the receiver is turned on to listen for the echo. The echo not
only indicates that a target is present, but the time that elapses between the
transmission of the pulse and the reception of its echo is a measure of the
distance to the target. Separation of the echo signal from the transmitted
signal is made on the basis of differences in time.

The radar transmitter may be operated continuously rather than pulsed

if it is possible to separate the strong transmitted signal from the weak echo.

30
The received echo-signal power is considerably smaller than the transmitter
power (as low as 10−18 times the transmitter power - or sometimes even less).
Separate antennas for transmission and reception help isolate the weak echo
from the strong leakage signal, but this isolation is usually not sufficient.
A feasible technique for separating the received signal from the transmitted
signal, when there is relative motion between radar and target, is based on
recognizing the change in the echo-signal frequency caused by what is known
as the doppler effect.

It is well known in the field of optics and acoustics that if there is relative
motion between the source of a signal and the observer of the signal, along
the line joining the two, then an apparent shift in frequency will result. This
is the doppler effect and is the basis of CW (Continuous Wave) radars.

Consider Fig.3.1 above in which a CW radar and a target are placed at a

distance of R from each other. The target is moving with a speed Vr relative
to the radar and along the line joining the radar and the target (also known
as the line-of-sight - LOS). Note that the transmitted signal is not in the form
of a train of pulses (as in Chapter 2) but a continuous wave with frequency
fo . Let the total number of wavelengths (given by λ) contained in the to-and
-fro path between the radar and the target be denoted by n. Then,

2R
n= (3.1)
λ

One wavelength corresponds to an angular excursion of 2π radians.Thus,

the total angular excursion φ made by the electromagnetic wave during its
transit to the target and back to the radar is

2R 4πR
φ= .2π = (3.2)
λ λ

When the target is in motion, both R and φ are changing. Now a change

31
 Figure 3.1: The doppler effect

in φ with respect to time is equal to an angular frequency. This, in fact, is

the doppler angular frequency Wd ,

dφ 4π dR 4πVr
Wd = 2πfd = = . = (3.3)
dt λ dt λ

From which we get

2Vr 2Vr fo
fd = = (3.4)
λ c

32
 Where,

fd = doppler frequency shift, in Hz

c = velocity of propagation = 3 × 108 m/s

Vr = relative velocity of the target with respect to the radar along the
line-of-sight.

For a stationary radar and a moving target the relative velocity may be
written as

Vr = V cos θ (3.5)

where, V is the target speed and θ is the angle made by the target velocity
vector with the LOS. When θ = 0, the doppler frequency is a maximum.
The doppler frequency is zero when the trajectory is perpendicular to the
π
radar-target line-of-sight (that is, θ = 2
= 90o ). Also note that the doppler
frequency shift positive for an approaching target (that is, Vr is considered
to be positive) and negative for a receding target (that is, Vr is considered
to be negative).

EXAMPLE 3.1: Positions of the two aircraft, A and B, are as shown in

the figure below. Aircraft A has a speed of 600 m/sec and carries a CW
radar transmitting at 300 MHz frequency and tracking aircraft B which has
a speed of 800 m/sec.

(a) What is the doppler frequency shift recorded by the radar in aircraft
A?

(b) Is this shift positive or negative?

(c) What should be the flight direction of aircraft B for the doppler fre-
quency shift to be zero?

33
 ANSWER

(a) The transmitted frequency = f0 = 300M Hz = 300 × 106 Hz.

The relative velocity of aircraft A with respect to aircraft B along the

LOS is given by,

vr = 600 cos 450 + 800 cos 300 = 1117.08m/sec. (3.6)

The doppler frequency shift

2vr f0 2 × 1117.08 × 300 × 106

= fd = = = 2234.16Hz (3.7)
c 3 × 108

(b) Note that aircraft B is actually moving towards aircraft A in a relative

sense and hence it is an approaching target, that is, the LOS between A and
B is shrinking with time. Thus, the doppler shift is positive, which means

34
that the frequency of the received signal is more than the frequency of the
transmitted signal.

(c) The doppler frequency shift will be zero when the relative velocity vr
is zero. This can happen when

Vr = 600cos450 − 800cosθ = 0. (3.8)

From which we get

θ = ±57.970 . (3.9)

This is shown in the figure given below.

Thus, the change in frequency between the transmitted signal and the
received signal allows the received signal to be separated from the trans-

35
mitted signal. Apart from this, the CW radar also provides a measurement
of relative velocity which may be used to distinguish moving targets from
stationary objects and clutter.

The expression for doppler frequency shift given in (3.4) is somewhat

approximate, though it serves quite well for most practical purposes. The
correct expression for the frequency f ∗ of the echo signal from a target,
moving with relative velocity Vr , when the transmitted frequency is fo , is
given by

1 + Vr /c
f ∗ = f0 . (3.10)
1 − Vr /c

which, on expansion by Taylor’s series and truncation beyond the first

order term, reduces to

f ∗ = f0 (1 + 2Vr /c) (3.11)

Truncation beyond the first order terms is justified when vr  c (which

is usually the case and implies that vr /c is a very small quantity). This, in
turn, yields the expression for doppler frequency shift given in (3.4). The
phase shift associated with the return signal is

(4πf0 R)/c
(3.12)
(1 − Vr /c)

3.2 THE CW RADAR

In Fig. 3.2 we give the block diagram of a simple CW radar.

The transmitter generates a continuous (unmodulated) oscillation of fre-

quency f0 , which is radiated by the antenna. A portion of the radiated energy

36
is intercepted by the target and is scattered. some of it in the direction of
the radar, where it is collected by the receiving antenna. If the target is in
motion with a velocity Vr relative to the radar, the received signal frequency

Figure 3.2: A simple CW radar block diagram

will be shifted from the transmitted signal frequency f0 by an amount ±fd .

The plus sign applies if the distance between the radar and the target is
decreasing (that is, an approaching target) and the minus sign applies when
this distance is increasing (that is, a receding target). The received echo
signal at a frequency f0 ± fd enters the radar via the antenna and is hetero-

37
dyned in the detector (mixer) with a portion of the transmitted signal f0 to
produce a doppler beat note of frequency fd . However, the sign of fd is lost
in this process.

The purpose of the doppler amplifier (beat frequency amplifier) is to

eliminate echoes from stationary targets and to amplify the doppler echo
signal to a level where it can operate and indicating device. Its frequency
response characteristics is as shown in Fig. 3.2(b). The low-frequency cut-
off must be high enough to reject the d-c component caused by stationary
targets, and yet it must be low enough to pass the smallest doppler frequency
expected. Sometimes both conditions cannot be met simultaneously and a
compromise is necessary. The doppler cutoff frequency (on the higher side)
is usually selected to pass the highest doppler frequency expected.

The indicator could be a pair of earphones or a frequency meter. Ear-

phones are used when an exact knowledge of the doppler frequency is not
required. The ear then acts as a selective (narrow) bandpass filter with a
passband of the order of 50 Hz centered about the signal frequency. This is
of use for subsonic aircraft targets when the transmitter frequency falls in
the middle range of the microwave frequency region.

If audio detection is desired for those combination of target velocity and

transmitter frequency which do not result in audible doppler frequencies,
the doppler signal could be heterodyned to the audible range. The doppler
frequency can be detected and measured by conventional frequency meters,
usually one that counts cycles.

38
3.3 ISOLATION BETWEEN TRANSMITTER
AND RECEIVER

A single antenna serves the purpose of both transmission and reception in the
simple CW radar described above. Though, in principle, a single antenna is
sufficient as the necessary isolation is obtained by the separation in frequency
(as a result of doppler effect), in practice there is considerable transmitter
leakage. But this leakage is beneficial too since it supplies the reference fre-
quency necessary for the detection of the doppler frequency shift. Otherwise
a sample of the transmitted signal must be made available at the receiver.
However, there are two reasons why the amount of transmitter leakage power
should be kept at a low value.

• The maximum power the receiver input circuitry can withstand, with-
out being physically damaged or having its sensitivity reduced, is quite
low.

• The transmitter noise which enters the receiver from the transmitter
reduces receiver sensitivity.

The amount of isolation required depends on the transmitter power and

the accompanying transmitter noise as well as the ruggedness and sensitivity
of the receiver. If the safe value of power which might be applied to a receiver
were 10mw and if the transmitter power were 1 kw, the isolation between
transmitter and receiver must be at least 50 dB.

In long range CW applications, it is the level of the noise accompanying

the transmitter leakage signal, rather than the damage this leakage might
cause to the receiver circuitry, which determines the amount of isolation
required. For example, suppose the isolation between the transmitter and
receiver were such that 10mw of leakage signal appeared at the receiver. If

39
the minimum detectable signal were 10−13 watt, the transmitter noise must
be at least 110 dB below the transmitted carrier.

3.4 SIGN OF THE RADIAL VELOCITY

In many applications of CW radar it is of interest to know if the target is ap-

proaching or receding. This might be determined with separate filters located
on either side of the intermediate frequency.If the echo-signal frequency lies
below the carrier, then the target is receding; whereas if the echo frequency
is greater that the carrier, then the target is approaching. This is shown in
Fig. 3.3 given below. However, the doppler-frequency spectrum ”folds over”
in the video because of the action of the detector, and hence the information
about whether the doppler shift is positive or negative is lost. But it is pos-
sible to determine its sign from a technique borrowed from single-sideband
communication. If the transmitter signal is given by,

Et = Eo cos wo t

The echo signal from the moving target will be,

Er = K1 E0 cos [(wo + wd )t + φ]

where, E0 = amplitude of the transmitted signal

K1 = a constant determined from the radar equation
representing the reduction in power of the echo signal
wo = angular frequency of transmitted signal, rad/sec
wd = dopper angular frequency shift, rad/sec
φ = a constant phase shift, which depends upon the range
of initial detection (i.e., distance between the radar and the target)

40
 Figure 3.3: Transmitted and received signal frequency

The sign of the doppler frequency, and therefore the direction of target
motion, may be found by splitting the received signal into two channels as
shown in Fig.3.4.

In channel A the signal is processed as in a simple CW radar. The receiver

signal and a portion of the transmitter signal heterodyne in the detector
(mixer) to yield a difference signal,

EA = K2 E0 cos(±wd t + φ)

41
 Figure 3.4: Determination of the sign of the Doppler frequency

π
The channel B has 2
phase delay introduced in the reference signal. The
output of the channel B mixer is,
π
EB = K2 E0 cos(±wd t + φ + ) (3.13)
2
If the target is approaching (positive doppler),the outputs from the two chan-
nels are,
EA = K2 E0 cos(wd t + φ) (3.14)
π
EB = K2 E0 cos(wd t + φ + ) (3.15)
2
on the other hand, if the target is receding (negative doppler),

EA (−) = K2 E0 cos(wd t + φ) (3.16)

42
 π
EB (−) = K2 E0 cos(wd t + φ + ) (3.17)
2
the sign of wd and the direction of the target’s motion may be determined
according to whether the output of channel B leads or lags the output of
channel A. One method of determining the relative phase relationship be-
tween the two channels is to apply the outputs of the two channels to a
synchronous two-phase motor. The direction of the motor’s rotation is an
indication of the direction of the target’s motion.

43
Keywords. CW radars, FM-CW radars

3.5 APPLICATIONS OF CW RADARS

The chief use of the simple unmodulated CW radar is for the measurement
of the relative velocity of a moving target.

The principal advantage of a CW doppler radar over other non-radar

methods of measurement of speed is that there need not be any physical
contact between the measuring device and the object whose speed is being
measured. Another advantage is that the CW radar, when used for short or
moderate ranges, is characterized by simpler equipment than a pulse radar.

Among its disadvantages is the fact that the amplitude of the signal that
can be transmitted by a CW radar is dependent on the isolation that can be
achieved between the transmitter and the receiver since the transmitter noise
that finds its way into the receiver limits the receiver sensitivity. This limits
the maximum range of the radar. The pulse radar has no similar limitations
to its maximum range because the transmitter is not operative when the
receiver is turned on.

One of the greatest shortcomings of the simple CW radar is its inabil-

ity to obtain a measurement of range. This limitation can be overcome by
modulating the CW carrier, as in the frequency-modulated radar described
in the next section.

44
3.6 FREQUENCY MODULATED CW RADAR
(FM-CW)

From the principle of CW radars we see that the Doppler frequency shift can
be used to determine the presence of a moving target and its relative velocity
along the LOS. In chapter 2 we had mentioned that one of the primary
functions of a radar is to measure the range to an object. This does not
appear to be possible in a CW radar since we have no way of determining
the time after which a particular part of the transmitted waveform comes
back in the form of an echo. This is so since it is impossible to distinguish
one part of a continuous signal waveform from another. In pulse radars
there is considerable gap between one pulse and the next and so it was easy
to associate or identify a pulse with its echo. Recall that even there this
identification became difficult when the gap between pulses was small (or
the target was at a large distance), giving rise to second-time-around echoes.
In CW radars an exactly similar effect, though of a more serious nature,
occurs thus making it impossible to identify a part of and echo waveform
with its original transmitted waveform. This is the reason why an ordinary
radar is incapable of measuring range to an object.

A solution to this problem can be obtained by using frequency modula-

tion. A simple way to do this is to vary the transmitted frequency over a
certain range. Then the transit time is proportional to the difference in fre-
quency between the echo signal and the transmitter signal (for a stationary
target). The greater the transmitter frequency deviation in a given time in-
terval, the more accurate the measurement of the transit time. Radars which
use this mode of operation are called frequency modulated continuous wave
(FM-CW) radars. Below we will describe how range measurement is done in
FM-CW radars.

In FM-CW, the transmitted signal frequency is varied as a function of

45
 Figure 3.5: Linear frequency modulation in FM-CW radars

time. Suppose it increases linearly with time, then we will have a variation
as shown in Fig 3.5.

Here,fb is the beat frequency which is defined as the difference between

the transmitted and received frequency. Since the beat (or difference fre-
quency) is caused only by the target’s range (as the target is stationary) it is
also denoted by fr . Consider the transmitter CW signal at time tA , having
frequency fa . This signal hits the stationary target and comes back to the
radar at time tB when the frequency of the transmitted signal would have
increased to fc . Hence, the increase in the transmitted frequency during the
to-and-fro transit time T of a signal is (fc − fa ) and is the beat frequency.
Thus, at any given instant in time the difference between the currently trans-

46
mitted signal frequency and the currently received signal is a measure of the
to-and-fro transit time of the transmitted signal.

We extract range information from a measurement of f )b as follows: Let

the slope of the curve shown Fig.3.5 be f 0 , the rate of change of frequency, or
the modulation rate. Note that this is a known quantity since the modulation
rate is chosen by the designer at the radar end. Then,

fb = fr = f 0 T = f 0 2R
c

2R
where, R is the distance to the target and so T = c
. From the above we
get

fb c
R= (3.18)
2f o

The above analysis shows that measurement of fb and the knowledge the
frequency modulation rate is sufficient to obtain the required range informa-
tion.

The obvious flaw in the above scheme is that the transmitted frequency
cannot go on increasing indefinitely. A solution is to use a periodic change in
the frequency. A particular case is the triangular-frequency modulation waveform.
This is shown in Fig. 3.6 below where both the frequency modulation scheme
and the resulting beat frequency curve is given. Note that the sign of the
beat frequency is not preserved and hence it always appears as a positive
frequency. Here, the beat frequency is given by fr at all points except in
the neighbourhood of the peaks of the transmitted signal. Note that the
frequency of the triangular modulation waveform is fm and hence its time
1
period is given by fm
. This is shown in the figure. Thus we have,

2R 0 2R f /2 4Rfm f
fr = f = . = (3.19)
c c 1/(4fm ) c

47
 Figure 3.6: Triangular frequency modulation in FM-CW radars

Hence, the measurement of beat frequency measure the range as,

 
cfr c
R= = fr = kfr (3.20)
4fm f 4fm f

where, k = [c/(4fm f )] can be used for callibrating the frequency counter.

A simplified block diagram of the FM-CW radar is given in Fig.3.7.

In the above analysis the target was assumed to be stationary. Suppose

it is not. Then there will be another frequency change due to the doppler
frequency shift. This is denoted by fd and the beat (difference) frequency

48
 Figure 3.7: Block diagram of a FM-CW radar

will now be

fb = |fr ± fd |

This will become clearer from the figures given below. First consider an
approaching target. The corresponding waveforms are shown in Fig.3.8. The
figure is self-explanatory. The only feature to note here is that the beat
frequency is lower during the increasing portion of the transmitted frequency
and higher during the decreasing portion of the transmitted frequency. Now
consider the case for receding targets. This is shown in Fig.3.9. Note that
here the beat frequency during the increasing portion of the transmitted
frequency is higher than during the decreasing portion. However, essentially

49
 Figure 3.8: Approaching target

there is no distinction between the two beat frequency curves shown in Fig.3.8
and 3.9, if they are considered in isolation. The direction of movement of
the target (i.e., wheter it is approaching or receding)has to be determined by
other means.

For approaching targets, let us denote fb (up) = |fr − fd | fb (down) = fr + fd

The words ’up’ and ’down’ refer to the increasing and decreasing portions
of the transmitted frequency i.e., when the frequency is increasing (or going
’up’)or decreasing (or going ’down’)with time. For receding targets, we have,

50
 Figure 3.9: Receding target

fb (up) = fr + fd ,

fb (down) = |fr − fd |

By taking the average frequency, the range frequency fr can be found as

follows (if fr ≥ fd )

fr = (1/2)[fb (up) + fb (down)]

The difference between them will yield the doppler frequency as (if fr ≥ fd )

51
 fd = (1/2)|[fb (up) − fb (down)]|

Using fr in (3.18) yields the range and using fd we can find the target relative
velocity along the LOS.

The above analysis is true if fr ≥ fd . If fr < fd then (3.22)will yield

doppler frequency and (3.23) will yield range frequency.

Example 3.2:In a FM-CW radar, transmitting at an average frequency of

100 MHz, the rate of triangular frequency variation is 20 KHz. Calculate
the beat frequencies during the increasing and decreasing portions of the FM
cycle. The radar-target configuration is as shown below.

ANSWERS

Refer to Fig 3.6 for explanation of the terms used below. The average

52
transmission frequency =f=100 MHz = 100x106 Hz. The peak-to peak fre-
quency variation = Δ f = 20 KHz = 20x103 Hz. The rate of triangular
frequency modulation = fm = 20 Hz. Then the slope of the variation in
frequency, given by Å, is

f /2 20 × 103 /2
Å = = = 8 × 105 Hz/Sec (3.21)
1/(4fm ) 1/(4 × 20)

Distance of the target = R = 50 km = 50 x 103 m.

Then, the beat frequency due to range only is

2RÅ 2 × (50 × 103 ) × (8 × 105 )

fr = = = 266.66Hz. (3.22)
c 3 × 108

From the figure we see that the target is a receding one with relative
velocity

vr = 400cos600 = 200 m/sec.

Then the beat frequency due to doppler effect only is,

2vr f 2 × 200 × 100 × 103

fd = = = 133.33Hz. (3.23)
c 3 × 108

From Fig 3.9 the beat frequency during the increasing and decreasing por-
tions of the transmitted frequency are

fb (up) = fr + fd = 266.66 + 133.33 = 400 Hz.

fb (down) = fr - fd = 266.66 - 133.33 = 133.33 Hz.

53
 PROBLEMS AND EXERCISES

1. Derive Eqn (3.7) from Eqn (3.6) under suitable assumptions and obtain
the doppler frequency shift as given in Eqn (3.4).

2. A target is being tracked by two radars as shown below. If Radar 1

registers a doppler shift of -100 Hz and Radar 2 a doppler shift of +60 Hz,
then what is the velocity of the target?

Is there a direction of flight which the target can employ so that it escapes
detection by both the radars at the instant shown in the figure?

3. Let a stationary CW radar, transmitting at 300 MHz, be at point A

54
 Figure 3.10: sample figures example

and a moving target at point B as shown in the figure given below. Plot θ
vs. fd on a graph sheet as θ varies from, 0 to 1800 in steps of 150 . (b) Let
the initial value of θ be 450 . Plot fd vs. time in seconds as time varies from
0 to 10 seconds in steps of 2 seconds.

4. What are the simplifying assumptions made to solve Example 3.2?

Suppose in this problem the average transmission frequency is 400 MHz,
then find fb (up) and fb (down) and show how one can obtain fr and show
how one can obtain fr and fd from these two values.

5. Sketch the beat frequency curve of a sinusoidal frequency modulated

CW radar for an approaching target. Find the equation for the beat fre-
quency as a function of time.

6. In a FM-CW radar the shape of the frequency modulation is as shown

55
in the figure. Sketch the echo waveform from a stationary target and from a
receding target. Sketch the beat frequency waveform for both cases.

56
Chapter 4

MTI AND PULSE DOPPLER

RADARS

Keywords. MTI, Pulse Doppler radar, Blind speed

4.1 INTRODUCTION

In the previous chapter we studied how doppler frequency shift can be used
in continuous wave radars to determine relative velocity of a moving target or
distinguish moving targets from stationary targets. In this chapter we shall
show that the doppler frequency shift produced by a moving target may also
be used in a pulse radar to determine the relative velocity of a target or
to separate desired signals from moving targets and undesired signals from
stationary objects (clutter).

Though the doppler frequency shift is sometimes used to measure relative

velocity of a target using a pulse radar, its most interesting and widespread
use has been in identifying small moving targets in the presence of large
clutter. Such pulse radars which use the doppler frequency shift to distinguish
(or discriminate) between moving and fixed targets are called MTI (Moving

57
Target Indicators) and Pulse Doppler Radars. The physical principle of
both these radars are the same but they differ in their mode of operation.
For instance the MTI radar operates on low pulse repetition frequencies thus
causing ambiguous Doppler measurements (blind speeds) but unambiguous
range measurements (no second-time-around echoes). On the other hand the
pulse doppler radar operates on high pulse repetition. frequency thus causing
unambiguous doppler measurements (no blind speeds) but ambiguous range
measurements (second-time-around echoes). The meaning of these terms will
become clear later when we describe the actual operational principles of these
radars.

Most of the discussion in this chapter will be restricted to MTI radars.

These are high-quality air surveillance radars that operate in the presence of
clutter.

4.2 DESCRIPTION OF OPERATION

In principle the CW radar can be converted to a pulse radar by providing

a pulse modulator which turns on and off the amplifier to generate pulses.
The output of this operation is shown in Fig.4.2.

The block diagram is almost self-explanatory. We need to note that there

is no local oscillator here since the reference signal is supplied directly from
the CW oscillator. Apart from this function the CW oscillator also supplies a
coherent reference needed to detect the doppler frequency shift. By coherent
we mean that the phase of the transmitted signal is preserved in the reference
signal. This kind of reference signal is the distinguishing feature of a coherent
MTI radar.

Let the CW oscillator voltage be

58
 Vosc = A1 sin(2πft t)

The reference signal is

Vref = A2 sin(2πft t)

The doppler-shifted echo-signal voltage is

 4πft R0

Vecho = A3 sin 2π(ft ± fd )t − c

where,

A1 = amplitude of oscillator voltage

A2 = amplitude of reference signal

A3 = amplitude of echo signal

R0 = range (distance between radar and target)

fd = doppler frequency shift

ft = frequency of the transmitted carrier signal

t = time

c = velocity of propagation.

The reference signal and the target echo signal are heterodyned in the
mixer stage. The difference frequency component is

 
4πft R0
Vdif f = A4 sin 2πfd t − (4.1)
c

59
 For stationary targets the doppler frequency shift fd will be zero; hence
Vdif f will not vary with time and may take on any constant value from +A4
to −A4 , including zero. But when the target is in motion relative to the
radar,fd has a value other than zero and the voltage corresponding to the
difference frequency from the mixer will vary with time. Note that all these
frequencies are with reference to the carrier waveform and has nothing to do
with the pulse repetition frequency.

Fig.4.3(a) shows the reflected signal from the target. The frequency of
this signal may have been changed due to the motion of the target. In
Fig.4.3(b) the difference signal is shown in the presence of a moving target
for the case when the resultant doppler frequency is such that fd > 1/t, and
in Fig. 4.3(c) for the case when fd < 1/τ, where τ is the width of one pulse.
When fd > 1/τ, fd can be easily found from the information contained in one
pulse. whereas, when fd < 1/τ many pulses will be required to extract fd .
The difference signal is the output of the mixer and is also called the video
output. If this video output is now displayed on an A-scope (amplitude vs.
time or range) in successive sweeps. Note that the amplitude of the signals
from stationary targets do not change with the number of sweeps. But the
echo signals from moving targets will change in amplitude over successive
sweeps according to Equation (4.4). When these sweeps are superposed over
each other (Fig.4.4(f)), due to the effect of persistence of vision, the moving
targets will produce signals which on the A-scope display will look like a
butterfly opening and closing its wings. This kind of signal is not good enough
for a PPI since the screen display will show bright patches for all stationary
targets and spots of fluctuating brightness for moving targets. But what we
actually require is doppler information regarding moving targets only. one
method to extract this information is to employ delay-line cancelers. In this
the current signal is delayed by one pulse time period (reciprocal of the pulse
repetition frequency) and subtracted from the signal coming next. The effect
is shown in Fig.4.5 below. Only the fluctuating signal from the moving target

60
remains and the signals from the stationary targets are cancelled out. In the
PPI, the positions of stationary targets will show dark patches and moving
targets will show spots which periodically fluctuate in brightness. However,
use of delay line cancellers cause problems of blind speeds. Note that the
signal is delayed by one pulse time period and then subtracted. Suppose the
signal from the moving target fluctuates in such a way that the signal after
this time delay is the same as the signal before this time delay. This will
happen whenever fd is a multiple of fp (the pulse repetition frequency), that
is,

fd = nfp , n = 1, 2, . . .

When this happens the resultant signal after subtraction is Zero. Thus the
radar fails to detect, or is blind to, the presence of such a moving target.
Doppler frequency shifts fd which cause this phenomenon are themselves
caused by certain specific target velocities. Substituting the expression for
doppler frequency in (4.5), we get,

fd = nfp = 2vr /λ (4.2)

From which we get

nλfp nλ
vr = = , n = 1, 2, . . . (4.3)
2 2T
where, T is the pulse time period.

For a specific n this is called the n-th blind speed. Whenever the target
relative velocity with respect to the radar along the line of sight matches
with these speeds, an MTI radar fails to detect the moving target. Thus to
avoid doppler ambiguities (due to blind speeds) the first blind speed must
be larger than the maximum expected relative velocity of the target. This

61
can be achieved by either making fp large or by making λ large. So MTI
radars should operate at long wavelengths (low carrier frequencies) or high
pulse repetition frequencies, or both. But, unfortunately other constraint
prevent this kind of choice. Too low radar frequencies make the beam-width
wider and cause deterioration in angular resolution. Too high pulse repetition
frequencies cause ambiguous range measurements.

As mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, MTI radars operate on

low pulse repetition frequencies and thus are prone to blind speeds, but
they do not have the problems of range ambiguities. On the other hand,
pulse doppler radars operate at high pulse repetition frequencies and thus
are affected by ambiguous range measurements. But they do not have the
problem of blind speeds. MTI radars are usually used as high-resolution
surveillance radars in airports. Pulse doppler radars are used for detection
of high-speed extraterrestrial objects like satellites and astronomical bodies.

EXAMPLE 4.1: In a MTI radar the pulse repetition frequency is 200 Hz

and the carrier transmission frequency is 100 MHz. Find its first, second and
third blind speeds.

ANSWER:

The pulse repetition frequency, fp = 200 Hz

The carrier transmission frequency, ft = 100 MHz.

The carrier wavelength,

c 3 × 108
= = = 3m (4.4)
ft (100 × 106 )

The n-th blind speed,

nλf p
vrn = (4.5)
2
62
So, the first blind speed =
1 × 3 × 200
= 300m/sec (4.6)
2
The second blind speed =
2 × 3 × 200
= 600m/sec (4.7)
2
The third blind speed =
3 × 3 × 200
= 900m/sec (4.8)
2

63
Figure 4.1: Block Diagram of (a) Simple CW Radar and (b) pulse radar
using doppler information

64
Figure 4.2: Pulse train generated from a continuous signal

65
Figure 4.3: (a) Reflected signal (b) Difference signal when fd > 1/τ (c)
Difference signal when fd < 1/τ

66
Figure 4.4: (a-e) Successive sweeps of an MTI Radar on an A-scope display
and (f) supersposition of these signals (arrows indicate moving targets)

67
Figure 4.5: (a)Basic delay line canceller block diagram (b) Effect of delay
line canceller on the signal

68
Figure 4.6: Effect of Blind speeds

69
Keywords. Command guidance, Homing guidance, LOS angle, Closing
velocity, Miss-distance, Time-to-go, Blind zone

5.4 GUIDANCE PHASES DURING MISSILE

FLIGHT

The basic difference between an unguided projectile and a guided missile is

the generation of guidance commands which attempts to change the mis-
sile’s flight direction. This guidance command is in the form of a lateral
acceleration command which the autopilot translates into the amount of lift
necessary to produce the desired turn rate (or maneuver). Parts of the mis-
sile trajectory for SAMs and AAMs can be classified into several ”guidance
phases” based either on their function or on the mode of guidance employed.
For example, in an air-to-air missile the first part of the trajectory is called
a programmed maneuver phase, which is independent of the target informa-
tion and is executed solely to ensure that the missile is clear of the launch
aircraft. At the completion of this maneuver, midcourse guidance phase is
initiated. The function of the midcourse guidance is to place the missile
within the terminal acquisition range of the target with the missile seeker
pointed at the target. The last few seconds of the engagement constitutes
the terminal guidance phase,which is the most crucial phase since its suc-
cess or failure determines the success or failure of the entire mission. In the
terminal phase the missile locks on to the target and attempts to close the
distance to the target as quickly as possible under the constraints of fuel
and maneuver limitations. The intercept seldom takes place by the missile
directly hitting the target. Usually the missile passes close to the target and
the proximity fuze explodes the warhead. Hence, the effectiveness of the ter-
minal guidance phase is solely judged on how close the missile can get to the
target (that is, the miss-distance). These phases are shown in Fig.5.6 below.

82
 Figure 5.6: Guidance phases for an air-to-air missile

The missile trajectory for SAMs is a almost the same except the initial
phase which is called the boost phase. In this phase the missile’s booster
provides the required velocity to the missile. Since this phase occurs for a
very short time during which the missile is marginally stable and has high
longitudinal acceleration, no guidance commands are given to the missile.
However, some modern missiles under development consider the incorpora-
tion of a boost phase guidance scheme to improve overall performance. Fig.
5.7 shows these phases for a SAM.

83
 Figure 5.7: Guidance phases for a surface-to-air missile

The missile trajectory can also be classified according to the nature of

the guidance scheme. This will be discussed in the context of surface-to-air
missiles. In the command guidance scheme the target and missile positions
and velocities are measured by a tracking radar situated at the ground sta-
tion. This information is processed and fed into the guidance computer
which generates the steering or guidance commands using some guidance
law. The guidance computer is also situated at the ground station. The
guidance commands are then communicated to the missile via a data uplink.

84
Based on these inputs the missile flight control system takes action. Thus,
the computers and other equipment at the ground station ”command” the
missile to behave in a certain fashion. This kind of guidance is also known as
three-point guidance there are three major points of reference : the missile,
the target, and the ground station. The part of the trajectory in which the
missile is command guided is called the command phase. Usually in purely
command guided missiles there are three phases: boost phase, command
guided phase, and the terminal phase. The last phase is for a short dura-
tion in which the missile is very close to the target and hence usually does
not maneuver or uses some constant maneuver level obtained from previous
guidance commands. The reason for this is that the missile during this phase
is so close to the target that there is little time to generate new guidance
commands and consequently update the maneuver level. This kind of trajec-
tory is shown in Fig. 5.8 (a). Homing guidance scheme does not depend on
any ground station for the generation of guidance commands. This is also
called two-point guidance.

Though some homing guidance schemes need assistance from a ground

station, the guidance commands themselves are generated inside the missile
itself. Here also we have the boost phase, the homing guidance phase, and
the terminal phase. This is shown in Fig.5.8(b). One can also have a mixed
guidance scheme in which after the boost phase the missile is command
guided from a ground station till the target comes within the acquisition
range of the missile seeker antenna. Then the missile uses homing guidance
till the terminal phase. This is shown in Fig.5.8(c).

85
5.5 DIFFERENT CATEGORIES OF HOM-
ING GUIDANCE

Homing guidance schemes are desirable from the point of view that they
require less control from a ground station and once launched could be more
or less autonomous in guiding themselves. These are also called ”Fire-and-
Forget” missiles. However, there are many categories of homing guidance
which invest varying degrees of autonomy to the missile. Some of these
categories are discussed below.

Active Homing

An active homing guidance system is one in which both the source of

energy to illuminate the target and the receiver of the energy reflected from
the target are carried in the missile. Hence, the missile contains a transmit-
ting antenna, a receiving antenna, and a receiver. It also carries within it
the signal processor and the guidance computer. Missiles employing active
homing are fully autonomous. Such a system is shown in Fig.5.9.

Semi-Active Homing

A system wherein the transmitter of the energy is at a point external

to the missile, but the receiver is inside the missile. The missile contains a
receiving antenna, a signal processor, and a guidance computer. Since the
transmitting antenna is located externally (either land-based or ship-based),
it has less autonomy than active homing guidance. This system is shown in
Fig.5.10.

Passive Homing

In this system, in which the receiver, placed inside the missile, utilizes the
energy emanating from the target. It does not require a transmitter. A heat
seeking missile uses such a system. The missile contains the receiver for the

86
kind of energy that the target emanates, a signal processor, and a guidance
computer. These missiles may appear to be as autonomous as active missiles
but actually have less autonomy since they have to depend on the target to
emanate the necessary energy. If the target stops emanating this energy, the
missile stops functioning.This is shown in Fig.5.11 below.

5.6 SOME USEFUL CONCEPTS IN MIS-

SILE GUIDANCE

One often comes across a number of standard terms in the literature on

missile guidance. In this section we will try to define some of these terms
precisely.

Lateral Acceleration

This is also called as latax. This is the acceleration that needs to be ap-
plied by the missile to achieve a desired turn rate. It is called lateral acceleration
since it is usually applied in a direction close to the normal to the missile lon-
gitudinal axis or the missile velocity vector. In fact the guidance command
generated by the guidance law is usually expressed as a lateral acceleration
term. This is called the commanded latax and is fed into the lateral autopi-
lots. Since the autopilots are essentially dynamical systems with time delay,
the actual achieved latax is a time-varying quantity and is different from the
instantaneous commanded latax at any moment in time. This difference may
also occur due to saturation effect since the missile may not be able to pull
very high commanded latax.

Line-of-Sight (LOS) Rate

During a missile-target engagement the imaginary line in space join-

ing the missile and the target at any given moment in time is called the

87
instantaneous line-of-sight or LOS. This line changes in length and orienta-
tion as the engagement proceeds. The change in angular orientation is given
by its angular velocity or rate of turn and is usually expressed in units of
radians /sec. This is called the LOS rate.

Closing Velocity

This is the velocity with which the missile closes on to the target. Ob-
viously this is given by the rate at which the length of the LOS shrinks.
Hence, it is the negative of the rate of change of the LOS length. It is also
the doppler relative velocity of the target with respect to the missile along the
line-of-sight. Remember that the doppler relative velocity is positive when
the target is approaching and negative when it is receding.

Miss Distance

This is the distance of closest approach of the missile to the target. When
the missile directly hits the target.The miss distance is zero. But when the
missile passes close to the target the miss distance is non-zero. In this case
the proximity fuze detonates the warhead and the engagement comes to an
end. Obviously, the primary objective of a guidance system is to minimize the
miss-distance. Also note that the miss-distance as a non-negative quantity.
Consider fig.5.12 which shows the trajectories of a missile and a target, and
also the miss-distance. It also shows the LOS at different instants in time.

Including the LOS at the instant of closest approach. The length of this
LOS gives the miss-distance. Now, what distinguishes this LOS from all the
other LOSs? It can be easily deduced that the losing velocity at this LOS is
zero. The closing velocity of the LOS before this is positive and of the LOS
after this is negative.

Time-to-go

The time-to-go is an important trajectory parameter which is used for

88
the implementation of many advanced guidance laws. Suppose we record the
trajectory data of a missile-target engagement and find that the engagement
ends with an interception at time tf (final time). Note that interception is
assumed to have taken place when either the missile directly hits the the
target or at the time of closest approach. Now, at any given instant in time
t during the engagement the time-to-go is defined as the time remaining till
interception and is given by tf − t. It is usually denoted as tgo . This value
is the actual time-to-go which is known only after the engagement is over.
But, to implement the guidance law, we need to estimate the tgo during
the engagement. There are many ways by which this can be done.One of the
ways, based on the available instantaneous information, is to use the formula,


tgo = R
(−Ṙ)

where, 
tgo is the estimated time-to-go and R is the LOS length or the
distance between the target and the missile at that instant in time. This is
not a very accurate method of estimating the tgo , but for some limited cases
it is satisfactory. There are other, more accurate but complicated, ways of
finding the tgo .

Blind Zone

In a homing guidance system the seeker has to keep pointing towards the
target to track it. However, during the last part of the terminal phase the
missile could be pointing in such a direction that the seeker has to turn by a
very large angle to keep the target within its field of view. However, seeker
turn angle is subject to mechanical limitations. Hence, it may not be possible
for the seeker to turn by such a large angle. In this case the seeker loses track
of the target and cannot ”see” it any core. This is called the blind zone of
the missile. This is shown in Fig. 5.13 below. There is no information input
from the seeker during this phase and the guidance system has to depend on
previous inputs.

89
5.7 THE KINEMATIC EQUATIONS

The kinematic equations for the missile-target engagement, assuming point

mass models for the missile and the target are given below with reference to
Fig. 5.14.

Ṙ = VT cos(β − θ) − VM cos(α − θ)

θ̇ = (1/R)(VT sin(β − θ) − VM sin(α − θ)

Here, VT and VM are the target and missile velocities, and R is the dis-
tance from the missile to the target (LOS length or LOS separation). The
missile employs a lateral acceleration aM to turn the missile in an appropri-
ate direction. Note that θ̇ is the LOS rate and Ṙ is the rate of change of the
LOS separation. Also, the closing velocity VC is given by,

Vc = −Ṙ

The above equations do not form the complete set of kinematic equations.
The complete set will also consist of equations modelling the variations in
α, β, θ, VM and VT . Integrating these equations with respect to time from
some given initial conditions will give the complete trajectory of this system
of equations.

PROBLEMS AND EXERCISES

1. Collect the following data for one missile each from the SSM, SAM,
ASM and AAM categories: Name of the missile, type of missile(a short
description), country of origin, height or length, diameter, weight, range ,

90
airframe configuration, warhead, guidance system, propulsion system, speed.
Include any other data about the missile which you may find of interest.

You may consult JANE’S WEAPON SYSTEMS. Give reference to the

specific volume you have consulted.

2. Consider the missile-target engagement geometry shown below. Find

the following (a) closing velocity (b) Ṙ (c) LOS rate (d)estimated time-to-go
(e) turn rate and the radius of turn of the missile if a latax of 25 m/sec2 is
applied by the missile in a direction normal to the missile velocity factor (f)
the angle α so that the missile is on a collision course with the target(Note:
The missile is on a collision course with the target if the LOS rate is zero)
(g)the heading error (Note: The heading error is the difference between the
actual missile-angle (with respect to the reference) and the missile angle
required for collision course).

91
Figure 5.8: Trajectories for (a) command guidance (b) Homing guidance (c)
Mixed guidance

92
Figure 5.9: Active homing guidance

93
Figure 5.10: Semi-active homing guidance

94
Figure 5.11: Passive homing guidance

95
Figure 5.12: Miss-distance

96
Figure 5.13: Blind zone in the terminal homing phase

97
Figure 5.14: Missile-target engagement geometry

98
Figure 5.15: A missile-target engagement geometry

99
Chapter 5

GUIDED MISSILES

Keywords. Guided missiles, Classification of guided missiles, Subsystems

of guided missiles

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Guided missiles have been in the forefront of modern warfare since the second
world war. Thanks to the media blitz accompanying the Gulf war they have
almost become household words nowadays. Though it is true that guided
missiles are mainly used for destructive purposes, one cannot disregard the
fact that they are one of the most outstanding examples of the application
of scientific techniques to design, control and guide remote vehicles without
direct human intervention.

The objective of this chapter would be to understand the major compo-

nents and the operational principles of guided missiles. We will also define
some standard terminology used in the guided missile literature.

A simple definition of a guided missile would be the following:

70
 A guided missile is a space-traversing unmanned vehicle which carries
within itself the means for controlling its flight path.

Another definition, based on its operation, could be:

A guided missile is one which is usually fired in a direction approximately

towards the target and subsequently receives steering commands from the guid-
ance system to improve its accuracy.

5.2 CLASSIFICATION OF GUIDED MIS-

SILES

A number of different classifications of guided missiles are possible. However,

the most usual is the one in which the position of launch and the position
of the target are used for classification. This is most widely used as these
positions more or less designate the general requirements or specialities of
the missiles used. The four general categories of missiles are:

• A Surface-to- Surface Missiles (SSM)

• A Surface-to- Air Missiles (SAM)

• A Air-to- Air Missiles (AAM)

• A Air-to- Surface Missiles (ASM)

Surface-to-Surface Missiles

These missiles are launched from some point on the surface of the earth
to another point on the surface of the earth. They could also be launched

71
from a ship. These missiles are usually employed against large and stationary
targets. The range of the missile and the type of warhead it uses depends
on the kind of targets. The target could be a small factory or a big city.
The range could be as low as a few kilometers to as high as thousands of
kilometers. Though the terminal accuracy required of the missile guidance
system is usually not much, the accuracy required for targets at long range
must be high compared to those required for short ranges. However, many
recently designed surface-to surface missiles demand very high terminal ac-
curacy. The accuracy of such missiles depends to a large extent, on the
accuracy of determining the position of the target with reference to some
standard frame.

Missiles of this kind, by the very nature of their use, are offensive missiles.
Missiles employed for long range targets are also known as strategic missiles.
Short Range, Intermediate Range, and Inter-Continental Ballistic Missiles
(SRBM,IRBM,and ICBM) are some of the generic names (based on the range
performance) of these missiles. Some examples of this type of missiles are :
CSS-3 ICBM (Country of origin : China, Maximumrange : 7000 km), SS-
18 satan ICBM (CIS-formerly USSR, 12000 KM), Minuteman ICBM (USA,
12500 km), Prithvi SRBM (India, 100-250 km), Agni IRBM (India, 600-1000
km).

Surface-to-Air Missiles

Any guided missile launched from a point on the surface of the earth to
destroy a target in the air qualifies for this category. The launch point, how-
ever, could be either a ship or land. Here the targets are always in motion
and quite often have considerable maneuvering capability. The guidance sys-
tem must be accurate since the targets are usually small in size, move at high
speeds, and/or are capable of executing complicated maneuvers (e.g., fighter
aircraft, helicopters, SSMs). Thus, these missiles have support equipments
which continuously collect information about the current position and veloc-

72
ity of the target. The time available for the missile to destroy a flying target
is usually small and so the guidance system must be able to take appropriate
actions in a short period of time.

These missiles are normally used as defensive weapons. Some examples

of such missiles are : Gremlin SA-14 (CTS, 6 km), MANPADS (France, 4-6
km), Stringer (USA,45 km), Akash( India, 27-35 km, under development),
Patriot (USA, 160 Km).

Air-to-Surface Missiles

These missiles are usually launched from an aircraft to destroy targets on

the surface of the earth. The targets could be moving (but not at very high
speeds) or stationary. The launch point (aircraft) is in motion. Hence, it is
possible to search and seek out targets whose positions or movements are not
known beforehand. In other words, the targets for such missiles are seldom
predetermined as in the case of SSMs, which means that the missile must
have some means of seeking out these targets. This causes the additional
problems of avoiding spurious signals from the ground. Since it is possible
to come close to the target, accuracy can also be improved. However, the
launch point itself moves, and so the velocity and other dynamic properties
of the aircraft must be taken into account in the guidance system.

These missiles are primarily offensive weapons but can also be considered
as defensive weapon systems depending on their actual use. Some examples
are : Gabriel MK-III (Israel, 40 km), HARM AGM-88A (USA, 25 km).

Air-to-Air Missile

Here, both the launch platform and the target are aircraft. These missiles
are perhaps the most difficult to design and build from a guidance point-of-
view. Both aircraft are at motion in high speeds. They are also capable of
high maneuverability. Targets are small and difficult to locate. The guidance

73
system has to take into account all the factors mentioned for SAMs at the
target end, and those mentioned for ASMs at the launch end. In addition,
the guidance system should be such that it should not prevent the aircraft
launching the missile from taking evasive actions for its own survival after
the missile has been launched.

These missiles can be used both as offensive and defensive weapon sys-
tems. Some examples are: Super 530 (France, 25 km), Ash AA-5 (CIS, 5-20
km), Sidewinder AIM-9 (USA, 5-15 km).

5.3 DESCRIPTION OF THE TACTICAL MIS-

SILE

In these lectures, we will concentrate on surface-to-air and air-to-air missiles

only. These missiles fall under the category of tactical missiles. Usually,
these missiles comprise of several subsystems like the airframe, flight control
section, guidance section, fuze, warhead, propulsion, data link, and radome.
Fig. 5.1 illustrates the location of these subsystems within the missile.

The airframe is the framework that carries the missile components. The
guidance and fuze sections are located at the forward end of the airframe.
The Radome covers the guidance-section seeker head to protect it from aero-
dynamic forces. The warhead section is located behind the guidance section
and in front of the propulsion section. The flight control section is positioned
wherever the control surfaces are located. If a data link is required (as in
command guided missiles, guided from the ground), the antenna and the
receiver are located at the rear end of missile. Some of these subsystems are
described below.

Airframe

74
 Figure 5.1: Tactical missile components

The airframe is the framework that carries the missile components to an

intercept of the target. There are many types of airframes and they are
usually categorized by their source of lift and control (that is, the location
of control surfaces like wings, tail fins, and canards).

Flight Control

The function of the flight control system is to provide a stable,controlled,and

responsive missile. Such a stable and controlled flight is achieved by control-

75
 Figure 5.2: Types of Airframes

ling the airframe motions using roll, pitch, and yaw autopilots. These are
automatic feedback control systems. The last two (pitch and yaw) are also
called lateral autopilots and are almost identical.

Guidance

The guidance section is the most important contributor to overall missile

performance. This system provides steering commands to the lateral autopi-
lots that will cause the missile to fly to a successful intercept of the target. To

76
accomplish this task the guidance system needs to perform four functions :
(1) Seeker stabilization (2) Target acquisition (3) Tracking, and (4) Steering
signal generation. A simplified block diagram is shown in Fig. 5.3.

Figure 5.3: Guidance-section functional block diagram

The sensor that receives the target signal return is normall mounted in
some type of gimbal system that is attached to the missile body. In order
for the sensor to function properly it must be decoupled from the missile
body motions. This is accomplished through the seeker head stabilization
loop. Sensor motion is sensed with a rate gyroscope attached to the sensor

77
platform. Signal from the rate gyroscope is used to generate the feedback
which compensates for the body motions.

The output of the sensor is fed into the signal processor which processes
the signal and provides the input to the tracking system which does the job
of keeping the sensor boresight (or central axis ) on the target in order to
maintain target track and generate steering signals. The steering commands
are generated through guidance laws which use information (available from
the signal processor) such as line-of-sight (LOS) rate, closing velocity, etc.
These guidance laws will be discussed in detail in the next chapter. The
steering commands generated by the guidance system are fed to the lateral
autopilots.

Fuze

The function of the fuze is to detect the target’s presence in the missile’s
vicinity and detonate the warhead. Tactical missiles usually have contact
and proximity fuzes. The contact fuze becomes operative when the missile
makes physical contact with the target. The proximity fuze is designed to
detect the target when the missile passes close to the target without direct
contact.

A typical active RF proximity fuze is a small active CW radar system

having two transmitting antennas. when the target enters the main lobe, the
fuze receives the reflected energy and a fuze pulse is generated which triggers
the warhead (see Fig. 5.4).

The fuze is designed to react to signal returns from targets within the
lethal range of the warhead. Signal returns from targets beyond a specified
range are rejected.

Other kinds of modern proximity fuzes are laser fuzes. This provides very
accurate operation and is immune to most conventional electronic counter-

78
 Figure 5.4: Typical active RF fuze antenna pattern

measures. Its operation is shown in Fig.5.5 below.

There are two laser beam patterns, one conical and the other circular.
When the target hits the conical beam pattern at point A, the fuze system is
alerted to the presence of a target and the detonation takes place when the
target hits the circular beam pattern at point B. Other strategies to detonate
the warhead may also be designed based on the target’s interception of the
two beam patterns. The essential idea is to ensure that the warhead detonates
at the center of the target.

79
 Figure 5.5: Laser-fuze dual beam pattern

Propulsion

The propulsion system of the missile provides the required initial thrust
to the missile to enable it to fly with sufficient velocity during the subse-
quent engagement period with the target. There are two phases in missile
propulsion : boost and sustain.During boost the propulsion system provides
a high level of missile acceleration over a relatively short period of time(1-
15 secs). The purpose of sustain propulsion is to maintain the missile at
a desired velocity for the majority of the remaining missile flight. Various

80
combinations of boost and sustain propulsion (like all-boost, boost-sustain,
all sustain) may be used in different missile systems. However, in principle,
the all-sustain configuration is never used, since it usually requires a very
short boost phase. An example is the air-to-air missile which does not have
a booster motor but a short boost is provided by the sustainer motor itself.

The booster motor is typically a solid propellant motor while the sustainer
motor could either be a solid propellant one or a jet engine. Some modern
missiles nowdays use integrated rocket-ramjet propulsion.

Warhead

The warhead is the payload of the missile and consists of a shell, explo-
sives, and a detonator. The weight of the warhead depends on the size of
the missile. The fuze pulse activated the detonator which in triggers the
explosive. The shell breaks into numerous fragments which are propelled
outward in a 60-90 degrees spread and achieves target kill by penetrating
target components. Apart from the basic fragmentation type the other kinds
of warheads are: continuous-rod warhead, annular blast fragmentation war-
head, selectively aimable warhead.

81
Chapter 6

MISSILE GUIDANCE LAWS

Keywords. LOS guidance, Beam rider guidance, pursuit guidance, Propor-

tional Navigation guidance, Pure pursuit guidance, Deviated pursuit guid-
ance

6.1 CLASSIFICATION OF MISSILE GUID-

ANCE LAWS

It is the guidance law which in principle, distinguishes an unguided projectile

from a guided missile. In a way, the guidance law can be considered to be the
”brain” of the missile. The more sophisticated the guidance law, the more
effective is the missile. The primary function of the missile guidance law is to
generate steering guidance commands based on some strategy which uses the
missile and target information as inputs. The guidance command is usually
in the form of the magnitude and direction of the lateral acceleration that the
missile needs to apply. The guidance command is usually generated at very
short intervals of time and, for most practical purposes, can be assumed to be
continuously generated. The design and analysis of guidance laws has been an

100
active area of research for the past five decades. These guidance laws were
first designed during the second world war and were subsequently refined.
We may classify these guidance laws as classical and modern guidance laws.
In the classical guidance laws we have line-of-sight (LOS)guidance, pursuit
guidance and its variants, proportional navigation and its variants. The
modern guidance laws are derived from optimal control theory, differential
games, singular perturbation theory, and reachable set theory. Of these, the
proportional navigation (PN) guidance laws form the boundary between the
classical and the modern approach.

The basic PN law is a classical guidance law whereas many of its variants
are recent extensions and should rightfully be treated as modern guidance
laws. In these lecture notes we shall discuss the LOS, pursuit, PN and optimal
control guidance laws only.

6.2 CLASSICAL GUIDANCE LAWS

The classical guidance laws are those which have been employed in mis-
siles for decades and are designed using rather simple ideas. A majority of
available guided missiles use these guidance laws or their refinements. They
have the advantage of easy mechanization, standard equipments and minimal
information requirement. Their disadvantage lies in the fact that their accu-
racy suffers against maneuvering and intelligent targets. This is especially of
importance for SAMs and AAMs.

Line-of-sight (LOS) Guidance

The basic principle here is to guide the missile on a LOS course in an

attempt to keep it on a line joining the target and the point of control
(ground station). The LOS guidance geometry is shown in Fig.6.1. The
guidance law should be such that the velocity of the missile perpendicular to

101
the LOS should be equal to the LOS velocity at that point, that is,

Vp = Rθ̇ (6.1)

The LOS guidance scheme can be mechanized in two ways: command-

line-of-sight (CLOS), and beam rider (BR) guidance scheme.

In CLOS guidance scheme there is an uplink to transmit guidance signals

from a ground controller (point of control) to the missile. Here it is required
by the ground station to track the missile as well as the target. Before
transmitting the guidance signal the necessary compensation for the missile
position is done.

In BR guidance scheme an electro-optical beam is directed at the target

from the ground station. There are sensors inside the missile which sense
the deviation of the missile from the centerline of the beam and the missile
generates appropriate guidance commands to annul this deviation. Here, it
is only required to track the target, and not the missile. Hence, the BR
missile requires onboard autopilot compensation for the missile position. A
BR missile system is shown in Fig.6.2.

Performance of missiles using LOS guidance has been found to be quite

good against moderate speed, low maneuver targets at short ranges. How-
ever, these missiles suffer from certain disadvantages:

(1) Their performance degrades against high speed and maneuvering tar-
gets.

(2) A major disadvantage is that the commanded latax required for ap-
proaching targets (even for a non-maneuvering one)becomes very high to-
wards the end. Since the missile achieved latax has an upper limit, the
saturation effect causes miss-distance. This is shown in Fig 6.3 below.

102
 Figure 6.1: LOS guidance engagement geometry

(3) Since these guidance laws, by the very nature of their mechanization,
depend completely, on information received from ground station, they do not
have the ”fire-and forget” capability of active homing guidance.

Pursuit Guidance Laws

The basic idea here is to keep the missile pointed towards the target.
Whenever, there is a deviation a latax command is applied to annul the
deviation. There are two kinds of pursuit guidance: (1) Attitude Pursuit,
in which the missile longitudinal axis is kept pointed at the target; and (2)
Velocity pursuit in which the missile’s velocity vector is kept pointing at the
target. These two are different since there is usually a non-zero angle-of-
attack, which is the angle between the missile velocity vector and the missile

103
 Figure 6.2: Beam rider guidance

longitudinal axis. Attitude pursuit is mechanized easily since the missile

body axis is a fixed line with respect to the missile airframe in which the
guidance system is housed. But velocity pursuit has to have an estimate of
the angle of the velocity vector. This can be obtained by using an airvane
which indicates the relative wind direction. There is a further classification
of these guidance laws as pure pursuit and deviated pursuit. Pure pursuit
makes them point at the target while Deviated pursuit makes them point at
a spot ahead of the target by a fixed angle. The idea behind deviated pursuit
is to take advantage of the information of the target’s flight direction and
thus reduce the latax demanded.

It has been found that the miss-distance performance of velocity pursuit

104
 Figure 6.3: LOS guidance against approaching target

guidance is superior to attitude pursuit guidance. Fig.6.4 below shows the

trajectory of a missile employing pure velocity pursuit guidance. Pursuit
guidance also has the disadvantage of requiring high latax towards the end
of the engagement, thus causing miss-distance. This is shown in Fig 6.4.
Moreover, its miss-distance performance against high speed and maneuvering
targets is also not satisfactory.

Proportional Navigation Guidance Law

Proportional navigation (PN) is perhaps the most widely used guidance

law in sophisticated missiles. Before we describe the PN law let us clarify one
point. Proportional navigation has nothing to do with navigation. It is purely
a guidance law used to guide missiles. The reason for this misnomer is that in

105
 Figure 6.4: Velocity pursuit guidance against an approaching target

the early days of development of guided missiles the vocabulary of guidance

literature was somewhat limited. But navigation of ships was a well-known
science and was a popular scientific topic. It was only a matter of time before
people decided that the idea of guiding missiles to follow a certain trajectory
and of ”navigating” a ship had certain similarities, and the name proportional
navigation was invented. The idea behind proportional navigation guidance
initially originated from a certain observation made by sailors. They observed
that from a moving ship if another ship appears to be stationary and its
size appears to be growing, then there is a certainty of imminent collision
between the two ships. Essentially these two conditions imply that the two
ships are on a collision course, i.e., there is no relative velocity between
the two ships perpendicular to the LOS and the ships are approaching each

106
other. Translated to the language of LOS rate and closing velocity, it implies
that the LOS rate is zero and the closing velocity is positive. PN law uses
the idea that if the LOS rate at any time is non-zero then the guidance
command applied should be such that it annuls the LOS rate. In fact the
latax generated is made proportional to the LOS rate and the closing velocity.
Thus the commanded latax according to PN law is,

am α θ̇
am = N Vc θ̇

where, N is called the navigation constant and usually lies between 3 and 5.
Vc = Ṙ is the LOS rate. Usually the commanded latax is applied normal to
the missile velocity vector. But there are many variations of the PN law in
which the latax could be applied in directions different from the normal to
the missile velocity vector.

Note that for most engagements between missile and target the initial
and subsequent closing velocity remains positive till the distance of closest
approach occurs. Hence, the direction in which the latax is applied is given
by the direction of rotation of the LOS. This is shown in Fig. 6.5 below. In
fact, when the LOS rate rotates in the clockwise or anti-clockwise direction
the latax applied is such that the missile velocity vector also rotates in the
same direction.

This is logical for the following reason: Consider that the LOS is ro-
tating in the anti-clockwise direction. It implies that the target velocity
component normal to the LOS. By turning the missile velocity vector in the
anti-clockwise direction we are effectively increasing the component of the
missile velocity normal to the LOS, thus reducing the LOS rate, which is
desirable since it brings the missile close to the collision course.

The implementation of the PN law is done as follows: If the missile uses

107
 Figure 6.5: Direction of latax in PN guidance law

homing guidance then the closing velocity is obtained from the doppler radar
used as the missile seeker or sensor and the LOS rate is obtained by measuring
the rate of rotation of the missile seeker tracking the target. If the missile
is command guided then these are computed on-ground from the tracking
radar data.

The advantage of PN guidance law lies in the fact that it is easy to

mechanize, requires easily obtainable information,and because of this, is less
prone to external disturbances and noise. Unlike pursuit and LOS guidance,
which have short term goals (of pointing a vector towards the target or of
keeping the missile on the LOS), the PN law has some far-sightedness built
into it in the sense that it tries to take corrective actions right from the

108
beginning. As a result, even an approaching but non-maneuvering target,

Figure 6.6: Proportional navigation against approaching target

the latax demanded in the terminal phase is within moderate limits. The
trajectories for LOS and pursuit guidance given in Figs. 6.3 and 6.4, show
that these laws demand a high latax in the terminal phase of interception.
However, the PN guidance law does not perform well against maneuvering
targets. The reason is that though the PN law accounts for the target velocity
implicitly, it does not account for the target acceleration.

We shall discuss some modern extensions of PN guidance law in the sub-

sequent section, in which this aspect is taken care of in some fashion.

109
Keywords. Modern guidance law, Augmented proportional navigation,
Zero-effort-miss

6.3 MODERN GUIDANCE LAWS

Essentially the modern guidance laws attempt to take into account target
accelerations (i.e., target maneuvers), the time delay in the missile autopilot,
and the effect of noise and uncertainty in measurement and estimation, as
these are responsible for a missile’s failure to perform well. Theoretically,
many of them succeed in achieving their goals, but implementation of such
laws become difficult due to their inherent complexity. Much of the appli-
cation research on missile guidance is focused on the problem of efficient
implementation of these laws or incorporation of some of their desirable fea-
tures in classical guidance laws. Below we shall discuss two such guidance
laws : Augmented Proportional Navigation (APN) and the Modern Guidance
Scheme (MGS). Both can be considered to be extensions of the classical PN
law in a linearized geometry. Indeed, we shall develop these guidance laws as
logical extensions to the PN law, though their actual design could be done
more rigorously through optimal control theory.

Augmented Proportional Navigation

In Fig.6.7 we show a missile-target geometry with a non-maneuvering

target, and with a small angle assumption, that is, we assume the LOS angle
θ to be small. This assumption allows the system to be treated as a linear
one. Note that y is the vertical separation between the missile and the target.
The time for intercept is tf and so,

tgo = tf − t

The commanded missile latax for the classical PN law is given by

110
 Figure 6.7: Small angle missile-target engagement geometry

aM = N Vc θ̇ = N Vc dθ
dt

Note that tgo can be written as,

tgo = R/(−Ṙ) = R/vc

and so,

R = Vc tgo

111
Since the angle θ is small,

θ∼
= sinθ = Y
R
= Y
Vc tgo

Then we have

 
d y d
aM = N Vc =N (yt−1 ) (6.1)
dt Vc tgo dt go

= N {ẏt−1 −2
go + y(−1)tgo (−1)} (6.2)

= N {ẏt−1 −2
go + ytgo } (6.3)

N
= (ẏtgo + y) (6.4)
t2go

Now, let us analyze the expression within brackets in the above equation.
It represents the (vertical) miss-distance that will occur at the end of time
tgo (i.e., at final time t), provided that the missile does not apply any latax.
Thus, this quantity is called the Zero-Effort-Miss (ZEM). Hence, the com-
manded missile latax for the classical PN law, in linearized geometry, can be
written as,

N
aM = (ZEM ) (6.5)
t2go

So, proportional navigation (PN) in the small angle case turns out to be
a guidance law which generates a latax command proportional to the ZEM
and inversely proportional to the square of the time-to-go.

112
 We shall now extend this idea further to obtain the APN guidance law.
Suppose, in the same small angle case, we have a maneuvering target such
that it causes a non-zero Ÿ . Note that in the previous case (PN) we had
assumed a non-maneuvering target and so we had only a non-zero Ẏ which
was caused by the target velocity. Then, from simple kinematics, the ZEM
is given by,

ZEM = y + ẏtgo + (1/2)ÿt2go

= y + ẏtgo + (1/2)aT n t2 go

where, ÿ =aT n = target acceleration normal to the LOS. Then, the com-
manded latax is given by,

N
aM = {Y + Ẏ tgo + (1/2)aT n t2go } (6.6)
t2go

This is the Augmented Proportional Navigation (APN) guidance law. How-

ever, the above equation represents the guidance law in a linearized geometry.
The guidance law in the general non-linear geometry is given by,

aM = N Vc θ̇ + (1/2)N aT n (6.7)

This can be easily deduced from the above equation. Note that in addition
to the LOS rate and the closing velocity, the APN guidance law also requires
the target acceleration normal to the LOS for its implementation. In fact
this requirement is its main drawback since measurement (or estimation) of
target acceleration is prone to noise.

113
 The advantage of the APN guidance law, as compared to PN, is that
the commanded latax is initially high but falls as the missile approaches the
maneuvering target. This is shown in Fig.6.8 below. Though the APN law
takes into account the target acceleration, it does not account for the time

Figure 6.8: Command latax for PN and APN for different N and for maneu-
vering target

delay in the lateral autopilot of the missile which causes a difference between
the commanded latax and the achieved latax. The modern guidance scheme
described below takes this delay into account.

Modern Guidance Scheme

The modern guidance scheme is derived using the theory of optimal con-
trol. The latax that the missile pulls as it maneuvers induces a drag which
affects its velocity. In an attempt to minimize this maneuver induced drag,
the MGS guidance law is designed in such a way that it minimizes the fol-

114
lowing quantity (which is a measure of the maneuver induced drag) :
 tf
a2M dt (6.8)
0

under the condition that the terminal miss-distance is zero. In the linearized
geometry (that is, small angle assumption) it means that y(tf )=0. Solving
this problem in a linearized setting, using optimal control theory, and assum-
ing the autopilot to be a first order dynamical system, we obtain the MGS
guidance law as,
  
N 1 2 (e−T + T − 1)
aM c = 2 y + ytgo + ( )aT n tgo − aM a (6.9)
tgo 2 w2

where, aM c is the commanded latex and aM a is the currently achieved latex

of the missile. Also,
T = wtgo (6.10)

w=Bandwidth of the guidance system (autopilot) dynamics which is ex-

pressed as a first order time lag system

1
= τ

where τ is the time constant in the first order system which models the lateral
autopilot. Here, the navigation ”constant” N is no longer a constant but is
a time-varying quantity denoted by N’. It is given by,

6T 2 (e−T − 1 + T )
N = (6.11)
2T 3 + 3 + 6T − 6T 2 − 12T e−T − 3e−2T
The expression within brackets in the expression for aM c above represents the
ZEM. Note that the first part of the guidance law is identical to the APN
law. In fact, as the time delay t → 0, we have T → ∞, we get a perfect
autopilot. Also,

Lim N =3
(6.12)
T →∞

115
Hence, for a perfect autopilot, the guidance command reduces to the APN
guidance law with the optimal value of the navigation constant as 3. This jus-
tifies the choice of N as 3 to 5 in the PN and APN guidance laws. Translated
to the non-linear settings the MGS law is expressed as,
 −T 
 1 e +T −1
aM c = N Vc θ̇ + N aT n − aM a (6.13)
2 T2
The MGS law has all the advantages of the APN guidance law in addition to
the advantage that it takes care of the autopilot time delay. It suffers from
the drawback that it requires the estimation or measurement of aT n , aM a and
tgo which are difficult to measure accurately.

PROBLEMS AND EXERCISES

1. Consider the missile target engagement shown below. Answer the

Figure 6.9:

following questions:

116
 (I) what should be the angle θM in order that the condition for LOS
guidance is met?

(II) Suppose the missile is guided by the pure pursuit guidance law then
what should be θM in order to satisfy the condition of velocity pursuit and
of attitude pursuit? The angle of attack is 2 degrees and the velocity vector
lags the missile longitudinal axis.

(III) Answer (II) when the missile is guided by a deviated pursuit guidance
law with the angel of deviation=2.5 degrees.

2. Consider the missile-target engagement geometry given below at some

instant in time t. Answer the following questions:

(I) What is the commanded latex if the missile uses (a) PN with N=4
(b) APN with N=3 (c) MGS with the current achieved latex same as the
commanded latex in (b) and the time delay t=0.1 sec?

(II) What is the estimated time-to-go? Is the actual time-to-go for the
three guidance laws less, more or the same as the estimated value? Assume
that the target employs a constant measure level, i.e., constant aT throughout
the engagement.

3. Obtain the value of N’ when T → ∞.

117
Figure 6.10:

118
Chapter 7

AIRCRAFT NAVIGATION

Keywords. Navigation, Dead-reckoning, Position-fixing, Celestial naviga-

tion, LORAN, VOR

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Navigation may be considered as the art of directing the movement of a

vehicle from one place to another. It is an art practiced by all who travel
but its development is rooted firmly in the fundamental laws of science. In
today’s context it can be formally defined as the determination of a strategy
for estimating the position of a vehicle along the flight path, given outputs
from specified sensors.

In the early days, when man-made vehicles were surface bound (either
on land or in the sea) and they seldom ventured far beyond easily recogniz-
able landmarks, the act of navigation could be carried out by humans using
their senses to determine direction distance, speed, and position. As vehicles
became more and more sophisticated and their field of operation expanded
to realms beyond the perception of limited human senses sophisticated nav-

119
igation instruments became necessary. Instead of known landmarks these
instruments used information learned from celestial bodies, certain distant
objects on the surface of the earth, and many other sources of information
to carry out the job of navigation.

In these lecture notes we shall exclusively focus on the navigation of

aircraft. Whenever a purposeful change in location has to take place for an
aircraft the following questions must be asked and answered:

∗ Where is the aircraft now?.

∗ (or, more specifically) where is the aircraft now with respect to where
it should have been?

These questions are answered by a navigation system. There are a number

of reasons why sophisticated navigation systems have become so important
in modern times. Some of them are.

∗ Time lags between measurement and decision needed to be reduced.

∗ Number of aircraft in a given airspace has increased manifold in the

past few decades.

∗ Safety requirements have become crucial.

A navigation system may provide information in a variety of forms, ap-

propriate to the needs of the aircraft. If the information is primarily for
the benefit of the crew. it involves some type of display. other outputs,
however may involve steering signals sent directly to the autopilot or digital
information sent to a central computer. However in the modern context one
would consider these systems as navigation-cum-guidance systems. Some of
the forms that this information takes are given below.

Position Information: The basis of virtually all navigation outputs is po-

sition. position can be given in geographic coordinates-geodetic latitude (φ),

120
geodetic longitude (λ), and altitude (h) - as in en-route navigation for long
distance flights, or as polar coordinates with a ground-based navigational aid
as the origin, as in terminal areas.

Steering Information : Due to crowding of the airspace one of the major

tasks that an aircraft pilot has to perform is keeping out of the way of other
aircraft. The technique widely used now-a days involves the assignment, to
each aircraft, of a block of air having established dimensions called lateral,
longitudinal and vertical separation. The exact dimensions depend on the
instruments in use, the speed and character of the aircraft and the flight
environment too. This block moves at the speed indicated in the aircraft’s
flight plan. It is the task of the pilot to remain within this block. Conse-
quently the pilot needs to know, at any time, where he is with respect to
this block of air. The desired output is a continuous, real-time indication of
where the aircraft is with respect to the center of the assigned block. With
intermittent fixing (in which intermediate checking points are established),
the total error for which the system must allow consists of the error in posi-
tion determination, plus the accumulated error between measurements and
action based on determination of position and interpretation of results.

Displays : Navigational information must be made available to the pilot

in a form suitable for his use. when navigation was mainly a manual opera-
tion, the usual display consisted of a chart, or plotting sheet, on which lines
of position and fixes were plotted with higher speeds and increased traffic
density, such a display is no longer adequate. Modern displays are basi-
cally computer-based and depend on some kind of CRT display, or advanced
flat planar color displays. HUD (Head Up Display) is one such electronic
and optical instrument which provides the pilot with such essential functions
as aircraft performance information, navigation and landing guidance, on a
single display in symbolic form.

121
7.2 TYPES OF NAVIGATION

All position-determination schemes can be classified as either dead reckoning

or Position fixing.

Dead Reckoning

Dead reckoning consists of extrapolation of a ’known’ position to some

future time. It involves measurement of direction of motion and distance
traveled. The actual computation is performed by taking the last known
position and the time at which it was obtained, noting average speed and
heading since then and the present time. The speed is usually resolved to
get North and East components and each is multiplied by the time elapsed
since the last position to get distance traveled. This can be added to the
initial position to get the present position. To perform all these functions the
Navigation system requires the following instruments: (1) A speed measuring
device (2) A heading sensor (3)A timer and (4) A computer.

Measurement of speed is usually done using an air-speed meter (which

measures the aircraft’s speed relative to the air and does not take into account
the speed of the air relative to the surface of the earth), or by measuring the
ground speed using doppler effect (this is done by transmitting three or four
beams in different directions toward the ground and measuring the aircraft’s
relative velocity along these beams - see Problem 1 at the end of the chapter).
Heading can be measured using a simple magnetic compass, a gyro-magnetic
compass, or a gyrocompass.

The dead-reckoning computations are done as follows: Assume that the

measurements of ground speed Vg and true heading θT has been done accu-
rately. Then, with reference to Fig. 7.1,
 t
Vnorth = Vg sin θT Y − Yo = Vnorth dt (7.1)
o

122
  t
Veast = Vg cos θT X − Xo = Veast dt (7.2)
o

where, t is the measurement interval and (Y-Yo ) and (X-Xo ) are the distances

Figure 7.1: Dead-reckoning computations

traveled due north and due east during this measurement interval. Notice
that a simple integration of unresolved ground speed 1/Vg would give curvi-
linear distance traveled but would be of little use for determining position.
Thus, one must integrate the velocity.

The above equations are extremely simplified and are given only to impart
an idea of the principle on which the dead reckoning system works. In reality
the actual dead reckoning computer must also account for cross winds, the
kinematics of the aircraft, its angular orientation, the geometry of the earth
and its attendant gravitational effects, and many other factors before it can
extrapolate in a reasonably accurate manner.

123
 Position Fixing

In contrast to dead reckoning, position fixing is the determination of the

position of the craft (a fix) without reference to any former position. There
are three basic methods of fixing position : (1) Map reading (2) Celestial
navigation and (3) Measuring range and/or bearing to identifiable points.

Map reading involves matching what can be seen of the outside world
with a map and is the traditional method of position fixing on land and is
also used by general aviation in clear weather. Modern systems adopting this
technique uses a radar to obtain a picture of the ground from the air and a
computer matches it with a map stored in the form of a digital land mass
database. These system are called terrain referenced navigation aids.

Celestial navigation has been used by mariners for centuries. The basis
of celestial navigation is that if the altitude of a celestial object (measured in
terms of the angle between the line-of-sight and the horizontal) of a celestial
object is measured then the observer’s position must lie on a specific circle

Figure 7.2: Celestial navigation

(called the circle of position) on the surface of the earth centered on the
point on the earth which is directly below the object. This is shown in
Fig.7.2. If the time of observation is noted and the celestial object is a star

124
then this circle can easily be found using astronomical tables and charts.
Sightings on two or more such celestial objects will give two or more such
circles of position, and their intersection will give the position of the craft.
Though in the early days some aircraft did use celestial navigation this has
been abandoned nowadays in favour of better navigational aids. However, we
shall show that its basic principle (that of intersection of circles of position
to determine the exact position) will be used in a more general form in more
advanced navigation system.

Range and bearing navigational techniques are the basis of most modern
position fixing systems. They use modern electronic equipment for doing this
kind of measurement. Through individual measurements of range and bear-
ing, a line of position a line on which the craft is presumed to be located-is
established. In principle, it is somewhat similar to celestial navigation. The
line might be a small circle, great circle, hyperbola or some other curve con-
stituting the intersection of the surface of the earth (or a concentric surface at
the altitude of the aircraft) with a plane or a cone or a hyperboloid etc. The
common intersection of two or more nonparallel lines of position constitutes
the fix. If the lines are determined at different times, then one or more of
them must be adjusted for the assumed motion during the interval provide a
running fix. Occasionally, an actual position is not needed, a line of position
being adequate to ensure safety. This is called homing. The method is not
suitable when other aircraft are in the vicinity and a means of avoiding them
is not available.

Before we go on to describe some widely used navigational aids we would

like to discuss a few important points. Dead reckoning has been characterized
as the basis of all navigation with position-fixing constituting a method of
updating it. Actually, dead reckoning and position fixing complement each
other, each providing an independent means of checking the accuracy of the
other. Where position fixing is intermittent with relatively long intervals

125
(often hours) between fixes, dead reckoning is appropriately considered the
primary method. If fixes are available continuously or at very short intervals
(e.g., once each minute), the primary method might then be either dead
reckoning or position fixing or an integrated output of both.

Another classification of navigation may be according to the portion of

flight involved. Usually, this classification is done as En-route phase and
terminal phase.

In the en-route phase a series of ground-referenced short distance aids

with relatively high accuracy but with coverage limited to line-of-sight dis-
tances may be used. The International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO)
recommends, as standard short-distance aids the very-high-frequency omni-
directional range (VOR) and distance measuring equipment (DME). Over
oceans and underdeveloped land areas such as polar regions (having no dis-
tinguishable land marks), long distance aids which are of lower accuracy than
short distance aids are used. In most cases they provide intermediate accu-
racy fixes for use with dead reckoning. But with the increasing density of air
traffic in such regions, automatic dead reckoning units of greater accuracy
become increasingly important.

In the terminal phase when an aircraft approaches terminal and proceeds

to a landing , it enters an area of converging tracks and high density traf-
fic where high accuracy both horizontally and vertically becomes essential
with continuous indication. Navigation requirements become accentuated as
visibility limits are lowered , to provide service in virtually any weather.

In the next few sections we shall discuss a number of navigation systems

currently in use for aircraft navigation.

126
7.3 THE LORAN SYSTEM

The LORAN (Long-Range-Navigation ) is a position fixing aid. It operates

on a single frequency of 100 Khz and has a long range (greater than 1200
km). The latest version of this system called LORAN-C is very widespread,
having many chains throughout the continental USA, much of Europe and
the Middle East. The European countries, as well as the Russians have
confirmed their intention to use and expand LORAN-C (and the Russian
equivalent called Chayka)as a primary radio-navigation source. On August
6 1992, six nations in the European Community signed a treaty to expand
LORAN-C coverage. Installations of LORAN-C chains by the governments
of India and China indicate the worldwide interest in LORAN.

The basic principle of LORAN is simple. Each LORAN chain consists of

a master station and two, three or more slave stations. The aircraft receiver
must be tuned to select a chain (of master and slave stations) by manual or
by computer selection.Each chain transmits a sequence of pulses. First the
master and then after a fixed coding delay, the slaves (Fig.7.3). Each slave in
a chain has a unique coding delay that allows the aircraft to receive its signal
before any other slave transmits. Usually the master’s signal is received by
the slaves and retransmitted after the specified coding delay. The number of
pulses (eight or nine) and the coding delay identifies the master and slaves of
a given chain. the navigation computer in the aircraft is fed with the position
information of the master and slave stations in a chain.

The receiver in the aircraft measures the difference between the time of
arrival of the pulse from the master station and the slave stations. The
time difference is measured using the third RF cycle in each pulse as the
reference point (see Fig.7.3). The locus of points of constant time difference
is a hyperbola-like line-of-position on the reference ellipsoid which models
the surface of the earth. By using the master and a second slave a second

127
 Figure 7.3: The LORAN-C pulses

hyperbola is obtained. The two hyperbolas intersect at the aircraft’s position

and at an ambiguous second point(Fig.7.4). The ambiguity can be resolved
by using another slave and obtaining a third line-of position. However, the
use of too many lines-of-position can lead to a possible region of location
of the aircraft rather than a single point. this region is called a cocked hat
in the marine terminology (Fig.7.5). This can also occur when a number of
navigation aids are used (multi-sensor navigation). Due to the hyperbola-like
lines of position LORAN is also called a hyperbolic navigation system.

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Figure 7.4: LORAN lines-of-position

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Figure 7.5: The ”cocked hat”

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Keywords. DECCA, OMEGA, VOR, INS, Integrated systems

7.4 DECCA

Decca is also a position-fixing hyperbolic navigation system which uses con-

tinuous waves and phase measurements to determine hyperbolic lines-of po-
sition. The basic principle here is that when two stations at a distance from
each other transmit synchronised continuous wave signals, a receiver placed
somewhere between them can relate its position to the phase difference be-
tween the two signals, i.e., there is a change in phase difference as the receiver
changes position (see Fig.7.6). The transmitted signal frequency is between
70 to 130 KHz with range approximately 200 km. Four stations, a master and
three slaves, form a chain. They transmit at frequencies which are multiples
of a base frequency f (which is about 14 KHz). At the receiver the master sig-
nals are frequency multiplied to produce references which are phase compared
with the appropriately multiplied slave signals (Fig.7.7). The phase differ-
ence serves as the measure of the range difference and is represented in the
form of hyperbola-like iso-phase lines between the two stations (Fig.7.8).The
region between two iso-phase lines representing zero degree phase difference
is called a lane. On the base-line between stations a complete phase cycle
of 360 degrees at the comparison frequencies represents a distance of 750m -
1200m (which is the wavelength). Hence, measuring phase to an accuracy of
5 degrees gives a resolution of about 10-15m. However, the resulting position
is ambiguous since the same phase measurement repeats every cycle or ev-
ery wavelength. Special facilities, essentially performing phase comparisons
at synthetically produced lower frequencies have to be introduced into the
system to resolve this ambiguity.

Due to the low frequency operation of Decca, it is subject to skywave

contamination (i.e., contamination if signal due to reflection from the iono-

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 Figure 7.6: The phase difference in Decca

sphere). This is the reason for its low operating range.

7.5 OMEGA

Omega is a system which works on the same principle as Decca. But its
operating frequency is very low (VLF). Essentially ground based transmitters
are employed to transmit in four fixed frequencies - 10.20 KHz, 11.05 KHz,
11.33 KHz and 13.60 KHz. Using VLF enables full worldwide coverage with
only eight transmitters placed at stations in Norway, Liberia, Hawaii, North

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 Figure 7.7: The phase comparator in Decca

Dakota, La Reunion Islands, Argentina, Australia and Japan. To give station

identification the stations transmit the various frequencies at set times in a
common 10 sec sequence. The low operating frequency of Omega causes quite
large inaccuracies in position identification, but it has the advantage that
submarine vehicles can receive its signals at appreciable depths underwater.
Though Omega was developed for maritime use, it has been widely adopted
as a navigational aid on the transoceanic air routes. It was also used by
the British quite extensively in the Falklands war, even though one of the
transmitters was located in Argentina!

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 Figure 7.8: The iso-phase lines in Decca

7.6 VERY HIGH FREQUENCY OMNI-DIRECTIONAL

RANGE (VOR)

Range and bearing are the basis for most modern position fixing systems.
The range and.or bearings to a number of points whose position is known
are obtained and used to calculate the position of the observer. Hence, the
bearings to any existing radio transmission stations of known location could
be used for navigation purposes. Usually radio transmission is done at low
and medium frequencies to get wide coverage but when such signals are used

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for bearing measurement, ionospheric and atmospheric conditions cause large
errors. To avoid this, one may use high frequency stations, but they have the
problem of limited range. To overcome some of these difficulties associated
with simple direction finding techniques a number of systems were developed
using dedicated transmitters. These provide specially modulated radio beams
so that when the signal is received by the aircraft the modulation obtained
depends on its position in the beam, thus providing navigational information.
One such system, which is widely used, is the VOR system.

In the VOR, a series of aerials, situated in a circle around a central refer-

ence aerial at the ground station, transmit a constant amplitude VHF carrier
frequency (108 - 118 MHz) which is switched between them to simulate a ro-
tating cardioid (heart-shaped) beam. At a receiver this gives a frequency
(which is usually 30 Hz). A reference signal at the rotation frequency am-
plitude modulates a carrier which is transmitted from the omni-directional
reference aerial. The timing of this reference is adjusted so that for a re-
ceiver situated at the magnetic North of the VOR station, the frequency
modulation from the rotating cardioid beam is in phase with the amplitude
modulation from the reference aerial. The phase angle between the two types
of modulation obtained at any other location is then the same as the angle
from North from the station to the receiver. The VOR system is shown in
Fig.7.9.

7.7 INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM (INS)

An automatic navigation system which would be undetectable, unjammable

and operate anywhere in the world at any time in any weather conditions
would seem ideal for military use. Dead-reckoning would appear to meet
these requirements, but these systems use doppler speed sensors which ra-
diate signals and therefore are detectable. Inertial navigation , which are

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 Figure 7.9: The VOR system

essentially dead-reckoning systems, avoid the detection problem by measur-

ing the acceleration of the vehicle using internal sensors and then calculating
its velocity by integration. The position of the vehicle can then be computed
by a second integration, given the initial position and velocity. Accelerome-
ters are used for measuring accelerations. Signals from gyroscopes are used
to prevent the accelerometers from tilting as the vehicle rotates in space. We
shall skip the details here.

A major drawback of inertial navigation is that the errors in measurement

are monotonically increasing functions of time. Hence, one would require very

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accurate (and so very expensive!) accelerometers and gyros in applications
where the navigation is done by dead-reckoning over long periods of time.
To improve the accuracy of such systems, Strapped down systems were de-
signed which are attached to the body of the vehicle (rather than a gimbal
arrangement which decouples the vehicle movement).

7.8 INTEGRATED NAVIGATION SYSTEMS

Where several sensors or navigational aids providing separate outputs are

available, it is possible to feed all of these outputs into one or more computers,
which then provide a single output to the pilot or the autopilot. One reason
for integration is to improve reliability . Another is to increase accuracy. The
need for greater accuracy than that attainable by individual navigational aids
must be weighed against the added cost and complexity of the integrated
system.

Such an integrated navigation system uses both dead-reckoning and position-

fixing, each assisting the other to give a solution better than either can give
alone. The dead-reckoning system provides a continuous position and ve-
locity indication and another version of position is obtained from a position
fixing system. The two versions are compared and the difference is ascribed
as an error in either or both inputs. The estimate of the dead-reckoning
error is then used to correct the dead-reckoning system over the next period
of operation. Position-fixing information is usually noisy and Kalman filter
algorithm is used nowadays to process these noisy signals.

PROBLEMS AND EXERCISES

1. Consider an aircraft flying over the surface of the earth and measuring
its own velocity using a doppler radar transmitting at 100 MHz. The radar

137
transmits along beams A and B shown in the figure given below. The doppler
shift in the signal along A is +100 Hz and along B is +150 Hz. Find the
velocity of the aircraft in terms of v and θ.

Figure 7.10:

2. A vehicle moves on a two-dimensional plane starting from a known

initial position (0,0). A dead-reckoning navigation system provides the di-
rection and speed of movement every 10 minutes. A separate position-fixing
navigation system also provides an accurate position fix every 10 minutes.
These are tabulated below.

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 <—– DEAD RECKONING ——> POSITION-FIXING
t(min) θ(deg) v(km/hr) (x,y) in km
0 59 62 (0,0)
10 48 60 (6,7)
20 29 63 (13,12)
30 0 60 (23,13)
(a) If the dead-reckoning computations are done using only the initial
position fix (0,0) then what is the error at each intermediate point? Plot
these intermediate points on a graph sheet.

(b) If the intermediate position fix information are also used, then find
the amount by which the position-fix information corrects the dead reckoning
computation at each intermediate point. Plot these points on the same graph
sheet.

(c) What is the computed position (by dead reckoning) of the vehicle at t
= 40 mins, when (i) no position fix information is used ? (ii) when position
fix information is used? (iii) What is the error between the two? Plot these
points on the same graph sheet.

3. Consider a LORAN master-slave pair placed D kms apart (see figure

below). Derive the equation of the line-of-position passing through a point
on the base-line d kms apart from the master. Plot the lines of position when
D = 40 km and d = 0, 10, 20, 50 kms.

4. In the above system let D = 100km. The slave receives the signal
from the master and transmits it after a coding delay of 10 msec. Derive the
equation for the line-of-position corresponding to a time difference of 10.5
msec between the master signal and the slave signal. Where does this line of
position intersect the base line?

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Figure 7.11: The iso-phase lines in Decca

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